Prepared by;

Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

1. Theory of Errors and Measurements

2. Measurement of Horizontal
Distances
Table of Contents 3. Measurement of Vertical Distances
4. Compass Surveying
FUNDAMENTALS OF 5. Traverse
SURVEYING 6. Area Computations
Engr. Gabriel I. Gamana, M.Sc.

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3.1 Introduction

3.1 Introduction
3. 3.2 Differential Leveling
Measurement 3.3 Double-Rodded Differential Leveling
3.4 Profile Leveling
of Vertical 3.5 Trigonometric Leveling
3.6 Three-Wire Leveling
Distances 3.7 Reciprocal Leveling

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

• Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various
processes by which elevations of points or differences in
elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in producing
necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and
construction.
Leveling results are used for the following;
1. Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply
systems, and other facilities having grade lines that best
conform to existing topography;
2. Lay out construction projects according to planned
elevations;
3. Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
4. Investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
5. Develop maps showing general ground configurations;
6. Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

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3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Definitions
• Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity
as indicated by a plumb line.
• Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is
perpendicular to the local plumb line (the direction in which
gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in
shape. A body of still water is the closest example of a level
surface. Within local areas, level surfaces at different.
• Level line. A line in a level surface therefore, a curved line.
• Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction
of gravity. In plane surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to
the local vertical line.

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Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Definitions
• Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane. In plane
surveying, it is a line perpendicular to the local vertical.
• Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are
referenced. This is the surface that is arbitrarily assigned an
elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a
reference datum since points using this datum have heights
relative to this surface.
• Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from
a vertical datum to a point or object. If the elevation of point A
is 802.46 ft, A is 802.46 ft above the reference datum. The
elevation of a point is also called its height above the datum.
3.1.1 Definitions
• Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for
all elevations and astronomical observations.
• Mean sea level (MSL). The average height for the surface of
the seas for all stages of tide over a 19-year period as
defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929.
• Leveling. The process of finding elevations of points or their
differences in elevation.
• Vertical control. A series of benchmarks or other points of
known elevation established throughout an area, also termed
basic control or level control.

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3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Definitions 3.1.2 Instruments
• Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or • Telescope - The telescopes of leveling instruments define the
artificial, having a marked point whose elevation above or line of sight and magnify the view of a graduated rod against a
below a reference datum is known or assumed.
reference reticle, thereby enabling accurate readings to be
• Turning point (TP). A temporary point on which an elevation obtained.
has been established and which is held while an engineer’s
level is moved to a new location.
• Backsight (BS). A rod reading taken on a point of known
elevation in order to establish the elevation of the instrument
line of sight.
• Height of Instrument (HI). The vertical distance from the
datum to the line of sight of the level.
• Foresight (FS). rod reading taken on a turning point,
benchmark, temporary benchmark in order to determine its
elevation.
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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Instruments
• Level Vials - Level vials are used to orient many different
surveying instruments with respect to the direction of gravity.
There are two basic types: the tube vial and the circular or
so-called “bull’s-eye” version.
3.1.2 Instruments
• Level Vials - Level vials are used to orient many different
surveying instruments with respect to the direction of gravity.
There are two basic types: the tube vial and the circular or
so-called “bull’s-eye” version.

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3.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Instruments 3.1.3 Leveling Methods
• Level Rods • Direct/Spirit
• Double-Rodded
• Profile
• Trigonometric
• Reciprocal
• Cross-section
• Barometric
• Borrow-Pit

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Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.2 Differential Leveling 3.2 Differential Leveling

Differential Leveling 𝐻𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 + 𝐵𝑆
Is the most accurate simple direct method of determining the 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆
difference of level between two points using an instrument Where 𝐻𝐼 = Height of the Instrument
known as level with a leveling staff. A level establishes a 𝐵𝑀 = Benchmark
horizontal line of sight and the difference in the level of the line 𝑇𝑃 = Turning Point
of sight and the point over which the leveling staff is held, is 𝐵𝑆 = Backsight
measured through the leveling staff. 𝐹𝑆 = Foresight

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3.2 Differential Leveling 3.2 Differential Leveling

Problem 3-1 3.2.1 Adjustment of Level
Complete the differential notes shown and show the usual 3.2.1.1 Two-Peg Test
arithmetic check. (All values are in m). Determine also the height
of collimation between Sta. 2 and Sta. 3 in m.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.2 Differential Leveling 3.2 Differential Leveling

𝐷𝐸 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑒 = 𝑏 − 𝑏′
𝐷𝐸 = 𝑑 − 𝑐 𝑒 = 𝑑 − 𝑑′
• if 𝑑 is less than 𝑑 , the line of sight is inclined upward
• If 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐷𝐸 , the line of sight is parallel to the horizontal line.
otherwise inclined downward.
Therefore, it is level.
𝑑 = 𝑐 + 𝑇𝐷𝐸
• If 𝐷𝐸 ≠ 𝐷𝐸 , line of sight is inclined upward or downward.
• if 𝑏′ is less than 𝑏 , the line of sight is inclined upward
𝐷𝐸 + 𝐷𝐸 otherwise inclined downward.
𝑇𝐷𝐸 =
2 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑇𝐷𝐸

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3.2 Differential Leveling 3.2 Differential Leveling

3.2.1.2 Two-Peg Test, Alternative Methods 𝑇𝐷𝐸 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
• 𝑎 & 𝑏 = rod reading at rod A and B when instrument is set up
at the midpoint of A and B.

𝑐′ = 𝑐 − 𝑒
𝑑′ = 𝑑 − 𝑒
• c = rod reading at A when instrument is set up near A.
• d = rod reading at B when instrument is set up near A.
• en = near rod error on the rod A with the instrument set near A
(at point P).
• ef = far rod reading on the rod B with the instrument set near
A (at point P).
23 • c’ and d’ = correct rod readings 24

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.2 Differential Leveling 3.3 Double-Rodded Differential Leveling

Problem 3-2 Double-Rodded Differential Leveling
In a two-peg test of a dumpy level; the following were taken with • Double-rodded differential leveling is a method of determining
level set-up at M (midway between A and B). The rod readings differences in elevation between points by employing two
on A and B are 1.075 m and 1.690 m respectively. With level at level route simultaneously.
point P, the rod reading on A is 2.325 m and that on station B is
2.901 m. If point P is located 1.5 m from A along the extension
line AB and 76.456 m from B.
Determine the following:
a. True difference in elevation
b. Correct rod readings on the near and far rod for a horizontal
line of sight..

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3.3 Double-Rodded Differential Leveling 3.4 Profile Leveling

Problem 3-3
Data shown below is obtained from a double-rodded line of
levels of a certain cross-section of the proposed Manila-Bataan
Road. Determine the elevation of BM-2 and show the arithmetic
check.
Profile Leveling
• The process of determining differences in elevation along
fixed line at designated short measured intervals.
• It is executed to provide data from which a vertical section of
the ground surface can be plotted.

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Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.4 Profile Leveling 3.4 Profile Leveling

3.4.1 Definitions
• Profile – a curved line which graphically portrays the
intersection of a vertical plane with the surface of the earth
showing the ground elevation of selected critical points along
a surveyed line and horizontal distances between these
points.
• Stationing – a numerical designation given in terms of
horizontal distance along a profile line.
• Intermediate foresights (IFS) – sights known as the rod
readings, taken at regular intervals at a point where sudden
changes in elevation occur.
3.4.1 Definitions
• Full station – points which are established along the profile
level route at uniformly measured distances and usually taken
at multiples of 100, 50, 30, 20 and 10 meters.
• Plus station – these are taken at breaks in the ground
surface slope at a critical points such as intended locations of
culverts, bridges, and other structures.

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3.4 Profile Leveling 3.5 Trigonometric Leveling

Problem 3-4
Complete the profile level notes and make a profile sketch.
3.5.1 Effect of Curvature and Refraction
• By definition, a level surface is a curved surface and a
horizontal line is a straight line. If a level sight were made on a
level rod 1 mile away from any point on the earth, the reading,
if one could be made, would be greater by 0.667 ft because of
the curvature of the earth. The departure of the earth from the
horizontal line varies as the square of the distance from the
level to the rod.
• Light passing through the atmosphere is bent so that in
reading a rod, the reading is less. This offsets the effect of the
earth’s curvature by about 14%.

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3.5 Trigonometric Leveling 3.5 Trigonometric Leveling

ℎ = 0.0675𝐾
Where ℎ = the departure of a telescope line of sight
from a level line in meter (m)
𝐾 = is the length of the line of sight in kilometers
(km)
𝑟 = error due to refraction
𝑐 = error due to earth’s curvature
𝑅 = earth’s radius = 6,370 km

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3.5 Trigonometric Leveling 3.5 Trigonometric Leveling

Problem 3-5
How wide would a river be if a man 1.625 m high stands on the
other bank of river and still he could see a tower on the opposite
bank of the river which is 30.50 m high considering the effect of
curvature and refraction.
Problem 3-6
Two hills 80 km apart have elevations of 65 m and 210 m at A
and B respectively. What would be the maximum height of the
triangulation tower that could be erected at B so that it would be
visible from point A considering the effect of curvature and
refraction?

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3.5 Trigonometric Leveling
Problem 3-7
The vertical angle from the top of a small tower to the top of a
nearby taller tower is +47°45’, while vertical angle to the bottom
is -16°50’. If the shorter tower up to the instrument’s height is
28.75 m high, find the height of the taller tower.
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3.5 Trigonometric Leveling
Problem 3-9
The top of the mast signal 2000 m was sighted through a transit
with recorded vertical angle of 3°55’. The height of mast is 6 m
and the height of the transit above the point where it is set is
1.250 m. The elevation of the base of signal B is 220.345 m.
Determine the elevation of the point under the transit A with due
allowance for curvature and refraction correction.
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Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE
3.5 Trigonometric Leveling
Problem 3-8
In order to determine the elevation of point Y on top of a cliff, a
transit was set over a point X, the elevation of which was known
to be +100.345 m and the height of instrument from the ground
was 5 m. The recorded vertical angle reading of Y from point X
was 17°38’. Point Z was next located at a horizontal distance of
200 m from point X. Then the transit was set next set up at a
point Z and the vertical angle of Y from this point was 25°34’.
Finally, with the telescope horizontal, the reading on the levelling
rod on point X was 7.80 m. Neglect the combined effect of
curvature and refraction.
Determine the following:
a. Height of instrument at point X
b. Height of instrument at point Z
c. Elevation of point Y
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3.5 Trigonometric Leveling
Problem 3-10
A transit is set up at point L which is between K and M. the
vertical angle observed towards K is known to be -20°35’ and of
M is +12°40’. The horizontal distance between K and L is 643.85
m and that of L and M is 1033.50 m. The height of instrument is
1.15 m above L and the elevation of K is 355.48 m. Consider the
effect of curvature and refraction.
Determine the following:
a. Difference in elevation between L and M
b. Difference in elevation between K and M
c. Elevation of L
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Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

3.5 Trigonometric Leveling 3.5 Trigonometric Leveling

Three Intervisible Points Problem 3-11
A 2-m triangulation tower is on top of hill B 705 m above mean
sea level. What would be the height of the tower to be erected at
C located 10 km from B if the elevation of A (located 12 km from
B) is 600 m and that of C is 800 m respectively in order that
transceivers at A, B and C will be intervisible?

𝑘
ℎ=ℎ + ℎ −ℎ − 0.0675𝑘 𝑘
𝑘 +𝑘

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3.5 Trigonometric Leveling 3.6 Three-Wire Leveling

Problem 3-12 • Reading the two stadia hairs and the middle crosshair at each
Mirador hill with an elevation of 616 m is on a line between turning point and bench mark provides an excellent check for
Aurora hill whose elevation is 650 m and Cathedral hill having a line of levels.
an elevation of 590 m. Distance of Mirador hill from Aurora hill is • The difference in the middle crosshair reading and the upper
10 km and distance of Mirador hill from Cathedral hill is 12 km.
Considering curvature and refraction correction. stadia hair reading should be very near the difference in the
middle crosshair reading and the lower stadia hair reading. If
a) Compute the obstruction of the line of sight at Mirador hill there is a discrepancy, one of the readings can be
when observing Cathedral hill.
disregarded; otherwise, differences in elevations can be
b) What would be the height of equal towers to be erected at determined by averaging the three readings.
Aurora hill and Cathedral hill so that the Cathedral hill, Aurora hill
and Mirador hill will be intervisible with a 4 m tower erected at
the top of Mirador hill?
c) If no tower will be erected at Aurora hill and Mirador hill, what
would be the height of tower to be erected at Cathedral hill so
that Mirador and Cathedral hill will be intervisible from Aurora
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3.6 Three-Wire Leveling 3.6 Three-Wire Leveling

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3.6 Three-Wire Leveling 3.7 Reciprocal Leveling

Problem 3-13 • Running a line of levels across a river or other obstacle where
Complete the level notes shown. the horizontal distance is more than the desired maximum can
be performed using reciprocal leveling.

100.345

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3.7 Reciprocal Leveling 3.7 Reciprocal Leveling

• The level is set upon the bank of the river. Turning point A is
established nearby on the same side of the river. Turning
point B is established on the other side of the river. A reading
is taken on turning point A, a several readings are made on
turning point B by unleveling, releveling, and then averaging
the readings. The level is then set up on the side of the river
opposite point A and near point B. Readings are made on B
and A in the same manner as before. The difference in
elevation between A and B is determined from the average
readings.
Problem 3-13
In leveling across a wide river, reciprocal level readings were
taken between two points A and B as shown in the
accompanying tabulation. Determine the following:
a) Difference in elevation between two points.
b) Elevation of B if the elevation of A is 135.260 m.

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3.7 Reciprocal Leveling

Problem 3-13

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