Prepared by;

Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

1. Theory of Errors and Measurements

2. Measurement of Horizontal
Distances
Table of Contents 3. Measurement of Vertical Distances
4. Compass Surveying
FUNDAMENTALS OF 5. Traverse
SURVEYING 6. Area Computations
Engr. Gabriel I. Gamana, M.Sc.

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4.1 Introduction

4. Compass 4.1 Introduction

4.2 Magnetic Compass
Surveying

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4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Units of Angle Measurement
• A purely arbitrary unit defines the value of an angle. The
sexagesimal system used in the United States, and many
other countries, is based on degrees, minutes, and
seconds, with the last unit further divided decimally.
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4.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Kind of Horizontal Angles
• Exterior angles - Exterior angles, located outside a closed
polygon, are explements of interior angles. The advantage to
be gained by observing them is their use as another check,
since the sum of the interior and exterior angles at any station
must total 360°..
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Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE
4.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Kind of Horizontal Angles
• Interior angles - Interior angles are observed on the inside of
a closed polygon. Normally the angle at each apex within the
polygon is measured. A check can be made on their values
because the sum of all interior angles in any polygon must
equal 𝑛 − 2 180° where n is the number of angles.
4.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Kind of Horizontal Angles
• Angles to the right - Angles to the right are measured
clockwise from the rear to the forward station.
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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

4.1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction

4.1.2 Kind of Horizontal Angles 4.1.3 Direction of a line
• Angles to the right - Angles to the right are measured • The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle
clockwise from the rear to the forward station. between the line and an arbitrarily chosen reference line
called a meridian.
• Different meridians are used for specifying directions including
(a) geodetic (also often called true),
(b) astronomic,
(c) magnetic,
(d) grid,
(e) record, and
(f) assumed.

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4.1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction

4.1.3 Direction of a line
• Geodetic meridian is the north-south reference line that
passes through a mean position of the Earth’s geographic
poles. The positions of the poles defined as their mean
locations between the period of 1900 and 1905.
• Wobbling of the Earth’s rotational axis, causes the position of
the Earth’s geographic poles to vary with time. At any point,
the astronomic meridian is the north-south reference line
that passes through the instantaneous position of the Earth’s
geographic poles. Astronomic meridians derive their name
from the field operation to obtain them, which consists in
making observations on the celestial objects
4.1.3 Direction of a line
• A magnetic meridian is defined by a freely suspended
magnetic needle that is only influenced by the Earth’s
magnetic field.
• Surveys based on a state or other plane coordinate system
employ a grid meridian for reference. Grid north is the
direction of geodetic north for a selected central meridian and
held parallel to it over the entire area covered by a plane
coordinate system

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

4.1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction

4.1.3 Direction of a line
• In boundary surveys, the term record meridian refers to
directional references quoted in the recorded documents from
a previous survey of a particular parcel of land. Another
similar term, deed meridian, is used in the description of a
parcel of land as recorded in a property deed.
• An assumed meridian can be established by merely
assigning any arbitrary direction—for example, taking a
certain street line to be north. The directions of all other lines
are then found in relation to it.
4.1.4 Azimuths
• Azimuths are horizontal angles observed clockwise from any
reference meridian.
• In plane surveying, azimuths are generally observed from
north, but astronomers and the military have used south as
the reference direction.

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4.1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction

4.1.5 Bearings 4.1.5 Bearings
• The bearing of a line is defined as the acute horizontal angle
between a reference meridian and the line. The angle is
observed from either the north or south toward the east or
west, to give a reading smaller than 90°.
• The letter N or S preceding the angle, and E or W following it
shows the proper quadrant. Thus, a properly expressed
bearing includes quadrant letters and an angular value.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

4.1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction

Problem 4-1 Problem 4-2
The azimuth of a boundary line is 128°13’46”. Convert this to a The first course of a boundary survey is written as N37°13’W
bearing. What is its equivalent azimuth?

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4.2 Magnetic Compass 4.2 Magnetic Compass

• Before transits, theodolites, and total station instruments were
invented, directions of lines and angles were determined
using compasses.
4.2.1 Magnetic Compass
• The magnetic compass consists of a magnetic needle
mounted on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle in a
metal box covered with a glass plate. It is constructed so that
the angle between a line of sight and the magnetic meridian
can be measured. The line of sight, with the horizontal circle,
can be rotated in the horizontal plane while the needle
continues to point to magnetic north. The point of the needle
marks the angle made by the magnetic meridian and the line
of sight.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

4.2 Magnetic Compass 4.2 Magnetic Compass

• Unless disturbed by local attraction (a local anomaly caused
from such things as power lines, railroad tracks, metallic belt
buckles, and so on that affect the direction a compass needle
points at any location), a compass needle is free to spin and
align itself with the Earth’s magnetic field pointing in the
direction of the magnetic meridian (toward the magnetic north
pole in the northern hemisphere).
4.2.2 Magnetic Declinations
• Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the
geodetic meridian to the magnetic meridian. Navigators call
this angle variation of the compass; the armed forces use the
term deviation. An east declination exists if the magnetic
meridian is east of geodetic north; a west declination occurs if
it is west of geodetic north. East declinations are considered
positive and west declinations negative.

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4.2 Magnetic Compass 4.2 Magnetic Compass

• Magnetic pole positions are constantly changing, magnetic
declinations at all locations also undergo continual changes.
• Establishing a meridian from astronomical or satellite (GNSS)
observations and then reading a compass while sighting
along the observed meridian can obtain the current
declination at any location obtained baring any local
attractions.

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4.2 Magnetic Compass
4.2.3 Types of Magnetic Declination
• Secular Variation. Because of its magnitude, this is the most
important of the variations. Unfortunately, no physical law has
been found to enable precise long-term predictions of secular
variation, and its past behavior can be described only by
means of detailed tables and charts derived from
observations.
• Records, which have been kept at London for four centuries,
show a range in magnetic declination from 11°E in 1580, to
24°W in 1820, back to 3°W in 2000.
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4.2 Magnetic Compass
4.2.3 Types of Magnetic Declination
• Annual Variation. This periodic swing is less than 1 min of
arc and can be neglected. It must not be confused with the
annual change (the amount of secular-variation change in one
year) shown on some isogonic maps.
• Irregular Variations. Unpredictable magnetic disturbances
and storms can cause short-term irregular variations of a
degree or more.
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Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE
4.2 Magnetic Compass
4.2.3 Types of Magnetic Declination
• Daily Variation. Daily variation of the magnetic needle’s
declination causes it to swing through an arc averaging
approximately for the United States. The needle reaches its
extreme easterly position at about 8:00 A.M. and its most
westerly position at about 1:30 P.M.
• Usually the daily variation is ignored since it is well within the
range of error expected in compass readings.
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4.2 Magnetic Compass
4.2.4 Local Attraction
• Metallic objects and direct-current electricity, both of which
cause a local attraction, affect the main magnetic field.
• If the source of an artificial disturbance is fixed, all bearings
from a given station will be in error by the same amount.
However, angles calculated from bearings taken at the station
will be correct.
• Local attraction is present if the forward and back bearings of
a line differ by more than the normal observation errors.
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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

4.2 Magnetic Compass 4.2 Magnetic Compass

Problem 4-3
Assume the magnetic bearing of a property line was recorded as
in S 43°30’ E in 1862. At that time the magnetic declination at
the survey location was 3°15’ W. What geodetic bearing is
needed for a subdivision property plan.
Problem 4-4
Assume the magnetic bearing of line AB read in 1878 was N
26°15’ E. The declination 7°15’ W at the time and place was In
2000, the declination was 4°30’ E. Determine the magnetic
bearing in the year 2000.

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