NAV 2

TERRESTRIAL AND COASTAL NAVIGATION 1

 Topic 1: Introduction to Navigation

• Types of Navigation
• Phases of Navigation
• Chartroom - Plotting instruments
Learning Outcomes:

LO1.1: Outline the requirements of the course

LO1.2: Describe the development of navigational techniques,

practices and equipment across time

LO1.3: Explain the importance of navigation in relation to the

profession

LO1.4: Explain the different types of navigation with respect to the

phase of the voyage

LO1.5: Identify the different plotting instruments and their uses.

 Phases of Navigation Four distinct phases define navigation processes:

1. Inland Waterway Phase

2. Harbor Approach Phase
3. Coastal Phase
4. Ocean Phase

Inland Waterway Phase

This refers to piloting in narrow canals, channels, rivers and estuaries.

Harbor Approach Phase

This refers to navigation to a harbor entrance through bays and sounds, and negotiating harbor
approach channel.

Coastal Phase
This involves navigation within 50 miles of the coast or in shore of the 200 meter depth contour.

Ocean Phase
This refers to navigation outside the coastal area in an open area.
1 2 3 4 5

USES:

1. A triangular scale is a ruler that has a 3-lobed cross-section with 6 different types of scales on the edges (2 on
each face) used for measuring and preparing scale drawings such as blueprints and maps.

2. 2B pencils are ideal for chartwork being soft and therefore kind to the chart. They are not always easy to find
in shops in good supply, hence the inclusion in our range of navigational equipment, tools and accessories.

3. Also known as a measuring compass or proportional divider, chart dividers are used in cartography (map
making), as well as nautical navigation. In map making this divider is used to change the scale from one map to
another.

4. A protractor is a measuring instrument, typically made of transparent plastic or glass, for measuring angles.

5.A parallel rulers are a drafting instrument used by navigators to draw parallel lines on charts
 Topic 2: Chart Projections

• Great circles, small circles - Parts and measurements

Learning Outcomes:

LO2.1: Explain basic geodesic concepts in relation to chart projection and

construction and the establishment of chart

LO2.2: Compare and contrast the different types of chart projections in relation
to their practical uses and features

LO2.3: Explain the difference in coordinates between datum referred to as

'datum shift

LO2.4: Solve for the difference of latitude and the difference of longitude

LO2.5: Evaluate the effect to the safety to navigation of using a chart given its
horizontal and vertical datum
 TOPIC 2
CHART PROJECTIONS

Identify the different parts of the great circle and

measurements
 “LATITUDE - DLAT &
LONGITUDE - DLO”

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/degree-of-latitude-and-longitude-distance-4070616
DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE(DLAT)

Dlat between two places is the angular length of arc of any

meridian between their parallels.

It is the numerical difference of the latitudes if the places are on

the same side of the equator; it is the sum of the latitudes if the
places are on opposite sides of the equator. It may be designated
North(N) or South(S) when appropriate.
RULES FOR FINDING THE
DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE(DLAT)

• To find the difference of latitude – latitude from and latitude in must

be given
• Latitude from or latitude of departure or simply “latitude 1” is the
latitude of the place left by the ship.
• Latitude in or latitude of arrival or simply “latitude 2” is the latitude
arrived at by the ship.
 RULES FOR FINDING THE
DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE(DLAT)
1. When the lat. from and lat. in have SAME names (both N or both S),
SUBTRACT the lesser latitude from the greater latitude.
2. When the lat. from and lat. in have OPPOSITE names, ADD the two latitudes.
3. In naming the difference of latitude (Dlat), if the lat. in is North of the lat. from,
mark the difference of latitude NORTHERLY (N’ly): but if the lat. In is South of
latitude from, mark the difference of latitude SOUTHERLY (S’ly).

Note: Difference of latitude is named according to

the direction of travel.
EXAMPLE NO 1:

A vessel in lat. 17⁰ 45’N, sails to lat. 15⁰-15’N.

Required: Find the difference of latitude made.

Lat 1 = 17⁰ 45’N

Lat 2 = 15⁰ 15’N
D.lat =
EXAMPLE NO 1:
A vessel in lat. 17⁰ 45’ N, sails to lat. 15 ⁰ 15’ N.
Required: Find the difference of latitude made.

Lat 1 = 17⁰ 45’ N

Lat 2 = 15⁰ 15’ N
Dlat = 02⁰ 30’ S

Note:
(In this example the vessel leaves at higher latitude and arrives at lower latitude; obviously
the vessel travels in Southerly direction.)
EXAMPLE NO 2:
Find the difference of lat. between point A, lat 27⁰ 10’N and
point B, lat 38⁰ 15’N

Lat 1 = 27⁰ 10’ N

Lat 2 = 38⁰ 15’ N
Dlat =
EXAMPLE NO 2:
Find the difference of lat. between point A, lat 27⁰ 10’N and
point B, lat 38⁰ 15’N.

Lat 1 = 27⁰ 10’ N

Lat 2 = 38⁰ 15’ N
Dlat =11⁰ 05’ N

Note: (In this example the ship travels from lower latitude to higher latitude,
the direction of travel is Northerly.)
EXAMPLE NO 3:

M/V DMMA left the equator and arrived in lat. 05⁰ 25’S.
Find D.lat.

Lat1 = 00⁰ 00’

Lat2 = 05⁰ 25’ S
D.lat =
EXAMPLE NO 3:

M/V DMMA left the equator and arrived in lat. 05⁰ 25’S. Find
Dlat.

Lat1 = 00⁰ 00’

Lat2 = 05⁰ 25’ S
Dlat = 05⁰ 25’ S

Note: (In this example the ship travels in southerly direction,

since equator is zero being the basis from measuring latitude.)
EXAMPLE NO 4:

Find the difference of lat. if a vessel sails from lat. 20⁰ 15’S, to
lat. 10⁰ 10’N.

Lat 1 = 20⁰ 15’S

Lat 2 = 10⁰ 10’N
Dlat =
EXAMPLE NO 4:
Find the difference of lat. if a vessel sails from lat. 20⁰ 15’S, to
lat. 10⁰ 10’N.

Lat 1 = 20⁰ 15’ S

Lat 2 = 10⁰ 10’ N
Dlat = 30⁰ 25’ N

Note: (In this example, the vessel also passes the equator from South
lat. to North lat. evidently the vessel travels in Northerly direction.)
 RULES FOR FINDING LATITUDE
IN
• When the LATITUDE FROM (lat. or lat. of dep) and
Difference of LATITUDE(Dlat) have LIKE
NAMES(both N or S) ADD: lat in (lat of arrival or lat 1)
will have THE SAME NAME as the lat. From (lat or lat
of dep.)
 RULES FOR FINDING LATITUDE
IN
• When the LATITUDE FROM( lat1 or lat of dep.) and
the Difference of lat. (Dlat) have UNLIKE NAMES,
SUBTRACT the lesser from the greater. Lat in(lat 2 or
lat of arrival), will have the SAME NAME as the
greater number.
 RULES FOR FINDING LATITUDE IN
• THE RULES are based on the fact that when in NORTH
LATITUDE, latitude increases NORTHWARD and in SOUTH
LATITUDE, it increases SOUTHWARD. Consequently if in
North latitude and the vessel travels in Southerly direction, the
latitude will decrease by an amount of the Dlat.
RULES FOR FINDING LATITUDE IN
• If the LATITUDE OF DEPARTURE is greater than the Dlat
the vessel will remain on the same side of the equator, or
its latitude of arrival will have the same name as the
latitude from. But if the Dlat is greater, then the vessel will
cross the equator and will arrive at a LATITUDE equal to
the difference of Dlat and the LATITUDE of DEPARTURE.
The latitude of arrival now assumes the opposite name.
 EXAMPLE NO 5:
• A vessel from a place A in lat. 05⁰-10’N, sails 08⁰-10’
Southerly difference of latitude. What latitude is she in?
Lat 1 = 05⁰ - 10’ N
DLat = 08⁰ - 10’ S’ly
Lat 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 5:
• A vessel from a place A in lat. 05⁰-10’N, sails 08 ⁰-10’ Southerly
difference of latitude. What latitude is she in?
Lat 1 = 05⁰ - 10’ N
DLat = 08⁰ - 10’ S’ly
Lat 2 = 03⁰ - 00’ S
Note: In this example, the Dlat is in Southerly direction and is greater
than the latitude left, which is north; the ship crosses the equator from
N therefore the ship arrives on the other side of the equator which is
south latitude.
 EXAMPLE NO 6:
• A vessel sailed from point A situated in lat. 36⁰-47’ N made a
Dlat of 188 miles North. Required: Find the latitude arrived
at.
Lat 1 = 36⁰ - 47’ N
Dlat = 03⁰ - 08’ N’ly
Lat 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 6:
• A vessel sailed from point A situated in lat. 36⁰-47’ N made a Dlat of 188 nm
North. Required: Find the latitude arrived at
NOTE: One nautical mile is equal to one minute of latitude.
Solutions: Dlat = 188 nm/60 = 03⁰-08’ N’ly

Lat 1 = 36⁰ - 47’ N

Dlat = 03⁰ - 08’ N’ly
Lat 2 = 39⁰ - 55’ N
Note: In this example, the vessel is in North latitude and travels Northerly,
obviously the vessel arrives in North latitude.
 LONGITUDE:

• Longitude is the angular distance of a position EAST or WEST

of the prime meridian measured in degrees(⁰), minutes(‘), and
seconds(‘’) along its local parallel.

• There are 180⁰ EAST longitude and 180⁰ WEST longitude. Zero
degree being at the Prime Meridian or Meridian of Greenwich
and 180⁰ the opposite or International Date Line(IDL).
MEASUREMENTS OF LONGITUDE
• The angle of longitude is measured at the center of the earth.
• The angle of longitude is measured along the plane of the
equator.
• The angle of longitude is measured from the Prime Meridian.
MEASUREMENTS OF LONGITUDE
• The angle of longitude is measured EAST or WEST of
the prime meridian.
• The angle of longitude is measured until the
International Date Line.
• The angle of longitude is represented by an arc of the
equator.
 PRIME MERIDIAN
• Prime Meridian is used as the origin for measurement
of longitude. The prime meridian prescribed by the
British Royal observatory at Greenwich, near London,
which is used universally, represents 000⁰ longitude.
 DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE
• The difference of longitude(DLO) between two places
is the shorter arc of the two parallel or the smaller
angle at the pole between the meridians of the two
places are on the same side(EAST or WEST) of
Greenwich, DLO is the numerical difference of the
longitudes of the two places; if on opposite sides. DLO
is the numerical sum unless this exceeds 180⁰, 360⁰
minus the sum.
RULES FOR FINDING DIFFERENCE OF
LONGITUDE:
• When the longitudes are of the SAME NAMES(both
EAST or both WEST), take their difference, place E’ly
or W’ly on the remainder according to as the longitude
in is to the EAST or WEST of the longitude from.
RULES FOR FINDING DIFFERENCE OF
LONGITUDE:
• When the longitudes are of contrary names, (one is
WEST and the other is EAST or vice versa) take the
sum of the two longitudes, if less than 180⁰ it will be
the DLO, but if the sum exceeds 180⁰; subtract it from
360⁰ for the DLO, placing it to the contrary name to
what is found in usual way.
EXAMPLE NO 1:
• A ship sails from a port in long 110⁰45’ W, to a port in
long 072⁰27’ W. Find the DLO

Long 1 = 110⁰ - 45’ W

Long 2 = 072⁰ - 27’ W
Dlo =
 EXAMPLE NO 1:

• A ship sails from a port in long 110⁰45’ W, to a

port in long 072⁰27’ W. Find the DLO
Long 1 = 110⁰ - 45’ W
Long 2 = 072⁰ - 27’ W
Dlo = 038⁰ - 18’ E’ly
 EXAMPLE NO 2:

• The Long. from a place is 102⁰45’ W, and the longitude

of arrival is 080⁰05’W, what is the difference of long.?

Long 1 = 102⁰ - 45’ W

Long 2 = 080⁰ - 05’ W
Dlo =
 EXAMPLE NO 2 :
• The Long. from a place is 102⁰45’ W, and the
longitude of arrival is 080⁰05’W, what is the difference
of long.?
Long 1 = 102⁰ - 45’ W
Long 2 = 080⁰ - 05’ W
Dlo = 022⁰ - 40’ E’ly
 EXAMPLE NO 3 :
• A ship sails from a place in long. 15⁰-45’ E to a
place in long. 25⁰-55’E. find the Dlo.

Long 1 = 015⁰ - 45’E

Long 2 = 025⁰ - 55’E
Dlo =
 EXAMPLE NO 4:
• A ship sails from a place in long. 15⁰-45’ E to a place
in long. 25⁰-55’E. find the Dlo.
Long 1 = 015⁰ - 45’E
Long 2 = 025⁰ - 55’E
Dlo = 010⁰ - 10’ E’ly
Note:. The long. In is East of long. from, it is evident
that the direction of travel is going Easterly.
 EXAMPLE NO 5:
• A vessel from long. 164⁰-20’ E is bound to a place
in long. 102⁰-20’E. What DLo must she make?

Long 1 = 164⁰ - 20’E

Long 2 = 102⁰ - 20’E
DLo =
 EXAMPLE NO 5 :
• A vessel from long. 164⁰-20’ E is bound to a place
in long. 102⁰-20’E. What DLo must she make?

Long 1 = 164⁰ - 20’E

Long 2 = 102⁰ - 20’E
Dlo = 062⁰ - 00’ W’ly
 EXAMPLE NO 6:

• Find the DLo from long. 045⁰-15’E to 015⁰-04’W

Long 1 = 045⁰ - 15’E

Long 2 = 015⁰ - 04’W
DLo =
Note: The ship is evidently traveling from Eastern
longitude and passes to Western longitude and
therefore the direction of travel is Westerly).
 EXAMPLE NO 6:
• Find the DLo from long. 045⁰-15’E to 015⁰-04’W.
Long 1 = 045⁰ - 15’E
Long 2 = 015⁰ - 04’W
DLo = 060⁰ - 19’ W’ly
Note: The ship is evidently traveling from Eastern longitude and
passes to Western longitude and therefore the direction of
travel is Westerly).
 EXAMPLE NO 7:
• A vessel sails from a place long. 172⁰ - 46’ W to a place
long 174⁰ - 10’E. Find the DLo.

Long 1 = 172⁰ - 46’W

Long 2 = 174⁰ - 10’E
Dlo =
 EXAMPLE NO 7:

• A vessel sails from a place long. 172 ⁰ - 46’ W to a place long 174 ⁰ -
10’E. Find the Dlo.

Long 1 = 172⁰ - 46’W

Long 2 = 174⁰ - 10’E
DLo = 346⁰ - 56’ E’ly 🡪greater than 180 ⁰ it should be
- 360⁰ subtracted to 360⁰
DLo = 013⁰ - 04’ W’ly 🡪 direction of travel should be changed
contrary to that found in usual way.
 NOTE:
• By going East and West from Greenwich the two
places in this example will be found 346⁰-56’ apart, but
as both places are for our purposes upon one circle,
the small distance of the circle must be taken to find
how apart the longitude from and longitude in are
separated).
 HOW TO FIND LONGITUDE IN?
1. When the longitude from and difference of longitude(DLo)
have like names, longitude from, should be added to the
difference of longitude(DLO); the sum if not more than 180⁰ will
be the longitude in and of the same name as the longitude
from, but, if the sum exceeds 180⁰, subtract it from 360⁰ and
the difference is the longitude in, and the name should be
contrary to longitude from.
HOW TO FIND LONGITUDE IN?
2. When the longitude from and the Difference of
Longitude(DLO) have Unlike Names, subtract the lesser from
the greater and the remainder is the Longitude In; it is named
the same as the greater.
Note: (If the ship is receding from the prime meridian her
longitude is evidently increasing; if approaching it decrease).
 EXAMPLE NO 1:

• A ship from a place A in Long 15⁰ - 10’W made a 03⁰ -

55’ Westerly Dlo. Find the longitude arrived at.
Long 1 = 15⁰ - 10’ W
Dlo = 03⁰ - 55’ W’ly
Long 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 1:
• A ship from a place A in Long 15⁰ - 10’W made a 03⁰ - 55’
Westerly DLo. Find the longitude arrived at.
Long 1 = 15⁰ - 10’ W
Dlo = 03⁰ - 55’ W’ly
Long 2 = 19⁰ - 05’ W
Note: In this example the ship from a place A in West longitude
has travelled 03⁰ - 55’ Westerly and consequently increasing
her equal to the DLo made).
 EXAMPLE NO 2:
• A vessel sails from a place A in Longitude 05⁰ - 35’E and
makes a DLo of 07⁰ - 45’ W’ly, find the Longitude In?
Long 1 = 05⁰ - 35’ E
Dlo = 07⁰ - 45’ W’ly
Long 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 2:
• A vessel sails from a place A in Longitude 05⁰ - 35’E and
makes a DLo of 07⁰ - 45’ W’ly, find the Longitude In?
Long 1 = 05⁰ - 35’ E
Dlo = 07⁰ - 45’ W’ly
Long 2 = 02⁰ - 10’ W
Note: (In this example a ship from EAST longitude travels in
Westerly direction and is thereby crossing the meridian of
Greenwich, having run from East to West longitude).
 EXAMPLE NO 3:

• A vessel sailed from longitude 175⁰ - 01’ – 32’’E and made a

difference of longitude 0f 22⁰ - 05’- 35’’ E’ly. Find the longitude
of arrival.
Long 1 = 175⁰ - 01’- 32’’E
Dlo = 22⁰ - 05’- 35 E’ly
Long 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 3:
• A vessel sailed from longitude 175⁰ - 01’ – 32’’E and made a difference of
longitude 0f 22⁰ - 05’- 35’’ E’ly. Find the longitude of arrival.
Long 1 = 175⁰ - 01’- 32’’E
Dlo = 22⁰ - 05’- 35 E’ly
Long 2 = 197⁰ - 07’- 07’’ E 🡪 Exceeds 180⁰
- 360⁰ - 00’- 00’ 🡪 Subtract 360⁰
Long 2 = 162⁰ - 52’- 53’’W
Note: (In this example the ship has gone from East longitude into West
longitude and thereby crossing the meridian of 180 ⁰
(IDL) and has changed the name of her longitude from East to West).
 EXAMPLE NO 4:

• A ship leaves the place longitude 178⁰-45’-25’’W and

makes a Dlo 13⁰-08’-46’’ Westerly, find the longitude
in.
Long 1 = 178⁰-45’-25’’ W
Dlo = 13⁰-08’-46’’ W’ly
Long 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 4:
• A ship leaves the place longitude 178⁰-45’-25’’W and makes
a Dlo 13⁰-08’-46’’ Westerly, find the longitude in.
Long 1 = 178⁰-45’-25’’ W
Dlo = 13⁰-08’-46’’ W’ly
Long 2 = 191⁰- 54’-11’’ W 🡪 exceeds 180⁰
360⁰-00’-00’’ 🡪 subtract 360⁰
Long 2 = 168 ⁰-05’-49’’E
 NOTE:

• Again this sample crosses the meridian of 180⁰

or International Date Line(IDL), the ship travels
from West to East longitude and has changed
the name of her longitude from West to East).
 EXAMPLE NO 5:

• A ship from Greenwich meridian makes a Dlo of 4⁰-26’ E’ly.

Find her longitude of arrival.

Long 1 = 000⁰-00’
Dlo = 4⁰-26’ E’ly
Long 2 =
 EXAMPLE NO 5:
• A ship from Greenwich meridian makes a Dlo of 4 ⁰-26’ E’ly. Find her
longitude of arrival.
Long 1 = 000⁰-00’
Dlo = 4⁰-26’ E’ly
Long 2 = 4⁰-26’ East
Note: (In this example the ship left the meridian of Greenwich where
the long is zero(being the basis for measuring longitudes) and has
gone 4⁰-26’ to the East; therefore the longitude arrived at was equal to
the DLO.
GEOID &
ELLIPSOID
The geoid approximates mean
sea level.

The shape of the ellipsoid was

calculated based on the
hypothetical equipotential
gravitational surface.

A significant difference exists

between this mathematical model
and the real object.
Earth as an Ellipsoid
THE EARTH AS AN ELLIPSOID

•The Earth is not a perfect

sphere; it is slightly flattened at
the top and bottom, the smaller
diameter being about 23.1 nm
less than the larger.
THE EARTH AS AN ELLIPSOID

•The Earth’s flattened shape is

known as an Oblate Spheroid
with an Equatorial radius “a” of
approximately 3443.9 nm and a
Polar radius ‘b’ of 3432.4 nm.
 THE EARTH AS AN ELLIPSOID
•The Admiralty
3432.4 n.miles
Manual of
Navigation Volume
1(10th Edition) –
Chapter 1, Para
0110 to 0113 (1-3)

3443.9 n.miles
 CHART PROJECTIONS
The students will have knowledge on
why the charts are produced. The
projections are often used for marine
navigation.
 CHART PROJECTIONS
Because a cartographer cannot
transfer a sphere to a flat surface
without distortion, he must project
the surface of a sphere onto a
developable surface.
 CHART PROJECTIONS
A developable surface is one that can
be flattened to form a plane. This
process is known as chart projection.
 CHART PROJECTIONS
If points on the surface of the sphere
are projected from a single point, the
projection is said to be perspective or
geometric.
 CHART PROJECTIONS
Is a process of transferring points on the
surface of the sphere or spheroid onto a
plane or onto a developable surface such
as cylinder or cone, to produce a systematic
drawing of lines representing the parallels
of latitude and the meridians of longitude of
the earth or a portion of the earth.
 CHART PROJECTIONS

Classification of projections depends on

whether the projection is centered on
the equator (equatorial), a pole (polar), or
some point or line between (oblique).
 CHART PROJECTIONS

The name of a projection indicates its

type and its principal features.
 CHART PROJECTIONS

Different methods for representing this

kind are designed to keep certain
properties of the ellipsoidal surface
undistorted.
 CHART PROJECTIONS

Different possibilities:
1.Conform- charts are angular correct
2.Equivalent- areas on the chart are
correct
 CHART PROJECTIONS
Chart projections are classified
according to the type of projection
surface used.
The three commonly used surfaces are:
1.Plane- Polar Projection
2.Cone- Lambert Projection
3.Cylinder- Mercator Projection
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROJECTIONS

1. Azimuthal Projection
2. Gnomonic Projection
3. Stereographic Projection
4. Orthographic Projection
5. Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
6. Cylindrical Projection
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROJECTIONS

7. Mercator Projection
8. Transverse Mercator Projection
9. Oblique Mercator Projection
10. Rectangular Projection
11. Equatorial Projection
12. Conic Projection
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROJECTIONS

13. Simple Conic Projection

14. Polyconic Projection
15. Lambert Conformal Projection
16. Polar Stereographic Projection
 1. AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION

⮚A projection on which the azimuths or

directions of all lines radiating from a central
point or pole are the same as the azimuths
or directions of the corresponding lines on
the ellipsoid.
⮚Also called ZENITHAL PROJECTION.
1. Azimuthal Projection
 2. Gnomonic Projection
⮚A perspective azimuthal projection in
which points on the surface of a
sphere or spheroid, are conceived as
projected by radials from the center to
a tangent plane.
2. Gnomonic Projection
⮚ Great circles project as straight lines.
For this reason the projection is used
principally for charts for great circle
sailing.
⮚The projection is neither conformal
nor equal area.
2. Gnomonic Projection
2. Gnomonic Projection
 3. Stereographic Projection
⮚A perspective, conformal, azimuthal
projection in which points on the surface
of a sphere or spheroid, are conceived
as projected by radial lines from any
point on the surface to a plane tangent
to the antipode of the point of projection.
3. Stereographic Projection
⮚ Circles project as circles
except for great circles through
the point of tangency which
projects as straight lines.
 3. Stereographic Projection
⮚ The principal navigational use of the
projection is for charts of the polar regions.
⮚ Also called AZIMUTHAL
ORTHOMORPHIC PROJECTION.
3. Stereographic Projection
 4. Orthographic Projection
⮚A perspective azimuthal projection in
which the projecting lines, emanating
from a point at infinity, are perpendicular
to a tangent plane.
 4. Orthographic Projection
⮚ The projection is used chiefly in
navigating astronomy for inter converting
coordinates of the celestial equator and
horizon systems.
⮚ Also called ORTHOGONAL
PROJECTION.
4. Orthographic Projection
5. Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
⮚ An azimuthal projection on which
straight lines radiating from the center or
pole of projection represents great
circles in their azimuths from that center,
and lengths along those lines of exact
scale.
 5. Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
⮚ This projection is neither equal-area nor
conformal.
If a geographic pole is the pole of projection,
meridians appears as radial straight lines
and parallels of latitude equally concentric
circles.
5. Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
 6. Cylindrical Projection
⮚A projection in which the surface of a
sphere or spheroid, is conceived as
developed on a tangent cylinder, which
is then spread out to form a plane.
6. Cylindrical Projection
 7. Mercator Projection
⮚A conformal cylindrical projection in
which the surface of a sphere or
spheroid, is developed on a cylinder
tangent along the equator.
 7. Mercator Projection
• Meridians appear as equally spaced vertical
lines and parallels as horizontal lines drawn
farther apart as the latitude increase such that
the correct relationship between latitude and
longitudes scales at any point is maintained.
•Also called EQUATORIAL CYLINDRICAL
ORTHOMORPHIC PROJECTION.
7. Mercator Projection
8. Transverse Mercator Projection
⮚A conformal cylindrical projection in
which points on the surface of a sphere
or spheroid, are developed by Mercator
Principles on a cylinder tangent along a
meridian.
8. Transverse Mercator Projection

⮚ Inprinciple it is equivalent to the

regular Mercator map projection
turned(transverse) 90⁰ in azimuth.
8. Transverse Mercator Projection
⮚ In this projection, the central
meridian is represented by a straight
line, corresponding to the line which
represents the equator on the regular
Mercator Projection.
8. Transverse Mercator Projection
⮚ Neither the geographic
meridians(except the central meridian)
nor the geodetic parallels(except the
equator) are represented by straight
lines.
8. Transverse Mercator Projection
9. Oblique Mercator Projection
⮚A conformal cylindrical projection in
which points on the surface of a sphere
or spheroid, are developed by Mercator
principles on a cylinder tangent along a
great circle other than the equator or a
meridian.
9. Oblique Mercator Projection
 10. Rectangular Projection
⮚ A cylinder projection with uniform
spacing of the parallels.
⮚ This projection is used for the star chart
in the Air Almanac.
 11. Equatorial Projection
⮚A projection centered on the equator.
 12. Conic Projection
⮚A projection in which the surface of a
sphere or spheroid, is conceived as
projected onto a tangent or secant cone
which is then developed into a plane.
12. Conic Projection
 12. Conic Projection
⮚ Ina conic map projection with two
standard parallels the cone intersects the
sphere or spheroid along two chosen are
tangent to the sphere or spheroid.
13. Simple Conic Projection
⮚A conic projection in which the surface
of a sphere or spheroid, is conceived as
developed on a tangent cone, which is
then spread out to form a plane.
 14. Polyconic Projection
⮚ A conicprojection in which the surface of
a sphere or spheroid, is conceived as
developed on a series of tangent cones,
which are then spread out to form a plane.
⮚ A separate cone is used for each small
zone.
14. Polyconic Projection
⮚ This projection is widely used
for maps but seldom used for
charts, except for survey
purpose. It is not conformal.
14. Polyconic Projection
 15. Lambert Conformal Projection
⮚A conformal projection of the conic type,
on which all geographic meridians are
represented by straight lines which meet in
a common point outside the limits of the
map, and the geographic parallels are
represented by a series of arcs of circle
having this common point for a center.
15. Lambert Conformal Projection

⮚ Meridians and parallels intersect at

right angles, and angles on the earth
are correctly represented on the
projection.
15. Lambert Conformal Projection
⮚ This projection may have one
standard parallel along which the scale
is held exact; or there may be two such
standard parallels, both maintaining
exact scale.
15. Lambert Conformal Projection
⮚ The scale changes along the
meridians and is constant along each
parallel. Where there are two standard
parallels, the scale between those
parallels is too small; beyond them, too
large.
15. Lambert Conformal Projection
16. Polar Stereographic Projection
•A stereographic projection having the
center of the projection located at a pole
of the sphere.
16. Polar Stereographic Projection
 Datum Shifts

Latitude and longitude coordinates depend on the

datum used for the map projection. The same point, on
maps with different datums, will have different
coordinates which can vary by several hundred meters.
Region Local Datum UTM difference to Lat/Long Difference to
WGS84 WGS84

US NAD27 200-220 m 0-100 m

Afghanistan Indian 276-283 m 25-105 m

Korea Tokyo 730-760 m 332-400 m

 Difference between datum and coordinate system

A datum is simply a foundation and reference

for spatial measurements. A system of
coordinates is then used to describe those
measurements relative to the datum, and a
projection is the visual representation of those
measurements on a different
Chart datums
EVALUATION
SOLUTION
TOPIC 3 : CHARTS
Importance of the Topic

⮚ It helps the students to

demonstrate basic knowledge
and understanding of a nautical
chart.
Nautical Chart
⮚ As a navigator,
the nautical chart is one of
your most important tools.
 Nautical Chart
⮚ Charts cover the open sea,
coastlines, navigable inland waters and
canal systems.
⮚ They can cover a large area; for
example, the shipping lanes of the
North Atlantic; or provide a detailed
representation of a smaller area, such
as a harbour or anchorage.
NAUTICAL CHART
A nautical chart represents part of the
spherical earth on a plane surface. It shows
water depth, the shoreline of adjacent land,
prominent topographic features, aids to
navigation, and other navigational information.
 NAUTICAL CHART
It is a work area on which the navigator plots
courses, ascertains positions, and views the
relationship of the ship to the surrounding
area. It assists the navigator in avoiding
dangers and arriving safely at his destination.
 NAUTICAL CHART
Should a marine accident occur, the nautical
chart in use at the time takes on legal
significance. In cases of grounding, collision,
and other accidents, charts become critical
records for reconstructing the incident can
also have tremendous training value.
 NAUTICAL CHART
Main Requirements of Navigation Charts
A nautical chart presents most of the information used
by the marine navigator, including latitude and longitude
scales, topographical features, navigation aids such as
lighthouses and radio beacons, magnetic information,
indications of reefs and shoals, water depth, and
warning notices.
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATIONALCHART
Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) consist of
digitized data conforming to the IHO’s S-57 ENC
Product Specification that records all the relevant
charted features necessary for safe navigation, such
as: coastlines, bathymetry, buoys, lights, etc. The
basic unit of geographic coverage (analogous to a
paper chart) is termed a cell.
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATIONAL CHART
An Electronic Chart Display and Information System
(ECDIS) will convert the ENC and its updates into its own
native System ENC (SENC) format. The SENC format is
optimized by the ECDIS manufacturer for the correct and
efficient display of the ENC information.
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATIONAL CHART
Within the ECDIS, the features and their attributes (for
example position, colour, shape) can be selectively
displayed and queried, creating the potential to customize
the chart image displayed on screen. The figures below
show various levels of detail displayed from the same cell:
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATIONAL CHART
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATIONAL CHART
Comparison with paper charts and electronic
navigational charts

⮚ With the ECDIS system the position display on the chart

is the present position.
⮚ When the paper charts used the position plotted on the
chart was the position at the time it was received
several minutes ago
SCALES &
CLASSIFICATION OF
CHARTS
Importance of the Topics:
The students will gain knowledge
and understanding of different
classifications of chart in
preparation for voyage planning.
Chart Scale
The scale of a chart is the ratio of a
given distance on the chart to the
actual distance which it represents on
the earth.
It may be expressed in various ways.
Types of Scales
1. Natural or Fractional Scale
⮚ A simple ratio or fraction, known as the
representative fraction. For example, 1:80,000 or
1/80,000 means that one unit(such as a meter) on
the chart represents 80,000 of the same unit on
the surface of the earth. This scale is sometime
called natural or fractional scale.
Types of Scales
2. Numerical Scale
⮚ A statement that a given distance on the
earth equals a given measure on the chart,
or vice versa. For example, “30 miles to the
inch” means that 1 inch on the chart
represents 30 miles of the earth’s surface.
Types of Scales
2. Numerical Scale
⮚ Similarly, “2 inches to a mile” indicates
that 2 inches on the chart represent 1 mile
on the earth. This is sometimes called
the numerical scale.
Types of Scales
3. Graphic Scale
⮚ A line or bar called a graphic scale may
be drawn at a convenient place on the chart
and subdivided into nautical miles, meters,
etc.
 Types of Scales
3. Graphic Scale
⮚ All charts vary somewhat in scale from
point to point, and in some projections the
scale is not the same in all directions about
a single point.
Types of Scales
3. Graphic Scale
⮚ A single subdivided line or bar for use
over an entire chart is shown only when the
chart is of such scale and projection that the
scale varies a negligible amount over the
chart, usually one of about 1:75,000 or
larger.
Types of Scales
3. Graphic Scale
⮚ Since 1 minute of latitude is very
nearly equal to 1 nautical mile, the
latitude scale serves as an approximate
graphic scale.
Chart Scales
⮚On most nautical charts the east and west
borders are subdivided to facilitate distance
measurements.
⮚On a Mercator chart the scale varies with
the latitude.
Chart Scales
This is noticeable on a chart covering
a relatively large distance in a north-
south direction.
On such a chart the border scale near
the latitude in question should be used
for measuring distances.
Chart Scales
Of the various methods of indicating scale,
the graphical method is normally available
in some form on the chart. In addition, the
scale is customarily stated on charts on
which the scale does not change
appreciably over the chart.
Chart Scales
The ways of expressing the scale of a
chart are readily interchangeable.
For instance, in a nautical mile there
are about 72,913.39 inches.
Chart Scales
If the natural scale of a chart is
1:80,000, one inch of the chart
represents 80,000 inches of the earth,
or a little more than a mile.
Chart Scales
To find the exact amount, divide the scale
by the number of inches in a mile, or
80,000/72,913.39 = 1.097. Thus, a scale of
1:80,000 is the same as a scale of 1.097
(or approximately 1.1) miles to an inch.
Chart Scales
Stated another way, there are:
72,913.39/80,000 = 0.911 (approximately
0.9) inch to a mile. Similarly, if the scale is
60 nautical miles to an inch, the
representative fraction is 1:(60 x 72,913.39)
= 1:4,374,803.
Chart Scales
A chart covering a relatively large area is
called a small-scale chart and one
covering a relatively small area is called
a large-scale chart.
Chart Scales
Since the terms are relative, there is no
sharp division between the two. Thus, a
chart of scale 1:100,000 is large scale
when compared with a chart of 1:1,000,000
but small scale when compared with one of
1:25,000.
Chart Scales
As scale decreases, the amount of detail
which can be shown decreases also.
Cartographers selectively decrease the
detail in a process
called generalization when producing
small scale charts using large scale charts
as sources.
Chart Scales
The amount of detail shown depends
on several factors, among them the
coverage of the area at larger scales
and the intended use of the chart.
 Classification of Nautical Charts
Charts are constructed on many different
scales, ranging from about 1:2,500 to
1:14,000,000 (and even smaller for some
world charts). Small-scale charts are used
for voyage planning and offshore navigation.
Classification of Nautical Charts
Charts of larger scale are used as the vessel
approaches land. Several methods of
classifying charts according to scale are in
use in various nations. The following
classifications of nautical charts are those
used by the National Ocean Survey:
 Classification of Nautical Charts
1. Sailing charts are the smallest scale
charts used for planning, fixing position at
sea, and for plotting the dead reckoning
while proceeding on a long voyage.
The scale is generally smaller than
1:600,000.
Classification of Nautical Charts
2. General charts are intended for
coastwise navigation outside of outlying
reefs and shoals.
The scales range from about 1:150,000 to
1:600,000.
 Classification of Nautical Charts
3. Coast (coastal) charts are intended for inshore
coastwise navigation where the course may lie
inside outlying reefs and shoals, for entering or
leaving bays and harbors of considerable width,
and for navigating large inland waterways.
The scales range from about 1:50,000 to
1:150,000.
 Classification of Nautical Charts
4. Harbour charts are intended for
navigation and anchorage in harbours and
small waterways.
The scale is generally larger than 1:50,000.
Factors Relating to Accuracy
1. Hydrographic Survey – The accuracy of
the chart depends upon the accuracy of the
hydrographic surveys.
Factors Relating to Accuracy
2. Completeness of the soundings – The
number of soundings and their spacing
indicates the completeness of the survey.
 END OF PRELIM TOPICS

PRELIM EXAMINATION