CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY IV

BQS 552

EARTHWORK
The processes whereby the surface of the earth is
excavated and transported to and compacted at
another location.
Development of a wide range of earthwork plant
(size, capacity and efficiency).

Scale: ranges from small works (the excavation of

ditches and trenches for drainage and pits and
trenches for foundation) to the large earthworks
(highways and dams).
Carried out at an early stage in a construction
project, completion of the earthworks within the
scheduled time is often key to the completion on time
of the whole project.
 SUCCESS OFTEN DEPENDS ON:

An adequate site The choice and efficient use

investigation and preparing of the correct types and size
practical and satisfactory of plant to meet the
designs of the earthworks particular requirements of
the site.
 VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF
EXCAVATING AND THEIR
CHOICES
GENERAL
CONSIDERATION 2.1 Bulk excavation
2.2 Rock excavation
1.1 Site Consideration 2.3 Trench excavation
1.2 Ground Conditions 2.4 Support of excavations
2.5 Embankments

1.0 2.0
 Nature of excavation
1.0
GENERAL CONSIDERATION Availability of work area

Disposal of soil
1.1 SITE CONSIDERATION

Existing services and structures


• The situation of the
excavation, whether for
reduced levels, road
works, trenches,
basements or pits, have
to consider the time
available for excavation
and the sequence of
completed earthworks.
1.1 SITE CONSIDERATION
a) Nature of excavation
• Areas of fill require some form of
• A detailed plan of the retaining wall or drainage, prior to
movement of spoil and depositing the spoil; especially when
plant will need to be planning the sequence of operations.
prepared in the case of
large cut and fill • Extended work such as trenches for
operations. pipelines can be divided into sections
and may progress simultaneously.
1.0 GENERAL CONSIDERATION
 1.1
SITE CONSIDERATION Work area' is the total space
available for the
manipulation of plant and
storage of materials.
b) Availability of work area

On certain sites the work area is sufficient to

It does not include areas for
allow the sides of deep excavations to be
site administration or
battered to a safe angle of repose, thereby
accommodation
giving a work area free from obstructions .
The total work area should
It is essential therefore that a study be made
be indicated on a site plan
of the space available and of the effect
so that movement of plant
progress will have on this.
and materials can be
efficiently planned.
.
 The disposal of soil Immediate use as
1.1 is achieved by one backfilling elsewhere
of the following on the site
SITE methods:

CONSIDERATION
Storage in spoil heaps, Immediate
c) Disposal of Soil removal from site
for use later or removal
at a later stage. to other
destination or
dumping areas.
 When the material is used for
backfilling it must be suitable
for the particular operation .
1.1 This should involve
SITE separating the cut material
into two categories, the
CONSIDERATION suitable for filling and the
other for removal or other
They should be positioned
that they do not interfere
with access to work areas
The removal of spoil from site
or become a danger or
may involve the control of
nuisance because of
lorries to allow maximum
damping in bad weather.
utilization of earthmoving
plant.

earthworks.

c) Disposal of Soil
Consideration must also be
given to the stresses
induced by spoil heaps on Some consideration must also be
Consideration should be
structures or services below given to spillage of soil when
given to the position of
ground or adjacent to the leaving the public highways must
such spoil heaps in order.
spoil heap. be kept clean at all times.
 Care should be taken to
1.1 establish the position of all pipes,
cables and underground services,
SITE CONSIDERATION which should be clearly marked
before, earth works commence.

d) Existing Services and Structure

Where excavation involves the
disturbance of services, they
should be carefully unearthed and
supported to prevent damage by
movement or vibration;
nevertheless, breakages almost
invariably occur.
 1.1

SITE CONSIDERATION
d) Existing Services and Structure
Existing structures adjacent to excavation areas will require support during excavations.
This may take any of the following forms:

CUT OFF WALLING STRUTTING AND SHORING (SHEET PILES) UNDERPINNING

A thin, watertight wall of clay or A pile in a row of piles driven side The process of strengthening and
concrete built up from a cutoff by side to retain earth or prevent stabilizing the foundation of an
trench to reduce seepage. seepage. existing building or other
structure.
CUT OFF WALLING UNDERPINNING
STRUTTING AND SHORING (SHEET PILES)
 Consideration must
be given to the
The information change in soil
obtained from the site stability due to
investigation will assist adverse weather
following factors: conditions.
a) Ground support 2.0
required during
The ground support GROUND CONDITIONS
excavation.
b) Method of keeping required will depend
the excavation free from on the strength soil,
water. the depth of
c) Plant to be used. excavation and the
length of time that the
excavation remains
open.
 2.0
2.1
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF BULK
EXCAVATING AND THEIR EXCAVATION.
CHOICES

2.2 2.3
ROCK TRENCH
EXCAVATION. EXCAVATION.

2.4 2.5
SUPPORT
EXCAVATION. EMBANKMENTS
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF EXCAVATING
AND THEIR CHOICES

Bulk excavation may include the

2.1
following operations :

• Cuttings
Bulk Excavations • Cut and fill areas
Groundworks which remove large • Basements and large pits
amounts of materials and reduce the
general level down to near formation. • Hand excavations
They are made with large and efficient
excavators.
 Done for canals, roads and similar
form of construction.

2.1
Used of plants depend on :
i) Quantity of soil to be
transported
ii) Distance of disposal unit
iii) Conditions of ground and
water level

Examples of plants:
BULK i) Bulldozers
EXCAVATION ii) Scrappers
a) Cuttings iii)Dragline
iv)Combination of plant track
mounted excavation
v) Face shovel
BACKACTOR BULLDOZER
DRAGLINE
DUMPER
FACE SHOVEL BACKHOE
ROLLER COMPACTION SCRAPPER
TRENCHER SKIMMER
 Shallow cut and fill operations occur in road

2.1
works and airfield construction.

In shallow excavation the plant may have to stop

work to prevent damage of the formation level,
or temporary works may have to be provided
over large areas, either way resulting in extra
cost.
Areas of cut and fill can be adequately
BULK drained by temporary trenches, which into
EXCAVATION the final sub-grade drainage.
b) Shallow cut
and fill The formation level may be protected
against water and the drying-out action of
wind and sun, by some form of waterproof
dressing.
2.1
BULK
EXCAVATION
b) Shallow cut
and fill
2.1
BULK Synonymous for deep pit excavation over
EXCAVATION 4.5m deep.
c) Basement
construction Methods of excavation:
i) Open cut excavation
ii) Cut and cover techniques
iii) Top down techniques
iv) Composite techniques
OPEN CUT EXCAVATION CUT AND COVER
TOP DOWN TECHNIQUE
COMPOSITE TECHNIQUE
For construction purposes the term 'deep
pit', which applies to excavations over 4.5m
deep, is synonymous with the term
'basement'.

Shallow pits, which are 1.5 m deep, present

little or no problem in terms of excavation or
ground support. They are normally excavated
with a small back acting machine or by hand.

Medium pits, classified as 1.5 to 4.5 m deep,

require careful selection of plant and ground
support.

BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction
 BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction

Methods of excavation of
basements and deep pits are
varies.

The following are methods

commonly used by contractors: Unshored excavation

i) Unshored excavations
ii) Shored excavations
iii) Dumpling method
iv) Cut-off walling method
Shored excavation
Dumpling method
This is used where there are buildings or street in the
proximity.

The method is to construct a series of retaining wall in trench,

section by section, around the site perimeter ,leaving a centre
called "dumpling
Cut off walling method
•The word “Cut-Off” is meant to define the
specific purposes of this technology, i.e. to
either stop the flow, to “Dam” the
underground stream, or to surround and
seal-off an area, to prevent water inflow
and water outflow from the encircled area.

•The principal types of vertical cutoff walls

are sheet pile walls, geomembrane walls,
and slurry trench cutoff walls.

All these methods involve
some form of support to the
ground and they also have
an effect on the choice of
plant to be used.
BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction
This will allow more freedom
of choice in excavating plant
With unshored excavations it than the other methods.
can be assumed that there is
an ample working space With shored excavations, the
around the excavation to shoring can be made watertight
allow battering of the by sealing the joints of sheet
excavation. piling, thereby eliminating the
free flow of water.
 Excavating deep basements and pits to use pneumatic

2.1
tools such a clay-spades and picks.

Occur in excavation which are heavily supported, leaving

little room, etc.

This will occur in excavations which are heavily supported,

leaving little room for mechanical excavation; it will also be
necessary in the vicinity of services which would be
BULK
EXCAVATION subject to damage by machine, or to the case of removing
d) Hand obstacles such as boulders, logs or other projecting
Excavation
objects.

Spoil from such excavations would be put into skips for

periodic removal.
d) Hand Excavation
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF EXCAVATING
AND THEIR CHOICES
Pneumatic breaker

Breaking by hand
(hammer & wedges)

Drilling with pneumatic

2.2 ROCK EXCAVATION
Vary depending on:
machine : blasting i) Types of materials
ii) Quantity involved
iii) Conditioned of site
Drilling with pneumatic
machine : freezing liquid iv) Equipment available
Methods that use:
 The first three methods are suitable where any
of the following conditions prevail:

The noise of blasting would cause annoyance

2.2 Adjacent buildings may be subject to damage.

ROCK Blasting may cause inconvenience or stoppage

of traffic.
EXCAVATION Landslides or rock falls might result.
Accurate cutting is necessary and excessive
'over break’ would be uneconomical.

Overbreak is defined as the unwanted

removal of rock beyond a specified
maximum excavation perimeter
 2.2
Rock Excavation

However, modern One example involved One example involved

methods of control the excavation of a the excavation of a
allow very accurate large basement in very large basement in very
vibration-controlled hard rock, some of hard rock, some of
blasting in limited which was within 30 which was within 30
spaces. meters of an important meters of an important
computer installation. computer installation.
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF EXCAVATING
Purpose for which the trench is AND THEIR CHOICES
being excavated

The nature of the ground

The time scale of the work 2.3

TRENCH EXCAVATION
Ground water conditions
Choice of Methods depends
on:
The location of the trench

Number of obstructions
 2.3
Trench Excavation

The methods of
a) Full depth, full excavating c) Stage depth,
length trenches are as successive
excavation follows: stages

b) Full depth,
successive
stages of
excavation
 2.3
This method is suitable for long
narrow trenches of shallow depth in
which the machine completes the
trench non-stop ahead of any other
operation. This method is suitable for
pipelines and sewers

a) Full depth, full length excavation

 2.3
This method is suitable for deep
trenches where several operations of
work can proceed in sequence; this
would prevent stretches of trench
from being left open too long and
thereby being subject to collapse.

b) Full depth, successive stages of

excavation
 2.3
This method is suitable for very deep
trenches in confined areas or adjacent
to existing property. It involves the
support of the trench as the work
proceeds and is most suited for
operations such as deep foundations
and underpinning.

c) Stage depth, successive stages

of excavation
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF EXCAVATING
AND THEIR CHOICES

▪ Support of excavations is governed

by the following factors:

2.4
i) Type of soil
ii) Ground water condition
iii) Depth and width of excavation

Support of Excavations The soil types for discussion are as follows:

i) Loose sand, gravel and silts.
ii) Compact sands and stiff clays
iii) Rocks
 2.4
Support of Excavation

Support for excavation in loose sand,

Since such soils are likely to slump quickly,
gravel and silts requires some form of the support must be placed immediately after
excavation takes place'. This means that deep
continuous support, which may consist of: excavations will have to be dug in stages:

i) The first stage by machine

a) Trench sheeting - lightweight
pressed steel sheets ii) and, after supporting the first stage,
any subsequent stages by hand or by
b) Steel sheet piling grab. Hand excavation is very expensive
and therefore the use of driven sheet
piles may be more suitable for deep
trenching.
a) Trench sheeting - lightweight pressed steel
sheets

b) Steel sheet piling

Compact sand and stiff clays

Support for this type of soil can be

2.4
Support of Excavation

If the soil is subjected to

achieved by using open timbering
drying out and crumbling,
support.
The spacing of the pooling
Boards can be reduced
Involves the use of pooling boards or
accordingly.
trench sheets at intervals of
approximately 1 meter; the board are Dry clays which take up rain

supported by continuous walling and water and expand: this

trenches jack at 2 meter centres. produces extra stress in the

struts and allowance should be
made for this at the design
stage.
 Rock
Support to rock excavation depends to
large extend on the type of rock and the
slope of rock strata.
In the case of unstable rock faces, open
timbering should be used to prevent any
slump/collapse.
Where the depth of excavation is
excessive, the rock face may be stabilized
by rock bolting.
2.4
Support of Excavation
Rock bolting consists of solid steel rods which
are fixed in deep drill holes by means of
wedges, sleeves or grouting process; light steel
sections or steel plates are used to support the
rock face through which the rods are threaded.
Support of these materials may be
expensive; It may be more economical to
cut these back to a safe angle of repose if
space allows such treatment.
Rock Bolting
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF EXCAVATING
AND THEIR CHOICES

2.5 Embankments
Em·bank·ment : a wide wall of earth or stones
built to stop water from flooding an area, or to
support a road or railway
The construction of embankments and the design profile of the
sloping sides will depend on a number of factors, such as:
2.5
Embankment

The extent to which

The consolidation of the strength properties The difficulties in
the fill in the of the fill may be construction during
embankment under affected by the method adverse weather, when
the proposed loads. of construction. using clays and fine sands.

1 2 3 4 5 6

The purpose for which

the embankment is The stability of the The cost of obtaining
constructed, e.g. the ground on which the suitable fill material.
loads involved. embankment is to be
constructed.
 The method of constructing an
embankment will depend upon the
2.5
Embankment

extent of the works, the type of fill

material being used and the nature of
the site.

The site must be stripped of all vegetable

matter. Fill material should be tipped and
spread in layers of such a thickness that it
can be compacted to the required density -
which will be established by laboratory
Fill material should be tipped and spread in
layers of such a thickness that it can be
testing. compacted to, the required density – which
will be established by laboratory testing
 2.5
Where large volumes of fill are involved, the
density factor obtained in the laboratory may
not be achieved on site.
Embankment

Difficulties in varying the moisture content of

large volumes of earth between the two
stages of excavating and filling

This discrepancy can be minimized by the

correct selection of compaction plant: the
plant most suited will depend on the soil type
and its working moisture content.
i.
2.5 Embankment slope

The safe angle of any embankment slope

will depend on the nature of the fill material
used and the height of the bank.

ii. The safe angle will range from as much as

45’ for rock waste fill down to as little as
20’ for some clays.

iii. Slopes may also be stated as ratios and

percentages . e.g: a slope of 1:3 or 33% ,
a slope of 1:5 or 20%.
Construction of access
embankment and
container terminal site
The end