SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: PSYCHOLOGY 311

COURSE TITLE: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
DATE: 28TH SEPTEMBER 2023
GROUP FOUR MEMBERS

REG NO NAME
HSC/091/21 GRACE JEPKOECH
HSC/096/21 INVIOLATA COLETA
HSC/118/21 AILENE NAMULUNDA
HSC/006/21 FELIX MACHUKA
HSC/066/21 MERCY REHEMA
HSC/062/21 YVONNE STELLA ANYANGO
HSC/011/21 DAN MESHACK NJUE
HSC/044/21 BRANICE ADERA
HSC/021/21 SALOCH PHOEBE CHEROP
HSC/065/21 MERCY CHEPKEMOI
HSC/055/21 FOLYSTER MISIKO
HSC/105/21 RITA MUTUKU
HSC/023/21 JOYLINE CHELANGAT
HSC/078/21 FAITH CHEPKIRUI
HSC/048/21 DIANA SHIKANA SHILAHU
HSC/121/21 FLORENCE BENSON
HSC/054/21 LORRAINE MIDOCHA
HSC/072/21 GLORIA NAKHUNGU
HSC/041/21 SHEILA CHERUIYOT
HSC/101/21 BEVOLINE ROTICH
HSC/084/21 BRENDA CHEPKEMOI
HSC/079/21 VILIA CHEPKIRUI
HSC/034/21 TERRY GRACE MICHELLE
HSC/086/21 MIKE ALUVISIA
PRENATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal development is also called antenatal development. In humans the process encompassing
the period from the formation of an embryo through the development of fetus to birth. (or
portuntion)

The human body like that of most animals develops from a single cell produced by the union of a
male and female gamete. This union mark the beginning of the prenatal period, which in humans
encompasses three distinct stages;

The pre-embryonic stages- the first 2 weeks of development which is a period of cell division
and initial differentiation (cell maturation)

The embryonic period or period of organogenesis which lasts from the third to the eighth week
of development

The fetal period which is characterized by the maturation of issues and organs and rapid growth
of the body.

The prenatal period ends with parturition and is followed by a long post natal period. Only at
about age 25 years are the last progressive changes completed

Germinal stage

The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the
eighth week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is
known as the fetal period.

Germinal Stage of Prenatal Development

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the
single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of
mitosis, the zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A
significant number of zygotes never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as
half of all zygotes surviving less than two weeks.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain
characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells
multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually
become the placenta, while the inner cells form the embryo.

Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from
fallopian tube to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst
is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body.1

Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems

Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known
as implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny
blood vessels. The connective web of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will
provide nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months. Implantation is not
always an automatic and sure-fire process.

When implantation is successful, hormonal changes halt the normal menstrual cycle and cause a
whole host of physical changes. For some people, activities they previously enjoyed such as
smoking and drinking alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of nature’s way
of protecting the growing life inside them.
Embryonic Stage of Prenatal Development

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week
after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes
distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the
brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop
into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to
form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the
neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.

Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once
this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center.3 The tube begins to close and brain
vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the
structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and
mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds
that will form the arms and legs appear.

Foetal stage of prenatal development

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes
known as a foetus. The foetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the
brain . this period of development begins during the ninth week and last until birth. The stage is
marked by amazing change and growth.

The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop.
The neutral tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neutrons continue to form. Once
these neutrons continue to form. Once these neutrons have formed, they begin to migrate to their
correct locations. Synapses, or the connections between neutrons, also begin to develop.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The
foetus begins to make reflexive motion with its arms and legs.
During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the
month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weights around three ounces.
The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical
growth occurs in the later stages of the pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the
second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body
systems become further developed. Fingernails hair, eyelashes and toenails form. Perhaps most
noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

So what’s going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal development? The
brain and central nervous system also becomes more responsive during the second trimester.
Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of
a sleeping new-born.

During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight,
and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the
muscles for breathing.

As you consider some to the features (height, weight, personality, being diabetic etc.) ask
yourself whether these features are as a result of hereditary and environmental factors or both
chances are, you can see the ways in which both hereditary and environmental factors (such as
lifestyle, diet and so on) have contributed to these features. for decades, scholars have carried on
the ‘nature/nurture’ debate. For any particular feature, those on the ‘nature’ side would argue that
hereditary pays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Most scholars agree that
there us a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single
behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture and most scholars believe that even determining
the extent to which nature or nurture impact a human feature is difficult to answer. In fact,
almost all human features are polygenic (a result of many genes) and multifactorial (a result of
many factors, both genetic and environmental) its as if one’s genetic make-up sets up a range of
possibilities which may not be realized depending upon one’s environmental experiences. For
instance a person might be genetically predisposed to develop diabetes, but the person’s lifestyle
may help bring about the disease.
A human fetus

During the 4th – 6th months, the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing develops. The
respiratory system continues to develop, and reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and
hiccupping, develop during the 5th month. Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are present at this
time as well. The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability is
reached at about 24 weeks (Morgan, Goldenberg, & Schulkin, 2008). Many practitioners hesitate
to resuscitate before 24 weeks. The majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24
weeks, although they are still rudimentary, and the glial or nurse cells that support neurons
continue to grow. At 24 weeks the fetus can feel pain (Royal College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists, 1997).

Between the 7th – 9th months, the fetus is primarily preparing for birth. It is exercising its
muscles and its lungs begin to expand and contract. The fetus gains about 5 pounds and 7 inches
during this last trimester of pregnancy, and during the 8th month a layer of fat develops under the
skin. This layer of fat serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body temperature after
birth.

At around 36 weeks the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about
18.5 inches long. By week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could
survive outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth.
The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then the
fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent. The progression through
the stages is shown in the following figure.

The growth of a fetus is shown in nine pictures showing the stages of development.

Factors influencing prenatal growth and development

1) Abnormal genes and chromosomes- this is defect that affects babies with effect that range
from abnomalies that may lead to sudden death. In example’
a) Genetic abnormalities. This result from nutrition’s that are a change in the chemical
structure that are a change in the chemical structure in the arrangements of one or
 more genes that has the effect of producing a new phenotype. This may result to some
conditions
I. Crystic fibrosis- this is a condition whereby the child locks an embryo that
prevents much from obstructing the lungs and the digestive system
Many who inherit in this die on childhood or adolescence?
II. Muscular drystontry (MD) affects the muscles as the disease progresses, the
victims becomes unable to walk, slurred speech and may gradually lose most
of motor capabilities
III. Phenylketonuria (plea) the child lacks an enzyme to digest foods that contains
amino acids phenylalanine and if not treated the acid spreads and attacks
developing nervous system
IV. Diabetes- inherited condition in which the individual is unable to metabolize
sugar properly because it does not produce insulin. It can be controlled by
taking insulin in diet.
V. Haemophilia bleeders disease- this is a condition in which the child lacks the
substance that causes clothing in blood and could bleed to death in cut.
VI. Tay sacks- this is a disease that kills victims at the third birthday
b) Chromosal abnormalities- this is a process that occurs during the process of cell
division after conception e.g. meiosis and mitosis. This process may result to;
I. Turners syndrome- XO- the person is short and is female, mentally retarded and sterile
II. Klinifelter’s syndrome- XXY male with male external organs but with female contours
Also sterile
III. Darkness syndrome- 21st chromosome does not separate hence the zygote ends up having
21 chromosomes. The child is mentally retarded and may have congenital eyes, ear and
heart defects

Chronic maternal illness condition that occurs due to maternal infection toxins exposure and
nutritional deficiencies

Prematurity- the baby is born before maturity

Low birth weight due to infection exposure during pregnancy period or at time of birth