Summery: What Is Entropy?

General Chemistry 13th December 2021
Summery
What is Entropy?
Entropy is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical
property that is most commonly associated with a state of
randomness or disorder.
SI unit: joules per kelvin (J⋅K−1)
kg⋅m2
In SI base units: or (kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅K−1)
" # .%
Dr. Reem Alrawi 2

What is Entropy?
Dr. Reem Alrawi 3

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures:

An Atomic Overview
(Chapter 2)
Dr. Reem Alrawi 4

What is Heterogeneous and Homogeneous?
Heterogeneous
Dr. Reem Alrawi 5

What is Heterogeneous and Homogeneous?
Homogeneous
■ Matter can be classified into three types based on its

composition—elements, compounds, and mixtures.
■ Elements and compounds are the two kinds of
substances: a substance is a matter whose composition is
fixed.
■ Mixtures are not substances because they have a variable
composition.
Dr. Reem Alrawi 6

1.Elements. An element is the simplest type of matter with

unique physical and chemical properties. It consists of only
one kind of atom and, therefore, cannot be broken down
into a simpler type of matter by any physical or chemical
methods. Each element has a name, such as silicon Si,
oxygen O2, or copper Cu. A sample of silicon contains only
silicon atoms. Each element is unique because the
properties of its atoms are unique.
Several elements occur in molecular form: a molecule is an

independent structure of two or more atoms bound
together (Figure B). Oxygen, for example, occurs in air as
diatomic (two-atom) molecules.
2. Compounds. A compound consists of two or more

different elements that are bonded chemically (Figure
C). Many compounds, such as ammonia NH3, water
H2O, and carbon dioxide CO2, consist of molecules.
One defining feature is that the elements are present in

fixed parts by mass (fixed mass ratio). This is so
because each unit of the compound consists of a fixed
number of atoms of each element.
1 N atom has 14 times the mass of 1 H atom (this is
known as mass number). Each ammonia molecule
consists of 1 N atom and 3 H atoms.
Dr. Reem Alrawi 7

ØAnother defining feature of a compound is that its properties

are different from the properties of its component elements
as shown in the Table below.
ØUnlike an element, a compound can be broken down into

simpler substances its component elements. By definition,
this breakdown is a chemical change, not a physical one.
Table shows some properties of Sodium, Chlorine and Sodium Chloride
3. Mixtures. A mixture consists of two or more substances

(elements and/or compounds) that are physically intermingled.
Because a mixture is not a substance, in contrast to a
compound, the components of a mixture can vary in their parts
by mass.
■ It makes sense, then, that a mixture retains many of the
properties of its components. Saltwater, for instance, is
colorless like water and tastes salty like sodium chloride.
■ Unlike compounds, mixtures can be separated into their
components by physical changes; chemical changes are not
needed. For example, the water in saltwater can be boiled
off, a physical process that leaves behind solid sodium
chloride.
Dr. Reem Alrawi 8

Distinguishing Elements, Compounds and Mixture at the Atomic

Scale
Distinguishing Elements, Compounds and Mixture at the Atomic

Scale
Dr. Reem Alrawi 9

Hilum
Dr. Reem Alrawi 10

Dr. Reem Alrawi 11

General Chemistry _GC 22th Nov. 2020
Dimensions and Units

By Chemical State
The SI Base Units

In principle, any physical quantity can be expressed in terms of only
seven base units called International System of Units (SI)
by Dr. Reem Alarwi 3

Properties of Matter
Dictionary definitions of
chemistry usually include the
terms matter, composition, and
properties, as in the statement
that “chemistry is the science
that deals with the composition
and properties of matter.”
The Properties of Matter

■ Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass and inertia such as air,
glass, planets, students … etc
“Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its velocity. This
includes changes to the object's speed, or direction of motion”.
■ Chemists want to know the composition of matter, the types and amounts of
simpler substances that make it up. A substance is a type of matter that has a
defined, fixed composition.
■ Properties, the characteristics that give each substance its unique identity.
There are two types of properties: Physical and Chemical properties.

Organizational breakdown of chemical and physical properties of matter.
Physical Properties
■ Physical properties can be observed or measured
without changing the composition of matter.
■ Physical properties of materials and systems are

often described as intensive and extensive properties.
■ These properties include melting point, electrical

conductivity, density, hardness and ability to flow.
■ A physical change occurs when a substance changes

its physical properties, not its composition.
§ Physical change
(same substance before and after):
Water (solid form) à Water (liquid form)

Other Physical Properties of Matter includes

GENERAL
CHEMISTRY
LECTURE NO. 2
By
Dr. Reem Abdul Hakim Alrawi
PhD & MSc in Environmental Engineering
BSc in Chemical Engineering
Chemical properties
■ Chemical properties are characteristics a substance
shows as it changes into or interacts with another
substance.
■ Chemical properties include flammability, corrosiveness

(for example Iron combines with oxygen in the presence
of water to form rust), and reactivity with acids.
■ A chemical change, also called a chemical reaction,

occurs when a substance (or substances) is converted
into a different substance (or substances).
■ Chemical change
(different substances before and after):
Electric Current decompose water into Hydrogen &
Oxygen:
2H2O à2H2 + O2


The States of Matter

Matter occurs commonly in three physical forms called
states: solid, liquid, and gas. We’ll define the states and
see how temperature can change them.
■ A solid has a fixed shape that does not conform to the

container shape. Solids are not defined by rigidity or
hardness: solid iron is rigid and hard, but solid lead is
flexible, and solid wax is soft.
■ A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to the

container shape, a liquid has an upper surface.
■ A gas also has a varying shape that conforms to the

container shape, but it fills the entire container and,
thus, does not have a surface.
On the atomic scale, each state is defined by the relative

positions of its particles
■ In a solid, the particles lie next to each other in a regular, three-dimensional array.
■ In a liquid, the particles also lie close together but move randomly around each
other.
■ In a gas, the particles have large distances between them and move randomly
throughout the container.

The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter

■ Physical and chemical changes are accompanied by energy changes.
■ Energy is often defined as the ability to do work.
■ The total energy an object possesses is the sum of its potential energy and its kinetic
energy.
■ Potential energy is the energy due to the position of the object relative to other objects.
■ Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of the object.
Figure Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The dashed horizontal lines indicate the
potential energy of each system before and after the change.

Potential Energy
PE= mgh
Where:
PE= Energy in Joules (J) à 1J= ((Kg. m2)/s2)

m= mass in (Kg)
g= acceleration gravity (9.8 m/s2)
h= height above surface in (m)
Example:
A 250 kg rock falls from a cliff and lands 40 meters below. Where was
the maximum PE for the rock?
Answer
PE=9.8 X 104 J

Kinetic Energy
$
!" = & '%
%
Where
■ KE= Kinetics energy in (J)
■ m= mass in (Kg)
■ v= velocity in (m/s)
Example:
A 45.0 kg skater is skating down a hill on roller blades at a speed

of 10.0 m/s. What is the kinetic energy of the skater?
Amswer
KE= 2.25 X 103J

Assignment No.1
What are the properties

of burning a candle?

General Chemistry 29th Nov. 2021
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY
LECTURE NO.3
(2021-2022)
By
Problem Decide whether each of the following processes is primarily a

physical or a chemical change, and explain briefly:
a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.
b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.
c) A match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases.
d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.
e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.
Plan To decide whether a change is chemical or physical, we ask, “Does the substance change
composition or just change form?”
Solution
by Dr. Reem Alrawi 1

Chemical Problem Solving
Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations

■ All measured quantities consist of a number and a unit: a person’s height is “5 feet, 10 inches,”
not “5, 10.” Ratios of quantities have ratios of units, such as miles/hour. To minimize errors,
make it a habit to include units in all calculations.
■ The arithmetic operations used with quantities are the same as those used with pure numbers;
that is, units can be multiplied, divided, and canceled:
– A carpet measuring 3 feet by 4 feet (ft) has an area of

Area = 4ft × 3 ft = (3 × 4) (ft ×ft) = 12 ft2
– A car traveling 350 miles (mi) in 7 hours (h) has a speed of

'() *+ () *+
"#$$% = = (often written 50 mi.h-1)
,- .-
– In 3 hours, the car travels 50 mi.h-1 , a distance of

50 :0
/012345$ = 3 ℎ× = 150 :0
1ℎ

Constructing a Conversion Factor

Conversion factors ratios used to express a quantity in different units.
Example: Suppose we want to know the distance of that 150-mile car trip in feet?
• To convert miles to feet, we use equivalent quantities,
1 mi = 5280 ft and 1m = 3.28084 ft ≃ 3.3ft
• To convert the distance from miles to feet, we choose the conversion factor with
miles in the denominator, because it cancels miles and gives the answer in feet:
5280 *%
"#$%&'() *% = 150 /# × = 792,000 *%
1 /#
Choosing the Correct Conversion Factor

Most importantly, the conversion factor you choose must cancel all units except those you want in the
answer. Therefore, set the unit you are converting from (beginning unit) in the opposite position in the
conversion factor (numerator or denominator) so that it cancels and you are left with the unit you are
converting to ( final unit):
)*+,- .+*/ )/
!"#$%%$%# &%$' × = 4$%56 &%$' as in 7$ × = 4'
012*++*+2 .+*/ 8*
Or, in cases that involve units raised to a power:

)*+,- .+*/; 8* ;
(!"#$%%$%# &%$' ×!"#$%%$%# &%$') = 4$%56 &%$'2 as in (4'×4') = 7$2
012*++*+2 .+*/; )/;
Or, in cases that involve a ratio of units:

012*++*+2 .+*/ )*+,- .+*/; )*+,- .+*/; 8* )/ )/
× = as in × =
)*+,- .+*/= 012*++*+2 .+*/ )*+,- .+*/= > 8* >

Converting Between Unit Systems

We use the same procedure to convert between systems of units
■ Suppose we know that the height of Angel Falls in Venezuela (the world’s highest) is 3,212 ft, and
we find its height in miles as (1 mi = 5280 ft )
. /0
!"#$ℎ& '# = 3212 ,&× = 0.6083 '# <=à >?
1,345 67
■ Now, we want its height in kilometers (km). The equivalent quantities are
1.609 km = 1 mi
■ Because we are converting from miles to kilometers, we use the conversion factor with miles in
the denominator in order to cancel miles:
..A5B C/
■ !"#$ℎ& @' = 0.6083 '# × = 0.9788 @' mià km
. /0
■ If we want the height of Angel Falls in meters (m), we use the equivalent quantities
1 km = 1000 m to construct the conversion factor:
1000 '
!"#$ℎ& ' = 0.9788 .' × = 978.8 '
1 .'
km à m
■ In longer calculations, we often string together several conversion steps:

1 '# 1.609 .' 1000 '
!"#$ℎ& ' = 32123& × × × = 978.8 '
5280 3& 1 '# 1 .'
ft à1 mi à 1 km à1 m

Measurement In Scientific Study

General Features of SI Units (International System of Units )
■ The SI system is based on seven fundamental units, or base units, each
identified with a physical quantity (Table SI units).
■ All other units are derived units, combinations of the seven base units. For
example, the derived unit for speed, meters per second (m/s), is the base
unit for length (m) divided by the base unit for time (s).
Common Decimal Prefixes Used with SI Units

Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry

1. Length The SI base unit of length is the meter (m)
2. Volume Any sample of matter has a certain volume (V), the amount of space it occupies. The SI unit of
volume is the cubic meter (m3). In chemistry, we often use the non-SI units liter (L) and milliliter
(mL).
• Medical practitioners measure body fluids in cubic decimeters (dm3), which are equivalent to liters:
• 1L = 1dm3 = 10-3 m3
!
And 1 mL, or of a liter, is equivalent to 1 cubic centimeter (cm3):
!"""
• 1mL = 1cm3 = 10-3 dm3 = 10-3 L = 10-6 m3

Problem The volume of an irregularly shaped solid can be determined from

the volume of water it displaces. A graduated cylinder contains 19.9 mL of
water. When a small piece of galena, an ore of lead, is added, it sinks and
the volume increases to 24.5 mL. What is the volume of the piece of galena
in cm3 and in L?
Plan We have to find the volume of the galena from

the change in volume of the cylinder contents. The
volume of galena in mL is the difference before
(19.9 mL) and after (24.5 mL) adding it. Since mL
and cm3 represent identical volumes, the volume in
mL equals the volume in cm3. We then use
equivalent quantities (1 mL = 10-3L) to convert mL
to L. The road map shows these steps.
Graduated Cylinder


3. Mass The quantity of matter an object contains is its mass. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
The terms mass and weight have distinct (different) meanings:
■ Mass is constant because an object’s quantity of matter cannot change.
■ Weight is variable because it depends on the local gravitational field.
Ø The units of mass are “gram,” “microgram” and “kilogram”; thus, we say “milligram”, never
“microkilogram.”
Ø The S.I. unit of weight is ”Newton” since weight is the reaction force of an object due to gravity.
Ø 1 N =1 kg⋅m/s2
What are the difference between the weight and

mass of an object?

Converting Units of Mass

Problem 2. Many international computer communications are carried
by optical fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of
optical fiber weighs 1.19 X 103 lb/m, what is the mass (in kg) of a
cable made of six strands of optical fiber, each long enough to link New
York and Paris (8.84 X 103 km)?
Plan We have to find the mass of cable (in kg) from the given
mass/length of fiber (1.19 X 103 lb/m), number of fibers/cable (6), and
length of cable (8.84 X 103 km). Let’s first find the mass of one fiber
and then the mass of cable. As shown in the road map, we convert the
length of one fiber from km to m and then find its mass (in lb) by
converting m to lb. Then we multiply the fiber mass by 6 to get the
cable mass, and finally convert lb to kg.
Optical Fibers In Cables Laid Along The Ocean Floor.
Fiber-optic strands bundled together

in a protective outer cover

Assignment: Converting Units of Length

General Chemistry 1st Dec. 2021
Problem 3. A furniture factory needs 31.5 ft2 of fabric to

upholster one chair. Its Dutch supplier sends the fabric
exactly 200 m2/ bolts. How many chairs can be upholstered
with 3 bolts of fabric (1 m = 3.281 ft)?
Problem 3. A furniture factory needs

31.5 ft2 of fabric to upholster one
chair. Its Dutch supplier sends the
fabric exactly 200 m2/ bolts. How
many chairs can be upholstered with
3 bolts of fabric (1 m = 3.281 ft)?

General Chemistry 1st Dec. 2021
Aassignment: Converting Units of Length

To hang some painting in your room.
You need 325 cm of picture wire that
sells for $0.15/ft. How much does the
wire cost?

General Chemistry 6th Dec. 2021
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY
LECTURE NO.5
(2021-2022)
By
Extensive and Intensive Properties


■ Some variables are dependent on the amount of substance present; these are
called extensive properties.

■ On the other hand, intensive properties are independent of the amount of
substance like density, color, boiling point …etc. are intensive property.

■ Another important example concerns heat, an extensive property, and

temperature, an intensive property: a vat of boiling water has more heat, that is,
more energy, than a cup of boiling water, but both samples have the same
temperature.
Example 1

Answer of Example 1
Answer of Example 1

Example 2
Answer of Example 2

Example 3
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry

4. Density (!) – “ro”

■ The density of a substance is an intensive property that is defined as the ratio of
its mass (m) to its volume (V).
,-&&
#$%&'(), ! =
./01,$
■ The SI unit of density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3), but in chemistry,
density has units of g/L (g/dm3) or g/mL (g/cm3)
■ We isolate each of these variables by treating density as a conversion factor:

,-&&
■ 2-&& = ./01,$ × 4$%&'() = ./01,$ × ./01,$
6 ./01,$
■ 5/01,$ = ,-&& × = ,-&& ×
4$%&'() ,-&&
4. Density (!) – “ro”

,-&&
#$%&'(), ! = ./01,$
■ Because volume can change with temperature, so can density. But, at a given
temperature and pressure, the density of a substance is a characteristic physical
property and, thus, has a specific value.
■ Note that the densities of gases are much lower than those of liquids or solids

Calculating Density from Mass and Volume

Problem Lithium, a soft, gray solid with the lowest
density of any metal, is a key component of advanced
batteries, such as the one in your laptop. A slab of
lithium weighs 1.49 X103 mg and has sides that are
20.9 mm by 11.1 mm by 11.9 mm. Find the density of
lithium in g/cm3.
Plan
• To find the density in g/cm3, we need the mass of lithium
in (g) and the volume in (cm3).
• The mass is 1.49 X 103 mg, so we convert mg to g.
• We convert the lengths of the three sides from mm to
cm, and then multiply them to find the volume in cm .
• Dividing the mass by the volume gives the density (see
the road map).

5. Temperature
There is a key distinction between temperature and heat:

■ Temperature (T) is an intensive property .
■ Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold one object is relative to another.
■ Heat is an extensive property.
■ Heat is the energy that flows from the object with the higher temperature to
the object with the lower temperature. When you hold an ice cube, it feels like
the “cold” flows into your hand, but actually, heat flows from your hand to the
ice.
■ We’ll consider three temperature scales: the Celsius (oC), formerly called
centigrade; the Kelvin (K), which is preferred in scientific work (although the
Celsius scale is still used frequently); and the Fahrenheit (oF) scales.
■ The SI base unit of temperature is the kelvin (K, with no degree sign, ).
Figure 1.6 Freezing and boiling points of water in the Celsius, Kelvin (absolute), and
Fahrenheit scales. At the bottom of the figure, a portion of each of the three thermometer scales is
expanded to show the sizes of the units.

■ We convert between the Celsius and Kelvin scales by remembering the

different zero points: 0 C = 273.15 K, so
■ T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15
■ T (oC) = T(K) - 273.15
■ To convert a temperature from oC to oF, first change the degree size and
then adjust the zero point:
&
■ ! "# = [ '
×! ") ] + ,-
'
■ ! (")) = ! "# − ,- ×(&)
Problem
A child has a body temperature of 38.7 o C, and normal body
temperature is 98.6 oF.
Does the child have a fever?
What is the child’s temperature in kelvins?

Problem
A child has a body temperature of
38.7 o C, and normal body
temperature is 98.6 oF.
Does the child have a fever?
What is the child’s temperature in
kelvins?
6. Time
The SI base unit of time is the second (s), which

is now based on an atomic standard.
Chemists now use lasers to measure the speed

of extremely fast reactions that occur in a few
picoseconds (10 -12 s) or femtoseconds (10 -15 s).

Summery: What Is Entropy?

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General Chemistry 13th December 2021

SI unit: joules per kelvin (J⋅K−1)

Dr. Reem Alrawi 2

Dr. Reem Alrawi 3

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures:

Dr. Reem Alrawi 4

What is Heterogeneous and Homogeneous?

Dr. Reem Alrawi 5

What is Heterogeneous and Homogeneous?

■ Matter can be classified into three types based on its

Dr. Reem Alrawi 6

1.Elements. An element is the simplest type of matter with

Several elements occur in molecular form: a molecule is an

2. Compounds. A compound consists of two or more

One defining feature is that the elements are present in

Dr. Reem Alrawi 7

ØAnother defining feature of a compound is that its properties

ØUnlike an element, a compound can be broken down into

3. Mixtures. A mixture consists of two or more substances

Dr. Reem Alrawi 8

Distinguishing Elements, Compounds and Mixture at the Atomic

Distinguishing Elements, Compounds and Mixture at the Atomic

Dr. Reem Alrawi 9

Dr. Reem Alrawi 10

Dr. Reem Alrawi 11

Dimensions and Units

The SI Base Units

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 3

The Properties of Matter

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 4

Organizational breakdown of chemical and physical properties of matter.

■ Physical properties of materials and systems are

■ These properties include melting point, electrical

■ A physical change occurs when a substance changes

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 5

Other Physical Properties of Matter includes

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 6

■ Chemical properties include flammability, corrosiveness

■ A chemical change, also called a chemical reaction,

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 1

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 2

The States of Matter

■ A solid has a fixed shape that does not conform to the

■ A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to the

■ A gas also has a varying shape that conforms to the

On the atomic scale, each state is defined by the relative

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 3

The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter

■ Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of the object.

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 4

PE= Energy in Joules (J) à 1J= ((Kg. m2)/s2)

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 5

A 45.0 kg skater is skating down a hill on roller blades at a speed

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 6

What are the properties

by Dr. Reem Alarwi 7

Problem Decide whether each of the following processes is primarily a

by Dr. Reem Alrawi 1

Chemical Problem Solving

Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations

– A carpet measuring 3 feet by 4 feet (ft) has an area of

– A car traveling 350 miles (mi) in 7 hours (h) has a speed of

– In 3 hours, the car travels 50 mi.h-1 , a distance of