4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

1
Duhok Polytechnique University-Petrochemical Department
2018 / 2019
Material Science
Lecture 02: Elements; Compounds; Mixtures; Alloys
Lecturer: Dr Farhad M. Ali

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Atoms and Elements

Elements are made up of atoms, the smallest particle that has any of the properties of the
element.

2
An element is a substance that is made entirely from one type of atom.

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that has the properties of an element. It is composed
of a dense core called the nucleus and a series of outer shells occupied by orbiting electrons.
The nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, is at the center of an atom

John Dalton, in 1803, proposed a modern theory of the atom based on the following
assumptions.

1. Matter is made up of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible.

2. All atoms of an element are identical.
3. Atoms of different elements have different weights and different chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole numbers to form compounds.
5. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. When a compound decomposes, the atoms are
recovered unchanged.

Compounds:

A pure substance consisting of 2 or more elements chemically combined, in a definite

composition that can be broken down into a simpler substance, using chemical methods.

Chemical methods of separations such as: Electrolysis, REDOX reactions, and Catalysis.

Elements combine to form chemical compounds that are often divided into two categories.

1- Ionic compounds: Metals often react with non-metals to form ionic compounds.
These compounds are composed of positive and negative ions formed by adding or
subtracting electrons from neutral atoms and molecules.

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Na → Na+ + e sodium atom gained one electron

Cl2 + 2e → 2 Cl- one chlorine atom lost one electron

Ionic equation: Na+ + Cl- → NaCl this is Ionic compound

3
 Properties of Ionic Compounds:
 Ionic bond is very strong
 Are solids at room temperature
 Have high melting and boiling points
 Made of a metal and non-metal
 Does not conduct electricity in solid state, but does in the liquid states

2- Covalent compounds:

Non-metals combine with each other to form covalent compounds, which exist as neutral
molecules.

Simple Covalent Compounds:

Include small molecules that are covalently bonded like methane, carbon dioxide, water, and
hydrogen.

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

4
Some important properties of covalent compounds:
 They exist in all three forms; as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature
 Neither pure covalent compounds nor dissolved forms in water do not conduct
electricity. Therefore, covalent compounds are poor electrical conductors in all phases.
 Most of the covalent compounds are soluble in non-polar solvents, but not in water.
 Generally, they are softer than ionic solids.
 Low melting and boiling points

Formulas

A molecule is the smallest particle that has any of the properties of a compound. The
formula for a molecule must be neutral. When writing the formula for an ionic compound, the
charges on the ions must balance, the number of positive charges must equal the number of
negative charges.

Examples:

Balanced formula has 2 positive charges (1 calcium ion with +2 charge) and 2
CaCl2
negative charges (2 chloride ions with a -1 charge)

Balanced formula has 6 positive charges (2 aluminium ions with a +3 charge) and 6
Al2(SO4)3
negative charges (3 sulphate ions with -2 charge)

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Mixtures Vs. Compounds

The law of constant composition states that the ratio by mass of the elements in a chemical
compound is always the same, regardless of the source of the compound. The law of constant

5
composition can be used to distinguish between compounds and mixtures of
elements: Compounds have a constant composition; mixtures do not. Water is always
88.8% O and 11.2% H by weight regardless of its source. Brass is an example of a mixture
of two elements: copper and zinc. It can contain as little as 10%, or as much as 45%, zinc.

Another difference between compounds and mixtures of elements is the ease with which the
elements can be separated. Mixtures, such as the atmosphere, contain two or more
substances that are relatively easy to separate.

The individual components of a mixture can be physically separated from each other.

Chemical compounds are very different from mixtures: The elements in a chemical compound
can only be separated by destroying the compound.

There are important differences between the properties of a mixture and a compound:

Mixture Compound

Constant composition - water always

Variable composition - the relative
contains the same ratio of hydrogen to
Composition amounts of the two gases can be
oxygen. This ratio is shown in the
changed.
chemical formula of the compound - H2O.

The hydrogen and oxygen have joined

The hydrogen and oxygen are not
Joined or not? together to form the new substance
joined together.
water.

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Keeps the properties of the Properties are different from those of the
Properties substances involved. This mixture elements it contains. This compound is a
is in the gas state. liquid.

6
The substances in the mixture can Cannot be separated but can be obtained
Separation
be separated. by using chemical reactions.

Distinguishing between pure substances and mixtures

 Pure substances have a sharp melting point, but mixtures melt over a range of
temperatures.
 This difference is most easily seen when the temperature of a hot liquid is measured
as it cools and freezes.

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

7
The horizontal part of the graph shows that the salol has a sharp melting point, so it is pure.
Impure salol (a mixture of salol and other substances) would produce a gradual decrease
over a range of temperatures as it freezes.

Alloys (Solid Solutions); mixtures

An alloy is defined as a combination (mixture) of two or more elements, of which one of the
elements should be a metal in major proportion. The others could be metals or non-metals.

Examples: Brass (CU-Zn); Steel (Fe-C); Solder (Pb-Sn); Bronze (Cu-Sn)

What we mean by solid solution?

 Solid solution formed as a result of adding of impurity atoms to a metal (carbon to iron
for example)
 It is an alloy in which one element is dissolved in another to form a single-phase
structure without changing the crystal structures and no new structure are formed

There are two types of solid solutions:

 Substitutional Solid Solution  Interstitial Solid Solution

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019
4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

8
Comparing properties of alloys and pure metals

Alloys find very wide application in the industry than pure metals. Some important uses of
pure metals are: (these properties are generally at maximum value in pure metals)

• High electrical conductivity

• High ductility
• Corrosion resistance are required
Many pure metals are too soft for many uses. They can be made harder by adding another
element to the pure metal, so forming an alloy. This explains why an alloy often has more
uses than the pure elements it is made from.

Pure iron, for example, is very soft. Adding a small amount of tungsten to iron makes tool
steel, which is harder than pure iron. Steels are examples of alloys. There are many types of
steel.

Steel Elements Properties

Mild steel Carbon and iron Easy to bend and pull into wires

Tool steel Tungsten and iron Hard, can be heated to high temperatures

Stainless steel Chromium and iron Hard, does not rust easily

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Explaining alloy hardness

In the solid state, a pure metal has a giant metallic structure. The atoms are arranged in
layers. When a force is applied, the layers may slide over each other. The greater the force

9
needed, the harder and stronger the metal.

In a pure metal, the force needed to make the layers slide over each other is small. This
explains why many pure metals are soft.

In an alloy, there are atoms of different sizes. The smaller or bigger atoms distort the layers
of atoms in the pure metal. This means that a greater force is required for the layers to slide
over each other. The alloy is harder and stronger than the pure metal

Differences between metals and alloys:

Metal Alloy
▪ Made up of only one element ▪ Is a mixture of metals, or metal and non-
metal
▪ High ductility ▪ Low ductility
 Lack of mechanical properties (tensile ▪ Superior mechanical properties
strength, yield strength, hardness)
Tensile strength: the resistance of a material to
breaking under tension.

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Yield strength: the stress at which

a material begins to deform plastically.
Hardness: Resistance of a material to
deformation, penetration by means such as

10
abrasion, drilling, impact, scratching
 Lack of strength ▪ High strength
 Low melting point ▪ High melting point
 More malleable than alloys ▪ Less malleable than pure metals
Malleable means can be hammered into sheets
 Examples: cupper; zinc, iron ▪ Examples: Brass (70% Cu + 30% Zn; it is
substitutional alloy); Steel (Fe + C; made by
combining carbon steel with one or several
alloying elements, such as manganese,
silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium
and aluminum.)
Solder: 50% Pb + 50% Sn
Question: Pure metals have many useful properties but are not widely used. Why?
Answer: They are often too soft and have a low resistance to corrosion.

Why we make alloys?

There are some reasons for why we use alloys instead of metals:

i. To improve the strength and harness of metals.

ii. To improve the resistance of metals against corrosion or rusting.
iii. To improve the appearance of the metal.
iv. To improve the melting point.

Question: The physical properties of alloys are different from those of the elements they
contain. Give two examples to illustrate the statement

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Answer: Explanation:
▪ Alloys are usually desighned to have properties that are more desirable than those of
the elements they contain

11
▪ Properties such as strength and corrosion resistance may be considerably greater for
an alloy than those of the elements they contain.
▪ As a result, alloys are more widely used than pure metals
Solution: steel is stronger than iron, one of its main elements.
Brass is more durable than cupper, but more attractive than zinc.

Question: Explain why an alloy is less malleable than the pure metal. (Hint: malleable: can
be beaten into thin sheets without breaking)

Answer:
Pure metals are rarely used in manufacturing because they are too soft. ... This makes
the alloy harder and less malleable and ductile than the pure metal (in which the layers
slip over each other more easily). Adding smaller atoms. Smaller sized atoms can also have
a significant effect on the alloy structure.

Pure metal Alloy

Pure metals are soft and easily bent (malleable) because
layers of atoms (of the same size) can slide over each
other easily.
This sliding movement of atoms is a slip.
Alloys are strong and hard, not
easily bent. Layers of atoms cannot
slide over each other easily as
foreign atoms are of different sizes
and disrupt the orderly
arrangement of metal atoms

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

Types of Alloys and their Composition

The alloys are made from various elements to increase the tensile strength and hardness
to improve the matters performance. In general, there are two types of alloys:

12
1. The substitutional solid solutions are those in which the solute and solvent atoms
are nearly the same size and the solute atoms simply substitute for solvent atoms on the
crystalline lattice. The main categories of alloys are bearing alloys, corrosion resistance
types, stainless steel super austenitic alloys and corrosion resistance high resistance alloys.

Hume-Rothery Rules – Substitutional Solutions

Rules to describe how an element might dissolve in a metal.
Stable composition in equilibrium (thermodynamics) Metals – Ni/Cu, Pd/Sn, Ag/Au, Mo/W
i. The solute and solvent should be of a similar size. (<15% difference)
ii. The crystal structures must match. (the crystal structures for metals of both atoms
must be the same)
iii. Both solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity
iv. The valence of the solvent and solute metals should be similar.

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

2. Interstitial solutions made up of solids are basically the ones in which the atoms of
the solute are much smaller and fit within the space between the atoms solvents which are
already present on the crystalline structure.

13
Interstitial solid solutions usually have a limited composition range and are considered of
secondary importance, but there are a few instances worthy of special attention.

Example: carbon in iron; a maximum of 2.8% of carbon can dissolve interstitially in iron (Fe
radius: 0.129 nm; C radius: 0.075 nm; notice that the Fe is the solvent and C is the solute).
The interstitial solution of carbon in iron constituents the basis of steels hardening. Very small
amount of hydrogen introduced during acid pickling (cleaning), plating, or welding operations
causes a sharp decrease in ductility, known as hydrogen embrittlement.
Hume-Rothery Rules – Interstitial Solution
Rules to describe how an element might dissolve in a metal.
Stable composition in equilibrium (thermodynamics)
The solubility limit of solute in solvents depends on various factors. These were stated by
Hume-Rothery and as follows:

i. Critical structure factor (or) Crystal structure: Metals that have the same
crystal structure (Lattice structure) have a greater solubility.
ii. Relative atomic size factor (or) size factor:

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019

4th Year Stage Material Science-Lecture 02

• The solid solution will tend to form if the difference in size of solute and
solvent is less than 15%.
• If the difference is greater than 15%, formation of solid solution will be

14
limited.
• For good solid solubility, the difference should be less than 8%
• The atomic radii of the solute atom must be smaller than the atomic radius
for the solvent atom
iii. Chemical affinity factor (or) Electronegativity: formulation of solid solution is
favoured for metals that have less chemical affinity is more, then a compound is formed
instead of a solid solution.
iv. Relative valency factor (or) valence: A metal that has a higher valency will dissolve
only small amount of a lower valency metal, where as the metal with low valency will have
good solubility for the higher valency metal. The solvent atom must have more than one
valence
When two different metals or alloys are placed in intimate contact, atoms will slowly
begin to migrate across the interface. These diffusion of unlike species under the influence
of a chemical gradient is called chemical diffusion.

**************************

DR FARHAD M. ALI MATERIAL SCIENCE-LECTURE-02-2018-2019