M6 - Materials and Hardware

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 6 – Materials and Hardware
Module 6
Materials and Hardware
for
Basic Aircraft Maintenance
Manual No. : BCT-0011/M6 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant
i
FOREWORD
This training handbook “Material Hardware “is developed and prepared for Aircraft Maintenance Technician who will responsible to
perform maintenance task and activities in according with the specified requirements of the Aviation Regulations and to meet the Authority
requirements.
Base on the above mention, this hand book should be used only for training purposes and has been customized forAircraft Maintenance
Training Organizations.
It must not be used as a reference at any time. For any aircraft related tasks, the updated aircraft manuals should be consulted. Any
suggestion for improving the content of this handbook should be addressed to GMF AeroAsia Learning Services.
Airframe Powerplant
ii
TRAINING OBJECTIVE
The objective of this training are:
1. To provide the aircraft maintenance technician skill.
2. Improve skill and technique within environment of work.
3. Handling require that knowledge of saty equipment support.
4. Be able to perform aircraft maintenance activities with a specific aircraft and tools.
5. Understands a handle safety and precautions in area of responsibility.
Airframe Powerplant
iii
REFERENCES
The following references materials have been used for the development of this Training Handbook:
1. FAA – H 8083-30: AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIANS – GENERAL/ 2008
2. FAA– H 8083-31: AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIANS – AIRFRAME/2012
3. INTEGRATED TRAINING SYSTEM/MATERIAL AND HARDWARE – MODULE 6 (Part 66)
Airframe Powerplant
iv
Module 6 Chapters
1. Aircraft Materials – Ferrous
2. Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous
3. Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic
4. Corrosion
5. Fasteners
6. Pipes and Unions
7. Springs
8. Bearings
9. Transmissions
10. Control Cables
11. Electrical Cable and Connectors
Airframe Powerplant
v
Module 6
6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous
Airframe Powerplant
1
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.
Airframe Powerplant
2
Upon completion of this chapter, you will have a basic working knowledge of aircraft construction, structural stress, characteristics, properties and
identification of common materials used in aircraft.
Recognize and identify the properties of the various types of metallic and nonmetallic materials used in aircraft construction.
INTRODUCTION
One of the requirements of an Aircraft Maintenance Technicians is to be familiar with the various terms related to aircraft construction.
Aircraft maintenance is the primary responsibility of the Aircraft Maintenance Technician ratings. Therefore, you should be familiar with the
principal aircraft structural units and flight control systems of fixed and rotary-wing aircraft.
Each aircraft is built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must be selected in such a way that they can be built into
one machine. It is not possible for one aircraft to have all characteristics. The type and class of an aircraft determine how strong it will be
built. To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly powered and has a very strong structure.
The importance of aircraft hardware is oftenoverlooked because of the small size of most items.However, the safe and efficient operation of
any aircraftdepends upon the correct selection and use of aircrafthardware. The various types ofthreaded fasteners, quick-release fasteners,
rivets,electrical hardware, and other miscellaneous hardware.You must make sure that items of aircraft hardwareremain tightly secured in
the aircraft.
Therefore, wewill discuss proper safetying methods in this chapter.Aircraft hardware is identified for use by itsspecification number or trade
name. Threaded fastenersand rivets are identified by Air Force-Navy (AN),National Aircraft Standard (NAS), and MilitaryStandard (MS)
numbers. Quick-release fasteners areidentified by factory trade names and size designations.When aircraft hardware is ordered from supply,
thespecification numbers and the factory part numbers arechanged into stock numbers (SN). This change isidentified by using a part-
number cross-reference.
Airframe Powerplant
3
How is aircraft hardware identified for use?
An aircraft requires materials that must be both light and strong. Early aircraft were made of wood. Lightweight metal alloys with strength
greater than wood were developed and used on later aircraft. Materials currently used in aircraft construction maybe classified as either
metallic or nonmetallic.
Common Metallic Materials
The most common metals in aircraft construction are aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and their alloys. Aluminum alloy is widely used
in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because the alloy has a high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminum alloys are
corrosion-resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its lightweight.
Magnesium, the world’s lightest structural metal, is a silvery-white material weighing only two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is
used in the manufacture of helicopters. Magnesium’s low resistance to corrosion has limited its use in conventional aircraft.
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion-resistant metal. It was discovered years ago, but only recently has it been made suitable for use
in aircraft. Recent developments make titanium ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too heavy.
In addition, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.
An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest portion is called the base metal. All other metals
added to the alloy are called alloying elements. Alloying elements, in either small or large amounts, may result in a marked change in the
properties of the base metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively soft and weak. When small amounts of other elements such as
copper, manganese, and magnesium are added, aluminum’s strength is increased many times. An increase or a decrease in an alloy’s
strength and hardness may be achieved through heat treatment of the alloy. Alloys are of great importance to the aircraft industry. Alloys
provide materials with properties not possessed by a pure metal alone.
Alloy steels that are of much greater strength than those found in other fields of engineering have been developed. These steels contain
small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum. High-tensile steels will stand stresses of 50 to 150 tons per
Airframe Powerplant
4
square inch without failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires. Another type of steel that is used extensively is stainless steel.
This alloy resists corrosion and is particularly valuable for use in or near salt water.
Common Nonmetallic Materials
In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft construction. Transparent plastic is found in canopies,
windshields, and other transparent enclosures. Handle transparent plastic surfaces with care, because this material is relatively soft and
scratches easily. At approximately 225°F, transparent plastic becomes soft and very pliable.
Reinforced plastic is made for use in the construction of radomes, wing tips, stabilizer tips, antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced
plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew and rot. Its ease of fabrication makes it equally suitable for other parts
of the aircraft.
Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material. See figure 1.1. It is made up of two outer facings and a center layer. The facings are made up
of several layers of glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material (center layer) consists of a honeycomb structure made
of glass cloth. Reinforced plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell sizes.
High-performance aircraft require an extra high strength-to-weight ratio material. Fabrication of composite materials satisfies the special
requirement. This construction method uses several layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron epoxy). These materials are
mechanically fastened to conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction consists of thin graphite epoxy skins bonded
to an aluminum honeycomb core.
Airframe Powerplant
5
Figure 1.1 Reinforce Plastic
AIRCRAFT METALLIC MATERIALS – FERROUS MATERIALS
Identify properties, characteristic and identification of metallic materials used in aircraft construction
Metallurgists have been working for more than a half century improving metals for aircraft construction. Each metal has certain properties
and characteristics that make it desirable for a particular application, but it may have other qualities that are undesirable. For example, some
metals are hard, others comparatively soft; some are brittle, some lough; some can be formed and shaped without fracture; and some are so
heavy that weight alone makes them unsuitable for aircraft use.
The metallurgist’s objectives are to improve the desirable qualities and tone down or eliminate the undesirable ones. This is done by
alloying (combining) metals and by various heat-treating processes.
Airframe Powerplant
6
You do not have to be a metallurgist to be a good Aircraft Maintenance, but you should possess a knowledge and understanding of the
uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of aircraft structural metals. Such knowledge and understanding is vital to properly
construct and maintain any equipment, especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even as light deviation from design
specifications or the substitution of inferior materials may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitable materials can
readily erase the finest craftsmanship. The selection of the specific material for a specific repair job demands familiarity with the most
common properties of various metals.
Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of structural metals is vital to properly construct
and maintain any equipment, especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specification,or
the substitution of inferior materials, may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitable materials can readily erase the
finestcraftsmanship. The selection of the correct material for a specifc repair job demands familiarity with the most common physical
properties of various metals.
PROPERTIES MATERIALS
The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on sample pieces. The terminology, associated with these
properties, is outlined in the following paragraphs. Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are such general properties of metals and
their alloys as hardness, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, brittleness, fusibility, conductivity contraction and expansion,
and so forth. These terms are explained to establish a basis for further discussion of structural metals.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows little bending or deformation without shattering. The tendency of the metal to shatter
Airframe Powerplant
7
without significant deformation. It will shatter under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load.A brittle metal is apt to
break or crack without change of shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable
property. Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity)
and electricity. Silver and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors. The heat conductivity of a metal is especially important in
welding because it governs the amount of heat that will be required for proper fusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent,
determines the type of jig to be used to control expansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical con-ductivity must also be considered in
conjunction with bonding, to eliminate radio interference.
Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking. The
property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount
of stretch (elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metal's ductility. This property is essential for metals used in
making wire and tubing. Ductile metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure under
shock loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for cowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs,
spars, and bulkheads. Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed into desired shapes. Ductility is similar to malleability.
A ductile metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by tension before it fractures. While all ductile metals are malleable, it does not
mean that malleable metals are ductile. Some metals although soft, are also weak in tension and tear apart while being stretched. The
ductility of all metals increases as the temperature rises, because they are weaker at high temperatures.
Airframe Powerplant
8
Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original size and shape when the force which causes the change of shape is
removed. The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the removal of any distorting force. The 'Elastic Limit' is the
greatest force that can be applied without permanent distortion.
This property is extremely valuable because it would be highly undesirable to have a part permanently distorted after an applied load was
removed. Each metal has a point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded without causing permanent distortion. In
aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed that the maximum loads to which they are subjected will not stress them beyond
their elastic limits. This desirable property is present in spring steel.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or permanent distortion. Hardness may be
increased by cold working the metal and, in the case of steel and certain aluminum alloys, by heat treatment. The ability of a metal to resist
wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metal's surface. The diameter or depth of
the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metal's hardness. Structural parts are often formed from metals in their soft state and
are then heat treated to harden them so that the fnished shape will be retained. Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of
metals.
Malleability
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without cracking, breaking, or leaving some other detrimental
effect, is said to be malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings, fairings, or
wingtips. Copper is an example of a malleable metal.
Airframe Powerplant
9
The ease, with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming
processes, have to be subsequently relieved by heat treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool metal.
A malleable metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by compression before it shows signs of cracking. Malleable metals can be
rolled, forged or extruded, since these are all processes where the metal is shaped under pressure. Malleability usually increase with
temperature, so processes involving pressure are usually hot working processes i.e. they are carried out on heated pieces of metal.
Plasticity
The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed. Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.
Strength
One of the most important properties of a material is strength. Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is also the
ability of a material to resist stress without breaking. The type of load or stress on the material affects the strength it exhibits.
There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be seen from the following sub-paragraphs
Tensile Strength
The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.
Yield Strength
The ability to resist deformation, after the metal yields, it is said to have passed its yield point.
Shear Strength
The ability to resist side-cutting loads - such as those, imposed on the shank of a rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt to move apart
in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the rivet.
Airframe Powerplant
10
Bearing Strength
The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.
Toughness
The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metal's toughness is tested by impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass. A
material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking.
Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals.
Density
Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the specifiedweight of a material per cubic inch is preferred since this
figurecan be used in determining the weight of a part before actual manufacture. Density is an important consideration when choosing a
material to be used in the design of a part in order to maintain the proper weight and balance of the aircraft.
Fusibility
Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse around 2,600 °F and
aluminum alloys at approximately 1,100 °F.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansion that are reactions produced in metals as the result of heating or cooling. Heat
applied to a metal will cause it to expand or become larger. Cooling and heating affect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerances
Airframe Powerplant
11
necessary for hot rolled material.
QUALITIES OF METALS
The selection of proper materials is a primary consideration in the development of an airframe and in the proper maintenance and repair of
aircraft. Keeping in mind the general properties of metals, it is now possible to consider the specific requirements that metals must meet to
be suitable for aircraft purposes.
Strength, weight, and reliability determine the requirements to be met by any material used in airframe construction and repair. Airframes
must be strong and as light in weight as possible. There are very definite limits to which increases in strength can be accompanied by
increase in weight. An aircraft so heavy that it could not support more than a few hundred pounds of additional weight would be of little
use. All metals, in addition to having a good strength/weight ratio, must be thoroughly reliable, thus minimizing the possibility of
dangerous and unexpected failures. In addition to these general properties, the material selected for definite application must possess
specific qualities suitable for the purpose.
Strength
The material must possess the strength required by the demands of dimensions, weight, and use. There are six basic stresses that metals
may be required to withstand. These are tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion.
Weight
The relationship between the strength of a material and its weight per cubic inch, expressed as a ratio, is known as the strength/weight
ratio. This ratio forms the basis of comparing the desirability of various materials for use in airframe construction and repair.
Neither strength nor weight alone can be used as a means of true comparison. In some applications, such as the skin of monocoque
Airframe Powerplant
12
structures, thickness is more important than strength; and in this instance, the material with the lightest weight for a given thickness or
gauge is best. Thickness or bulk is necessary to prevent buckling or damage caused by careless handling.
Corrosive Properties
Corrosion is the eating away or pitting of the surface or the internal structure of metals. Because of the thin sections and the safety factors
used in aircraft design and construction, it would be dangerous to select a material subject to severe corrosion if it were not possible to
reduce or eliminate the hazard. Corrosion can be reduced or prevented by using better grades of base metals by coating the surfaces with a
thin coating of paint, tin, chromium, or cadmium or by an electrochemical process called “anodizing.”
Working Properties
Another significant factor to consider in the selection of metals for aircraft maintenance and repair is the ability of material to be formed,
bent, or machined to required shapes. The hardening of metals by cold-working or forming is called work hardening. If a piece of metal is
formed (shaped or bent) while cold, it is said to be cold-worked. Practically all the work you do on metal is cold-work. While this is
convenient, it causes the metal to become harder and more brittle.
If the metal is cold-worked too much (that is, if it is bent back and forth or hammered at the same place too often), it will crack or break.
Usually, the more malleable and ductile a metal is, the more cold-working it can withstand.
Tensile Testing
Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a steadily increasing load to a test specimen, causing it to
stretch until it eventually fractures. Accurate measurements are taken of the load and extension, and the results are used to determine the
strength of the material. To ensure uniformity of test results, the test specimens used must conform to standard dimensions and finish as lay
Airframe Powerplant
13
down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc).
The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the relationship between the cross-sectional area and a specified
"gauge length", of each specimen, is constant. The gauge length, is that portion of the parallel part of the specimen, which is to be used for
measuring the subsequent extension during and/or after the test.
Tensile Stress (Strength)- Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load, which the test piece is able to sustain,
and dividing that figure by the original cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of the specimen. The value derived from this simple calculation is called
STRESS.
Note:
The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British Imperial (and American) units of Ibf/in 2, tonf/in2 (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI
units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Example
A steel rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with a force of 400 N. Calculate the tensile stress
Note:
When calculating stress in large structural members, it may be more convenient to measure load in Mega-Newtons (MN, or N6) and the area
in square metres (m2). When using such units, the numerical value is identical to that if the calculation had been made using Newtons and
mm2.
Airframe Powerplant
14
i .e. A Stress of 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2
Example
A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0.5m2, is subjected to a load of 10 MN.
Calculate the stress in the member in;(a) N/mm2 =1 MN/m2 (b) MN/m2 and (b) N/mm2.
(a)
(b) 1N/mm2 = 1MN/m2 so stress = 20N/mm2
Strain - As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum value, the material extends in length. The amount of extension,
produced by a given load, allows the amount of induced strain to be calculated. Strain is calculated by measuring the extension and
dividing by the original length of the material.
Note:
Both measurements must be in the same units, though, since Strain is a ratio of two lengths, it has no units
Example
An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to tensile load until its length becomes 21.15 mm. Calculate
the induced strain.
Extension = 21.15 - 20 = 1.15 mm
Airframe Powerplant
15
Load/Extension Diagrams
If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece while the load and extension are continuously measured, the results can be
used to produce a Load/Extension diagram or graph (refer to figure 1.2). Obviously a number of different forms of graph may be obtained,
depending on the material type and condition, but the example shows a Load/Extension diagram which typifies many metallic materials
when stressed in tension.
The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions. Between points 0 and A, the material is in the Elastic region (or phase), i.e.
when the load is removed the material will return to its original size and shape. In this region, the extension is directly proportional to the
applied load.
This relationship is known as 'Hooke's Law', which states:
Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to the stress causing it.
Airframe Powerplant
16
Figure 1.2. Load/Extension Diagram
Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the material continues to extend until the maximum load is reached (at point B).
In this region the material is in the plastic phase. When the load is removed, the material does not return to its original size and shape, but
will retain some extension. After point B, the cross-sectional area reduces and the material begins to 'neck'. The material continues to extend
under reduced load until it eventually fractures at point C.
Aircraft structural designers' interest in materials does not extend greatly beyond the elastic phase of materials. Production engineers,
however, are greatly interested in material properties beyond this phase, since the forming capabilities of materials are dependent on their
Airframe Powerplant
17
properties in the plastic phase.
It is normal to consider the relationship of Stress and Strain, rather than Force and Extension, as this makes it easier to compare metals
regardless of the cross sectional area of the test piece and regardless of neither the length of the test piece, nor how the test piece changes
in cross section as it is stretched. Stress is the Force per unit area; Strain is the extension per unit length of test piece.
An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results

of a tensile test on mild steel (refer to figure 1.3), shows that
considerable plastic extension occurs without any increase in load
shortly after the elastic limit is reached. The onset of increasing
extension, without a corresponding increase in load, at point 'A',
is known as the yield point' and, if this level of stress is reached,
the metal is said to have 'yielded'. This is a characteristic of mild
steel and a few other, relatively ductile, materials.
If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it
may be seen that mild steel is capable of withstanding this
increase until the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is reached (point
'B'). Severe necking then occurs and the material will fracture at a
reduced load. The unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more
loads after yielding is due to strain-hardening of the material.
Work-hardening of many materials is often carried out to increase
their strength.
As previously stated, various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed for other materials (refer to figure 1.4), and their slopes will
depend on whether the materials are brittle, elastic or plastic.
Airframe Powerplant
18
(a) Represents a brittle material (e.g. glass)
(b) Represents a material with some elasticity and limited plasticity(e.g. high-carbon steel).
(c) Represents a material with some elasticity and good plasticity (e.g.soft aluminium).
Figure 1.3 Load/Extension Diagram some of Figure 1.2 Load/Extension
Airframe Powerplant
19
Figure 1.4 Load/Extension graph for Brittle, Elactic and Plastic
Tensile Properties
Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. A tensile test is a fundamental mechanical test
where a carefully prepared specimen is loaded in a very controlled manner while measuring the applied load and the elongation of the
specimen over some distance. Tensile tests are used to determine the modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit,
reduction in area, tensile strength, yield point, yield strength and other tensile properties.
Airframe Powerplant
20
The main product of a tensile test is a load versus elongation curve which is
then converted into a stress versus strain curve. Since both the engineering
stress and the engineering strain are obtained by dividing the load and
elongation by constant values (specimen geometry information), the load-
elongation curve will have the same shape as the engineering stress-strain
curve. The stress-strain curve relates the applied stress to the resulting
strain and each material has its own unique stress-strain curve. A typical
engineering stress-strain curve is shown below. If the true stress, based on
the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is used, it is found that the
stress-strain curve increases continuously up to fracture.
Linear-Elastic Region and Elastic Constants
As can be seen in the figure 1.5, the stress and strain initially increase with a
linear relationship. This is the linear-elastic portion of the curve and it
indicates that no plastic deformation has occurred. In this region of the
Figure 1.5 Stress – Strain Curve
curve, when the stress is reduced, the material will return to its original
shape. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as Hooke's Law where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant.
The slope of the line in this region where stress is proportional to strain and is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus. The
modulus of elasticity (E) defines the properties of a material as it undergoes stress, deforms, and then returns to its original shape after the
stress is removed. It is a measure of the stiffness of a given material. To compute the modulus of elastic , simply divide the stress by the
strain in the material. Since strain is unitless, the modulus will have the same units as the stress, such as kpi or MPa. The modulus of
elasticity applies specifically to the situation of a component being stretched with a tensile force. This modulus is of interest when it is
necessary to compute how much a rod or wire stretches under a tensile load.
Airframe Powerplant
21
Yield Point
In ductile materials, at some point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line relationship and Law no longer applies as the strain
increases faster than the stress. From this point on in the tensile test, some permanent deformation occurs in the specimen and the material
is said to react plastically to any further increase in load or stress. The material will not return to its original, unstressed condition when the
load is removed. In brittle materials, little or no plastic deformation occurs and the material fractures near the end of the linear-elastic
portion of the curve.
With most materials there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the exact point at which plastic deformation begins to
occur is hard to determine. Therefore, various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending on the sensitivity of the strain
measurements and the intended use of the data. For most engineering design and specification applications, the yield strength is used. The
yield strength is defined as the stress required to produce a small, amount of plastic deformation. The offset yield strength is the stress
corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line parallel to the elastic part of the curve offset by a specified strain (in
the US the offset is typically 0.2% for metals and 2% for plastics).
Some materials such as gray cast iron or soft copper exhibit essentially no linear-elastic behavior. For these materials the usual practice is to
define the yield strength as the stress required to produce some total amount of strain.
True elastic limit is a very low value and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations. Micro strain measurements are
required to detect strain on order of 2 x 10 -6 in/in.
Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is obtained by observing the deviation from
the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve.
Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete
release of load. It is determined using a tedious incremental loading-unloading test procedure. With the sensitivity of strain
Airframe Powerplant
22
measurements usually employed in engineering studies (10 -4in/in), the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit. With
increasing sensitivity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit decreases until it eventually equals the true elastic limit
determined from micro strain measurements.
Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic deformation. The yield strength obtained by an
offset method is commonly used for engineering purposes because it avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or
proportional limit.
Ultimate Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or, more simply, the tensile strength, is the maximum engineering stress level reached in a tension test.
The strength of a material is its ability to withstand external forces without breaking. In brittle materials, the UTS will at the end of the linear-
elastic portion of the stress-strain curve or close to the elastic limit. In ductile
materials, the UTS will be well outside of the elastic portion into the plastic
portion of the stress-strain curve.
On the stress-strain curve above, the UTS is the highest point where the line is
momentarily flat. Since the UTS is based on the engineering stress, it is often not
the same as the breaking strength. In ductile materials strain hardening occurs
and the stress will continue to increase until fracture occurs, but the engineering
stress-strain curve may show a decline in the stress level before fracture occurs.
This is the result of engineering stress being based on the original cross-section
Figure 1.6 Elongation and Reduction
area and not accounting for the necking that commonly occurs in the test
specimen. The UTS may not be completely representative of the highest level of stress that a material can support, but the value is not
typically used in the design of components anyway. For ductile metals the current design practice is to use the yield strength for sizing static
Airframe Powerplant
23
components. However, since the UTS is easy to determine and quite reproducible, it is useful for the purposes of specifying a material and
for quality control purposes. On the other hand, for brittle materials the design of a component may be based on the tensile strength of the
material.
Measures of Ductility (Elongation and Reduction of Area)
The ductility of a material is a measure of the extent to which a material will deform before fracture see figure 1.6. The amount of ductility is
an important factor when considering forming operations such as rolling and extrusion. It also provides an indication of how visible
overload damage to a component might become before the component fractures. Ductility is also used a quality control measure to assess
the level of impurities and proper processing of a material.
The conventional measures of ductility are the engineering strain at fracture (usually called the elongation ) and the reduction of area at
fracture. Both of these properties are obtained by fitting the specimen back together after fracture and measuring the change in length and
cross-sectional area. Elongation is the change in axial length divided by the original length of the specimen or portion of the specimen. It is
expressed as a percentage. Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic deformation will be concentrated in the necked region of the
tensile specimen, the value of elongation will depend on the gage length over which the measurement is taken. The smaller the gage
length the greater the large localized strain in the necked region will factor into the calculation. Therefore, when reporting values of
elongation , the gage length should be given.
One way to avoid the complication from necking is to base the elongation measurement on the uniform strain out to the point at which
necking begins. This works well at times but some engineering stress-strain curve are often quite flat in the vicinity of maximum loading and
it is difficult to precisely establish the strain when necking starts to occur. Reduction of area is the change in cross-sectional area divided by
the original cross-sectional area. This change is measured in the necked down region of the specimen. Like elongation, it is usually
expressed as a percentage.
Airframe Powerplant
24
As previously discussed, tension is just one of the way that a material can be loaded. Other ways of loading a material include compression,
bending, shear and torsion, and there are a number of standard tests that have been established to characterize how a material performs
under these other loading conditions.
Ductility
After fracture of a specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of material ductility is arrived at, by establishing the amount of plastic
deformation which occurred. The two indicators of ductility are:
• Elongation
• Reduction in area (at the neck)
Elongation is the more reliable, because it is easier to measure the extension of the gauge length than the reduction in area. The standard
measure of ductility is to establish the percentage elongation after fracture.
Example
In a tensile test, on a specimen with 150.5 mm gauge length, the length over the gauge marks at fracture was 176.1 mm. What was the
percentage elongation?
Airframe Powerplant
25
Proof Stress
Many materials do not exhibit a yield point, so a substitute value must be employed. The value chosen is the `Proof Stress', which is defined
as:
The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional

elongation, equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge length.
Usually a value of 0.1 % or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress is then
referred to as the 0.1 % Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively.
The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer to
figure 1.7) as follows:
If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on the
extension axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is drawn until it
intersects the nonlinear portion of the curve. The corresponding load is then read from
the graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this load by the original cross-sectional
area.
Figure 1.7 Determining proof stress
0.1 % Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of the specimen's original length.
0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of the original length.
Stiffness
Within the elastic range of a material, if the Strain is compared to the Stress causing that extension, it will provide a measure of
stiffness/rigidity or flexibility.
Airframe Powerplant
26
Young’s Modulus,
This value, which is of great importance to designers, is known as `the Modulus of Elasticity, or Young's Modulus', and is signified by use
of the symbol E.
Thus E = Stress divided by Strain and, since Strain has no units, the unit for 'E' is the same as Stress.
i.e. Ibf/in2, tonf/in2 (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Bearing Properties
Bearing properties are used when designing mechanically fastened joints. The purpose of a bearing test is to determine the the deformation
of a hole as a function of the applied bearing stress. The test specimen is basically a piece of sheet or plate with a carefully prepared hole
some standard distance from the edge. Edge-to-hole diameter ratios of 1.5 and 2.0 are common. A hardened pin is inserted through the
hole and an axial load applied to the specimen and the pin. The bearing stress is computed by dividing the load applied to the pin, which
bears against the edge of the hole, by the bearing area (the product of the pin diameter and the sheet or plate thickness). Bearing yield and
ultimate stresses are obtained from bearing tests. BYS is computed from a bearing stress deformation curve by drawing a line parallel to the
initial slope at an offset of 0.02 times the pin diameter. BUS is the maximum stress withstood by a bearing specimen.
Shear Properties
A shearing stress acts parallel to the stress plane, whereas a tensile or compressive stress acts normal to the stress plane. Shear properties
are primarily used in the design of mechanically fastened components, webs, and torsion members, and other components subject to
parallel, opposing loads. Shear properties are dependant on the type of shear test and their is a variety of different standard shear tests that
Airframe Powerplant
27
can be performed including the single-shear test, double-shear test, blanking-shear test, torsion-shear test and others. The shear modulus of
elasticity is considered a basic shear property. Other properties, such as the proportional limit stress and shear ultimate stress, cannot be
treated as basic shear properties because of “form factor” effects.
The Tensile Test Machine
Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of applying forces up to 1 MN are in use. The small
Hounsfield tension-meter has a capacity of 20 kN.
Airframe Powerplant
28
Airframe Powerplant
29
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials

science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an
application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under
other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are
ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From
these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.
Airframe Powerplant
30
IRON PRODUCTION
Iron is a very important metal in engineering. Little used in its pure form it is however the main constituent of steel. Iron ore (magnetite and
hematite) is quarried or mined from the earth's crust and converted by a series of processes into pig iron.
Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. The most common ferrous metal, in aircraft construction is steel,
which is an alloy of iron with a controlled amount of carbon added.
Pig iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The iron ore is first washed and then added to the blast furnace together with
high quality coke, low in sulphur content and limestone, which combines with impurities and forms a slag. During charging, the double bell
arrangement prevents gases escaping. These gases are later cleaned and used to heat the air entering the blast main, to about 800°C,
reducing the amount of coke required by half. The oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn fiercely, generating heat and producing carbon
monoxide gas which reduces the ore to metal.
Airframe Powerplant
31
Iron which is the heaviest product drips to the bottom of the furnace. The lighter slag floats on top of the iron. When the iron reaches the
level of the slag tapping hole, the slag is run off. The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the furnace.
The molten pig iron may be cast into small mould known as pigs. If the blast furnace is situated close to a steel works, the molten iron is
conveyed direct to the steel making furnaces. Among the common materials used are ferrous metals. The term “ferrous” applies to the
group of metals having iron as their principal constituent.
Iron
If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 %, the product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as
carbon steel. Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon steel with other elements known to improve
the properties of steel. A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have been added is called an alloy. The addition
of other metals changes or improves the chemical or physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.
Pig iron is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore. It is the molten iron from the blast furnace, which is a large and cylinder-shaped
furnace charged with iron ore, coke, and limestone. Charcoal and anthracite have also been used as fuel. Pig iron has very high carbon
content, typically 3.5–4.5%,along with silica and other constituents of dross, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material
except for limited applications.
The traditional shape of the molds used for pig iron ingots was a branching structure formed in sand, with many individual ingots at right
angles to a central channel or runner. Such a configuration resembles a litter of piglets being suckled by a sow. When the metal had cooled
and hardened, the smaller ingots (the pigs) were simply broken from the much thinner runner (the sow), hence the name pig iron. As pig
iron is intended for remelting, the uneven size of the ingots and the inclusion of small amounts of sand caused only insignificant problems
considering the ease of casting and handling them.
The pig-iron is produced in a blast-furnace which typically consists of a cylindrical steel hull and a refractory lining on the inside. The lower
part of the furnace (crucible) has openings (tuyeres) through which hot air is injected. Two openings closer to the bottom are used to tap
Airframe Powerplant
32
the iron and an opening above that is used to tap the slag. To tap the iron the refractory clay plug is pulled out of the hole. The raw
materials are charged through two openings. The blast-furnace gas is released through another opening.
Inside the furnace layers of coke and iron ore with flux follow each other subsequently. The flux converts the impurities in the iron to easily
meltable slag. The limestone for example combines with the silicates in the iron ore and forms melt able calcium silicate. Calcium silicate
forms slag which collects on top of the molten iron. The air which is injected through the tuyeres (wind) is pre-warmed to about 800°C – 1
200°C and injected with slight pressure (more than 1.6 bars or 160 kPa).
Coke releases carbon monoxide when it is burned:
(1) C + O2 -> CO2 and
(2) CO2 + C -> 2 CO.
These reactions increase the temperature in the lower part of the furnace to about 1600°C. The hot carbon monoxide rises into the iron ore
layer above and reduces the contained iron oxide to metallic iron. This chemical reaction can be represented by the following equation:
Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 3 CO2 + 2 Fe.
In the following coke layer the carbon dioxide is re-converted to carbon monoxide: CO2 + C -> 2 CO which can react to reduce the iron oxide
in the next layer of iron ore. In the higher and cooled layers the carbon monoxide partly decays to carbon dioxide and carbon – this
equilibrium reaction is called Boudouard reaction.
The produced carbon also reduces iron oxide to metallic iron. In addition the carbon dissolves in the iron which reduces the melting point
to about 1,100 to 1,200°C (pure iron 1,539°C). The “cooler” metal drips through the coke and collects at the bottom of the furnace, below the
liquid slag.
The carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide mixture (blast furnace gas) pre-warms the fresh raw materials in the upper part of the furnace and
escapes through the openings. Then it is cleaned and re-used for other industrial purposes.
A blast-furnace always works continuously. The raw material is refilled in small amounts every ten to fifteen minutes. Slag is removed
Airframe Powerplant
33
approximately every two hours and the pig-iron is tapped about five times a day.
To tap the pig-iron the refractory clay plug is removed from one of the openings in the crucible. The liquid metal flows through a clay
channeling and a skimmer which separates the slag from the iron, into a basin with refractory lining, for example on a railcar. Some of these
basins can hold up to 100 tons of metal. The pig-iron is then brought to the steel mill either in liquid form or as cast iron slabs.
Common pig-iron usually consists of: about 92 % iron, three to four percent carbon, and varying amounts of silicon (0.5 to three percent),
manganese (0.5 to six percent), phosphorous (0.1 to two percent) and traces of sulfur (0.01 to 0.05 %).
Grey pig-iron is produced when the pig-iron is cooled slowly and the carbon settles out as graphite on the raw material. This type of carbon
deposition needs specific amounts of silicon (more than two percent) and manganese (less than 0.2 %).
White pig-iron in comparison is produced when the pig-iron is cooled rapidly and the dissolved carbon forms iron carbide. The right amount
of manganese (more than four percent) and silicon(less than 0.5 %) is very important to support this process. In this case the higher amount
of manganese prevents the forming of graphite. The grey pig-iron is usually used as cast-iron whereas the white pig-iron is used for steel
production.
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with carbon content greater than 2%.The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white
cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack
and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount ranging
from 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes these base
alloys ternary Fe–C–Si alloys, the principle of cast iron solidification is understood from the binary iron–carbon phase diagram. Since the
compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the iron–carbon system, the melting temperatures closely correlate, usually
ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 °C (2,100 to 2,190 °F), which is about 300 °C (572 °F) lower than the melting point of pure iron.
Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent
machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of
Airframe Powerplant
34
applications and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and
gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation (rust).
Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of scrap iron, scrap steel, lime stone, carbon (coke) and
taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the molten iron, but this also burns
out the carbon, which must be replaced. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, which
may be anywhere from 2–3.5% and 1–3%, respectively. Other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by
casting.
Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons:
1. It is a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition ofordinary pig iron.
2. Rigidity and strength under compression are good.
3. It is easy to machine.
4. It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.
5. Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.
The Composition of Cast Iron
Ordinary cast iron contains the following elements:
Carbon 3.0 to 4%
Silicon 1.0 to 3.0%
Manganese 0.5 to 1.0%
Sulphur up to 0.1% (Induce Brittleness)
Airframe Powerplant
35
Phosphorous up to 1.9%.
Also Chromium 0.5 - 1.00% for Stainless Steel
Iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola, but more often melted in electric induction furnaces or
electric arc furnaces. After melting is complete, the molten iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle.
Grey cast iron is characterized by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the
most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of
2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel, but its
compressive strength is comparable to low- and medium-carbon steel.
White cast iron displays white fractured surface due to the presence of cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and
faster cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite.
The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a eutectic mixture, where the other phase is
austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation hardening
(as in some steels, where cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the
ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial
volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of
toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet.
White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it
finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and
autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's digging bucket (although cast medium-carbon
martensitic steel is more common for this application).
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon (less than 0.08%) content in contrast to cast iron (2.1% to 4%), and has fibrous
inclusions known as slag up to 2% by weight. It is a semi-fused mass of iron with slag inclusions which gives it a "grain" resembling wood,
Airframe Powerplant
36
that is visible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily
welded. Before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the
most common form of malleable iron. A modest amount of wrought iron was used as a raw material for refining into steel, which was used
mainly to produce swords, cutlery, chisels, axes and other edged tools as well as springs and files. However, as properties such as brittleness
of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined.
Many items, before they came to be made of mild steel, were produced from wrought iron, including rivets, nails, wire, chains, rails, railway
couplings, water and steam pipes, nuts, bolts, horseshoes, handrails, wagon tires, straps for timber roof trusses, and ornamental ironwork.
Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale. Many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture
and gates, are made of mild steel. They retain that description because in the past they were wrought (worked) by hand. Ingot iron a type of
steelcontaining a smallamount of carbonandverysmallquantities of otherelements
An ingot is a piece of material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step
among semi-finished casting products. Ingots usually require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting, or milling
to produce a useful final product. Non-metallic and semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots,
particularly when cast by mold based methods. Precious metal ingots can be used as currency (with or without being processed into other
shapes), or as a currency reserve, as with gold bars.
Ingots are manufactured by the freezing of a molten liquid (known as the melt) in a mold. The manufacture of ingots has several aims.
Firstly, the mold is designed to completely solidify and form an appropriate grain structure required for later processing, as the structure
formed by the freezing melt controls the physical properties of the material. Secondly, the shape and size of the mold is designed to allow
for ease of ingot handling and downstream processing. Finally the mold is designed to minimize melt wastage and aid ejection of the ingot,
as losing either melt or ingot increases manufacturing costs of finished products.
A variety of designs exist for the mold, which may be selected to suit the physical properties of the liquid melt and the solidification process.
Molds may exist in top, horizontal or bottom-up pouring and may be fluted or flat walled. The fluted design increases heat transfer owing to
Airframe Powerplant
37
a larger contact area. Molds may be either solid "massive" design, sand cast (e.g. for pig iron) or water-cooled shells, depending upon heat
transfer requirements. Ingot molds are tapered to prevent the formation of cracks due to uneven cooling. Crack or void formation occurs as
the liquid to solid transition has an associated volume change for a constant mass of material. Formation of these ingot defects may render
the cast ingot useless, and may need to be re-melted, recycled or discarded.
STEELMAKING
Steelmaking is the process for producing steel from iron and ferrous ores and scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such as nitrogen, silicon,
phosphorus, sulfur and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and
vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel. Limiting dissolved gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, and entrained impurities
(termed "inclusions") in the steel is also important to ensure the quality of the products cast from the liquid steel.
There are commonly processes for making steel, namely Open Hearth Process, BasicOxygen Steelmaking, which has liquid pig-iron from
the blast furnace and scrap steel as the main feed materials, and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking, which uses scrap steel or direct
reduced iron (DRI) as the main feed materials. Oxygen steelmaking is fuelled predominantly by the exothermic nature of the reactions inside
the vessel where as in EAF steelmaking, electrical energy is used to melt the solid scrap and/or DRI materials. In recent times, EAF
steelmaking technology has evolved closer to oxygen steelmaking as more chemical energy is introduced into the process.
Open hearth furnaces (figure 1.8) are one of a number of kinds of furnace where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig
iron to produce steel. Since steel is difficult to manufacture due to its high melting point, normal fuels and furnaces were insufficient and
the open hearth furnace was developed to overcome this difficulty.
Compared to Bessemer steel, which it displaced, its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which
would cause the steel to become brittle), was easier to control, and it permitted the smelting and refining of large amounts of scrap iron and
steel.
Airframe Powerplant
38
The open hearth process is a batch process and a batch is called a "heat". The furnace is first inspected for possible damage. Once it is ready
or repaired, it is charged with light scrap, such as sheet metal, shredded vehicles or waste metal. The furnace is heated using burning gas.
Once it has melted, heavy scrap, such as building, construction or steel milling scrap is added, together with pig iron from blast furnaces.
Once all the steel has melted, slag forming agents, such as limestone, are added. The oxygen in iron oxide and other impurities decarburize
the pig iron by burning excess carbon away, forming steel. To increase the oxygen contents of the heat, iron ore can be added to the heat.
The process is far slower than that of Bessemer

converter and thus easier to control and sample for
quality assessment. Preparing a heat usually takes 8 h to
8 h 30 min to complete into steel. As the process is slow,
it is not necessary to burn all the carbon away as in
Bessemer process, but the process can be terminated at
given point when desired carbon contents has been
achieved.
The furnace is tapped the same way a blast furnace is

tapped; a hole is drilled on the side of the hearth and
the raw steel flows out. Once all the steel has been
tapped, the slag is skimmed away. The raw steel may be
cast into ingots; this process is called teeming, or it may
be used on continuous casting for the rolling mill.
Figure 1.8 Basic Steel making process (Blast Furnace)
The regenerators are the distinctive feature of the
furnace and consist of fire-brick flues filled with bricks set on edge and arranged in such a way as to have a great number of small passages
between them. The bricks absorb most of the heat from the outgoing waste gases and return it later to the incoming cold gases for
combustion
Airframe Powerplant
39
In the Open Hearth Process, the heat required to melt the pig iron and scrap is obtained by burning a mixture of gas and air over the metal.
The gas and air is pre-heated to a high temperature in regenerators.
Lime is added to the charge, in order to form a basic slag and so remove the phosphorus which is present in most pig irons. The slag floats
on the surface of the molten steel and is run off. Carbon is then added in the form of anthracite which dissolves in the molten steel. Finally
the molten steel is transferred to a large ladle which in turn pours the steel into mould to produce ingots each of several tones mass.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking a typical basic oxygen furnace (figure 1.9) consists of a steel
cased converter lined with dolomite holding up to 400 tones of metal. The charge
consists of up to 40% of scrap steel, lime and molten pig iron, a method of primary
steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen
through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy and changes it into low-
carbon steel. The process is known as basic because fluxes of burnt lime or dolomite,
which are chemical bases, are added to promote the removal of impurities and protect
the lining of the converter.
Basic oxygen steelmaking is a primary steelmaking process for converting the molten
pig iron into steel by blowing oxygen through a lance over the molten pig iron inside
the converter. Exothermic heat is generated by the oxidation reactions during blowing.
The basic oxygen steel-making process is as follows:
Figure 1.9 Basic Oxygen Converter 1. Molten pig iron (sometimes referred to as "hot metal") from a blast furnace is poured
into a large refractory-lined container called a ladle;
2. The metal in the ladle is sent directly for basic oxygen steelmaking or to a pretreatment stage. High purity oxygen at a pressure of 100-
150 psi (pounds per inch square) is introduced at supersonic speed onto the surface of the iron bath through a water-cooled lance,
which is suspended in the vessel and kept at few feet above the bath. Pretreatment of the blast furnace hot metal is done externally to
Airframe Powerplant
40
reduce sulphur, silicon, and phosphorus before charging the hot metal into the converter. In external desulphurising pretreatment, a
lance is lowered into the molten iron in the ladle and several hundred kilograms of powdered magnesium are added and the sulphur
impurities are reduced to magnesium sulphide in a violent exothermic reaction. The sulfide is then raked off. Similar pretreatments are
possible for external desiliconisation and external dephosphorisation using mill scale (iron oxide) and lime as fluxes. The decision to
pretreat depends on the quality of the hot metal and the required final quality of the steel.
3. Filling the furnace with the ingredients is called charging. The BOS process is autogenous, i.e. the required thermal energy is produced
during the oxidation process. Maintaining the proper charge balance, the ratio of hot metal, from melt, to cold scrap, is therefore very
important. BOS vessel can be tilted up to 360° and is tilted towards the deslagging side for charging scrap and hot metal. The BOS
vessel is charged with steel or iron scrap (25%-30%) if required. Molten iron from the ladle is added as required for the charge balance.
A typical chemistry of hotmetal charged into the BOS vessel is: 4% C, 0.2–0.8% Si, 0.08%–0.18% P, and 0.01–0.04% S all of which can be
oxidised by the supplied oxygen except sulphur (requires reducing condition).
4. The vessel is then set upright and a water-cooled, copper tipped lance with
3-7 nozzles is lowered down into it and high purity oxygen is delivered at
supersonic speeds. The lance "blows" 99% pure oxygen over the hot metal,
igniting the carbon dissolved in the steel, to form carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide, and causing the temperature to rise to about 1,700 °C. This melts the
scrap, lowers the carbon content of the molten iron and helps remove unwanted
chemical elements. It is this use of pure oxygen instead of air that improves upon
the Bessemer process, as the nitrogen (a particularly undesirable element) and
other gases in air do not react with the charge.
5. Fluxes (burnt lime or dolomite) are fed into the vessel to form slag, to
Figure 1.10 Electric Arc Furnace maintain basicity more than 3 and absorbs impurities during the steelmaking
process. During "blowing", churning of metal and fluxes in the vessel forms an
emulsion, that facilitates the refining process. Near the end of the blowing cycle, which takes about 20 minutes, the temperature is
Airframe Powerplant
41
measured and samples are taken. A typical chemistry of the blown metal is 0.3–0.9% C, 0.05–0.1% Mn, 0.001–0.003% Si, 0.01–0.03% S
and 0.005–0.03% P.
6. The BOS vessel is tilted towards the deslagging side and the steel is poured through a tap hole into a steel ladle with basic refractory
lining. This process is called tapping the steel. The steel is further refined in the ladle furnace, by adding alloying materials to give it
special properties required by the customer. Sometimes argon or nitrogen is bubbled into the ladle to make the alloys mix correctly.
7. After the steel is poured off from the BOS vessel, the slag is poured into the slag pots through the BOS vessel mouth and dumped.
An electric arc furnace (EAF) is a furnace (figure 1.10) that heats charged material by means of an electric arc.
Industrial arc furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity (used in foundries for producing cast iron products)
up to about 400 ton units used for secondary steelmaking. Arc furnaces used in research laboratories and by dentists may have a capacity of
only a few dozen grams. Industrial electric arc furnace temperatures can be up to 1,800 °C (3,272 °F), while laboratory units can exceed
3,000 °C (5,432 °F).
Arc furnaces differ from induction furnaces in that the charge material is directly exposed to an electric arc, and the current in the furnace
terminals passes through the charged material. An electrical arc furnace is shown. The heat required to melt the charge is produced by
electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel.
The impurities are oxidized from the charge by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the oxidized impurities and may then be
run off by tilting the furnace. The charge consists of scrap, iron ore, blast furnace pig iron and limestone.
The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is no gas, fumes or impurities which are present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow
impurities into the molten metal. Electrical furnaces are used to make high quality steels.
NOTE:
When the impurities are oxidized, they combine with oxygen and form an oxide which floats on top of the molten steel, together with the
slag.
Airframe Powerplant
42
Steel
Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon. Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the
steel making process. The manganese helps reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorus are harmful impurities
causing brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of either of these elements. High quality steels would contain no
more than 0.04% of each element. The manganese dissolves in the solid steel, slightly increasing its strength and hardness.
The relative density of steel is 7.9.Steel is 2/3 the weight of lead, 3 times the weight of aluminum.
Annealed steel with low carbon concentration (e.g. 0.2%) can have a tensile strength of 345 MPa (50,000 ibf/in2). Annealed high-carbon
steel (0.4%) may have tensile strengths of almost 700 MPa (about 100,000 Ibf/in2 ). Cold working, alloying and heat treatment can boost
strength up to around 1000 MPa.
Plain carbon steel owes its properties to the presence of carbon. The effects of carbon in iron are best understood by first considering pure
iron. Pure iron is very ductile, and has a tensile strength of 18 tons/sq.in (28 Hbar). The addition of carbon to the iron increases the tensile
strength, hardness and brittleness, and at the same time decreases the ductility. The tensile strength of 0.8% carbon steel is a approximate
55 tons/sq.in (85 Hbar). The strength of steel will increase with carbon content but is limited to the amount of carbon which will remain
combined with the iron after any normal heat treatment. Above 1.7% carbon, the excess carbon is in the form of free (uncombined) carbon
or graphite, which has very low strength. The carbon content of plain carbon steel does not often exceed 1.5%.
The internal structure of steel may be varied by heating and cooling. To produce certain properties in the steel, it is heat treated. It is not
always possible to produce all the desired properties in the metal and a compromise has to be made. For ease of manufacture the metal
may require to be soft. In use, great strength and considerable hardness may be required.
Thus if a steel is required to be hard and tough, the maximum degree of hardness and toughness cannot be obtained together. Maximum
hardness makes the metal brittle and maximum toughness generally reduces hardness.
A numerical index, sponsored by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is used to
identify the chemical compositions of the structural steels. In this system, a four-numeral series is used to designate the plain carbon and
Airframe Powerplant
43
alloy steels; five numerals are used to designate certain types of alloy steels.
The first two digits indicate the type of steel, the second digit also generally (but not always) gives the approximate amount of the major
alloying element, and the last two (or three) digits are intended to indicate the approximate middle of the carbon range. However, a
deviation from the rule of indicating the carbon range is sometimes necessary.
Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels that are not specifed as required. These elements are considered as incidental
and may be present to the maximum amounts as follows: copper, 0.35 %; nickel, 0.25 %; chromium, 0.20 %; molybdenum, 0.06 %.The list of
standard steels is altered from time to time to accommodate steels of proven merit and to provide for changes in the metallurgical and
engineering requirements of industry.
A small extract from the SAE classification system is shown in Table, where it can be seen, for example, that one common steel alloy is
identified by the designation SAE1030. The first digit identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second digit shows that it is a Plain Carbon-
Steel. The last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel (0.30%).It should be noted that the British Standards Institute (BS) has
a different classification system.
Airframe Powerplant
44
Airframe Powerplant
45
Airframe Powerplant
46
Airframe Powerplant
47
PROPERTIES WORKED BY USEFUL QUALITY USES REMARKS
Brittle weak, fairly soft Casts easily wears to Properties unaffected by

Cast Iron (up to 4.7% Casting and cutting Machine frames piston
(very hard surface if good surface, resists heat lubricating owing to
and impurities) only rings
"chilled) " crushing. graphite carbon
Wrought Iron (about Ductile, Malleable fairly All methods except Easily magnetized Cores of dynamos, Cannot be hardened by
0.02% and fewer) strong, soft casting easily welded lifting chains quenching
Mild Steel (low Ductile, less malleable , Bolt tubes, rivet, plates, Cannot be hardened by
Easily forged welded
carbon) strong harder and more all part where great quenching: for surface
All methods machined or stamped
(up to 0.003% and uniform than wrought strength or hardness is hardening see “case
to shape
few impurities) iron not required hardening”
Medium carbon Steel Rather strong and harder Shafts, rods, bolts,
All methods (rarely Not quite so easily
(0.3% to 0.6% and few but less ductile and tubes. Rather strong
cast) worked as mild steel
impurities) malleable than mild steel parts.
Strong, less ductile,

High carbon Steel Can be made very
hardness and toughness Forging and Cutting tools of all See“ Hardening
(0.6% to 1.5% and few hard without undue
depend of heat cutting kinds. Tempering”
impurities) brittleness
treatment
Types of Steel, their Properties and Uses
Airframe Powerplant
48
METAL PROPERTIES USES
Cast Iron Brittle, weak, casts easily, resists crushing. Good anti-friction Machine beds, frames and details. General
properties, self-lubricating. Good vibration damping qualities. castings, bearings.
(up to 4.5% carbon)
Wrought Iron Ductile, malleable, fairly strong, soft, easily magnetized, easily Cores of dynamos, lifting chains, crane hooks.
welded.
(0.02% carbon)
Mild Steel Ductile, less malleable, stronger and harder than wrought iron. Easily Machines bolts and nuts.
forged, welded, machined or stamped to shape
(Low carbon) General workshop machined components,
structural girders forgings, car body panels.
Medium Carbon Steel Higher strength than mild steel and responds to heat treatment to Leaf springs, wire ropes, hammer heads, hacksaw
further increase its toughness and hardness frames, cold chisels, wood saws, axles, crankshaft
forgings
High Carbon Steel More costly than med. carbon steel. Mainly used where its properties Cutting tools, such as files, drills, knives, wood
of hardness and toughness after heat treatment can be exploited. chisels, etc. Coil springs.
Alloy Steels By adding other metals in sufficient quantity, the properties of Adding chromium gives greater hardness for the
carbon steel can be altered. manufacture of ball bearings. Adding nickel gives
greater strength and toughness and resistance to
fatigue. Adding tungsten it retains its hardness at
high temperatures.
Uses of common steels
Airframe Powerplant
49
Metal stock is manufactured in several forms and shapes, including sheets, bars, rods, tubing, extrusions, forgings, and castings. Sheet metal
is made in a num-ber of sizes and thicknesses. Specificationsdesignate thicknesses in thousandths of an inch. Bars and rods are supplied in a
variety of shapes, such as round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal. Tubing can be obtained in round, oval, rectangular, or
streamlined shapes. The size of tubing is generally specifiedby outside diameter and wall thickness.
The sheet metal is usually formed cold in such machines as presses, bending brakes, drawbenches, or rolls. Forgings are shaped or formed
by pressing or hammering heated metal in dies. Castings are produced by pouring molten metal into molds. The casting is finished by
machining. Spark testing is a common means of identifying various ferrous metals. In this test the piece of iron or steel is held against a
revolving grinding stone and the metal is identifiedby the sparks thrown off. Each ferrous metal has its own peculiar spark characteristics.
The spark streams vary from a few tiny shafts to a shower of sparks several feet in length. (Few nonferrous met-als give off sparks when
touched to a grinding stone. Therefore, these metals cannot be successfully identi-fied by the spark test.
Identificationby spark testing is often inexact unless performed by an experienced person, or the test pieces differ greatly in their carbon
content and alloying constituents.
Wrought iron produces long shafts that are straw col-ored as they leave the stone and white at the end. Cast iron sparks are red as they
leave the stone and turn to a straw color. Low carbon steels give off long, straight shafts having a few white sprigs. As the carbon content of
the steel increases, the number of sprigs along each shaft increases and the stream becomes whiter in color. Nickel steel causes the spark
stream to contain small white blocks of light within the main burst.
Alloying Elements in Steel
As discussed earlier, iron has few practical uses in its pure state. Adding small amounts of other materials to molten iron, however,
dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more common alloying elements include carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, nickel and
chromium (also referred to as chrome).
Airframe Powerplant
50
Carbon
Carbon is a constituent part of steel and therefore is not normally considered to be an alloying element. When mixed with iron, compounds
of iron carbide form and it is the carbon in steel that allows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength and
toughness. The greater the carbon content, then the more receptive the steel becomes to heat-treatment and, while its strength and
hardness increases, its malleability and weld ability decreases.
Low Carbon Steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 % is classed as low carbon steel. The equivalent SAE numbers range from
1010 to 1030. Steels of this grade are used for making such items as safety wire, certain nuts, cable bushings, or threaded rod ends. This steel
in sheet form is used for secondary structural parts and clamps, and in tubular form for moderately stressed structural parts.
Medium Carbon Steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.30 to 0.50 % is classed as medium carbon steel. This steel is especially adaptable for
machining or forging, and where surface hardness is desirable. Certain rod ends and light forgings are made from SAE 1035 steel.
High Carbon Steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.50 to 1.05 % is classed as high carbon steel. The addition of other elements in
varying quantities adds to the hardness of this steel. In the fully heat-treated condition it is very hard, will withstand high shear and wear,
and will have little deformation. It has limited use in aircraft. SAE 1095 in sheet form is used for making flat springs and in wire form for
making coil springs.
Sulphur
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it must be removed during the refining process. If it proves impossible to
remove all of the sulphur, then manganese, which is harmless to the steel can be added to the metal (to form manganese sulphide). The
Airframe Powerplant
51
manganese also improves forging by making the steel less brittle during the forming processes.
Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener and, used in small quantities, it also improves ductility.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus raises the yield strength of steel and improves low-carbon steel's resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The steel tends to be
brittle when cold, so no more than 0.05 % phosphorus is normally used in steel production.
Nickel
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows:
In the range of 1% - 5% there is a marked improvement in strength (and hardness) without lowering ductility. This high-strength, tough
steel is widely used for highly stressed parts.
At about 25% nickel, the steel becomes highly corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant and non- magnetic.
At 36% nickel, a unique steel (known under its trade name as Ìnvar') is created. This has the lowest coefficient of expansion of any metal
(1/20th that of steel) and is excellent for master gauges and instruments.
Because of the effect of such amounts of nickel on the expansion properties of steel, a range of nickel-steels can be purpose-made, to
trim the coefficient of expansion to specific needs. These alloys are used in thermostats, spark plug electrodes etc.
With varying percentage of nickel, the following effects are produced:
Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels
Airframe Powerplant
52
Increases strength and toughness

Improves resistance to corrosion
Lowers the critical temperatures so that hardening requires a less sever quench
With 25% nickel added, the steel is austenitic at room temperature and thus non- magnetic
With 35% nickel added, the steel will have a coefficient of expansion of nearly zero
A high percentage of nickel gives higher magnetic permeability than obtained with soft iron.
Nickel Alloys
When the amount of nickel present is predominant, then the material becomes known as a Nickel Alloy, many of which are widely used in
industry.
One of the most important nickel-based alloy groups is the nimonics. These are a family of alloys, containing 50% - 80% nickel, with the
balance being mainly chromium (chrome) with some titanium and aluminium.
Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas turbine engine combustion chambers and turbine blades because of their
extremely low coefficient of expansion at elevated temperatures.
Other ranges of nickel-based alloys come under the trade names of Inconel and Hastelloy, which are also temperature-resistant and
corrosion-resistant. Another common nickel alloy is Monel. This metal (68% nickel and 29% copper, with iron, manganese, silicon and
carbon) has excellent resistance to both corrosion and chemical attack, is tough, ductile, reasonably strong (equivalent to mild steel) and is
non-magnetic. It is used in many marine applications, for surgical apparatus and for aircraft rivets. Normally Monel does not respond to heat
treatment but, when alloyed with a small amount of aluminium (2% - 4%), it can be hardened to double its strength. This version is known
as `K-Monel'.
Airframe Powerplant
53
Monel
Monel, the leading high nickel alloy, combines the properties of high strength and excellent corrosion resistance. This metal consists of 68 %
nickel, 29 % copper, 0.2 % iron, 1 % manganese, and 1.8 % of other elements. It cannot be hardened by heat treatment.Monel, adaptable to
casting and hot or cold working, can be successfully welded. It has working properties similar to those of steel. When forged and annealed,
it has a tensile strength of 80,000 psi. This can be increased by cold working to 125,000 psi, sufficientfor classification among the tough
alloys.
Monel has been successfully used for gears and chains to operate retractable landing gears, and for structural parts subject to corrosion. In
aircraft, Monel is used for parts demanding both strength and high resistance to corrosion, such as exhaust manifolds and carburetor needle
valves and sleeves.
K-Monel
K-Monel is a nonferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper, and aluminum. It is produced by adding a small amount of aluminum to the
Monel formula. It is corrosion resistant and capable of being hardened by heat treatment.K-Monel has been successfully used for gears, and
structural members in aircraft which are subjected to corrosive attacks. This alloy is nonmagnetic at all tem-peratures. K-Monel sheet has
been successfully welded by both oxyacetylene and electric arc welding.
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel as well as increasing its yield strength. By slowing the rate of hardening during heat-treatment,
the depth of hardening can be increased and the steel's grain structure made finer. SAE 2330 steel, containing 3.0 % nickel and 0.3 %
carbon, is used in the manufacture of bolts, nuts, rod ends and pins.
There are basically two nickel alloys used in aircraft. They are Monel and Inconel. Monel contains about 68 % nickel and 29 % copper, plus
small amounts of iron and manganese. Nickel alloys can be welded or easily machined. Some of the nickel Monel, especially the nickel
Monels containing small amounts of aluminum, are heat-treatable to similar tensile strengths of steel. Nickel Monel is used in gears and
parts that require high strength and toughness, such as exhaust systems that require high strength and corro-sion resistance at elevated
Airframe Powerplant
54
temperatures.
Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance and are frequently found in the same areas of the engine. Sometimes it is important to
identify the difference between the metal samples. A common test is to apply one drop of cupric chloride and hydrochloric acid solution to
the unknown metal and allow it to remain for 2 minutes. At the end of the soak period, a shiny spot indicates the material is nickel Inconel,
and a copper colored spot indicates stainless steel.
Inconel alloys of nickel produce a high strength, high temperature alloy containing approximately 80 % nickel, 14 % chromium, and small
amounts of iron and other elements. The nickel Inconel alloys are frequently used in turbine engines because of their abil-ity to maintain
their strength and corrosion resistance under extremely high temperature conditions.
Inconel is a family of austenite nickel-chromium-based superalloys. Inconel alloys are oxidation and corrosion resistant materials well suited
for service in extreme environments subjected to pressure and heat. When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer
protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high temperature
applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally induced crystal vacancies. Inconel’s high
temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy. Inconel alloys
are typically used in high temperature applications. It is sometimes referred to in English as "Inco" (or occasionally[not verified in body]
"Iconel"). Common trade names for Inconel Alloy 625 include: Inconel 625, Chronin 625, Altemp 625, Haynes 625, Nickelvac 625 and Nicrofer
6020.
Chromium (Chrome)
When small amounts of chrome are added to steel, the strength and hardness increases, but there is some loss of ductility. 1.5% chrome, in
a high-carbon (1 %) steel, results in a very hard material which is used extensively for instrument pivots and in ball and roller bearings.
Low chrome (1.5%-3%) steels are used for high tensile fasteners and are suitable for Nitriding. Chromium can also be electrolytic ally
deposited onto metals, to provide hard-wearing surfaces, such as those required in cylinder bores.
Airframe Powerplant
55
Steels containing 12% or more chrome are very corrosion-resistant. Stainless (SS) Steels or Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRS) come into this
category. One particular stainless steel is designated `18/8 Stainless', which contains approximately 18% chrome and 8% nickel. These
stainless steels are used extensively in engine parts, particularly for hot applications and for exhaust areas where their corrosion resistance is
vital.
Summary:
Increases hardness and strength

Increases rate of grain growth, so nickel, which has the opposite effect, is often added with chromium to control the grain size
Increases corrosion resistance, used to make ball and roller bearings.
Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys
This term is used when the amount of nickel present is greater than the chrome content. A wide range of such steels exists, but the low
nickel-chrome alloys are suitable for through-hardening or case-hardening. The nickel content is around 3%-5% and the chrome ranges
from 0.5%-1.5%. Crankshafts and connecting rods are often made from this group. High nickel-chrome alloys (65%-85% nickel, 15%-20%
chrome) have a high electrical resistance and are often used as heater elements.
By adding both metals, in appropriate percentages, steel, which is suitable for high-strength structural applications, is produced. Nickel-
chromium steels are used for forged and machined parts requiring high strength, ductility, shock-resistance and toughness.
Summary:
Low nickel/chrome steels (3% Nickel/1% Chromium) are used for piston engine
crankshafts, connecting rods and similar applications
High nickel/chrome steels (18% Chromium/8% Nickel) are the stainless steels
Airframe Powerplant
56
Cobalt
Cobalt is often included in High-Speed Steel (HSS) in addition to chrome, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten (to improve still further the
ability to cut at high working temperatures). Cobalt is included in high-strength, permanent magnets, in some of the nimonic alloys used for
high-temperature components in gas turbine engines and cobalt is also found in a range of temperature-resistant alloys called 'Stellite'
(used in piston engine valves and for cutting tools).
Vanadium
When added to steel, vanadium improves the strength without loss of ductility, but also greatly improves its toughness and its resistance to
fatigue;because of the improved tensile and elastic properties, valve (and many types of other). Springs, usually include vanadium. Small
amounts of vanadium are included in certain nickel-chrome steels and good quality engineering tools.
Vanadium, when combined with chromium, produces a strong, tough, ductile steel-alloy. Amounts of up to 0.2 % vanadium improve grain
structure, ultimate tensile strength and toughness. Ball bearings are also made from chrome-vanadium steel.
Summary:
Percentage required is very low.

Increases tensile strength and elastic limit
Increases shock resistance and fatigue resistance. Used for valve spring, dies.
Manganese
When small amounts of manganese are added to steel (up to 1.5%) the result is steel which is strong and hard (similar to nickel-chrome
steel). Such steel is often used for shafts and axles.
11%-14% manganese steel has very unusual properties and is extremely useful. When this material is heated to approximately 1000°C and
Airframe Powerplant
57
water-quenched, its structure becomes austenitic and, although it is only moderately hard, any attempt to cut it, or abrade it, results in the
local formation of hard martensite and it thus becomes highly resistant to cutting or abrasion. Because of this peculiar property, it is used
extensively for rock drills, stone crushers, and railway lines at junctions etc.
Small amounts of manganese are used in steel production and in welding rods since it acts as a purifying agent by reducing oxidation.
Summary:
Increases strength, toughness, shock and wear resistance

High Manganese steels (about 12% manganese) are very soft when produced but any cold work by rubbing, cutting, etc., causes the
surface to become very hard and wear resistant. Used for rock crusher parts
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is molybdenum. It reduces the grain size of steel, which increases
its impact-strength and elastic limit. Other advantages are an increase in wear-resistance and high fatigue-resistance, which is the reason
why molybdenum-steels are found in structural members and engine parts.
Summary:
Percentage required is very low.
Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures
Increases tensile strength and ductility
Prevents brittleness experienced by some nickel/chrome steels when they are heated.
Airframe Powerplant
58
Chromium and Molybdenum
Chrome-molybdenum steel is, probably, the most commonly used alloy steel in the aircraft industry. Its SAE 4130 designation denotes an
alloy of 10% molybdenum and 0.3 % carbon. It machines well and is easily welded by gas or electric arc methods, as well as responding well
to heat-treatment. Its use in aircraft construction includes landing gear, engine mountings and many engine components.
Tungsten
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to the steel with which it is alloyed. Tungsten steels retain their
hardness at elevated temperatures, and are typically used for contact-breaker contacts (in magnetos), and also for high-speed cutting tools.
Summary:
Improves heat and wear resistance
Used in the production of many cutting tool materials.
Maraging Steels
Conventional very high tensile steels have a high carbon content and are, thus, very hard and difficult to work and also tend to be
somewhat brittle. To combat these shortcomings, maraging steels were developed. These steels are over 50% stronger than normal high
tensile steels and yet are very tough and easy to machine. These properties are achieved by the almost total elimination of carbon and by
alloying with nickel, cobalt and molybdenum in such a way that it can be precipitation hardened. Maraging steels can only be used for
special, high-stressed applications (due to cost, which is about three times that of conventional alloy steels). They are used for some
airframe and engine components and can be nitride hardened
Airframe Powerplant
59
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steels
Since the 1940s the term stainless steel, also designated corrosion-resistant steel (CRES), has become a household word because of its many
applications in household items as well as in aircraft and missiles. The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the
outstanding advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets. The most important characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion
resistance, strength, toughness, and resistance to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be divided into three general groups based on
their structures:
Austenitic steels are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold working, and
heat treatment serves only to anneal them. They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although some may be slightly magnetic
after cold working. Austenitic steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the critical range and holding to form a structure called
austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range.
Ferritic steels contain no carbon; hence they do not respond to heat treatment. They contain a substantial amount of chromium and may
have a small amount of aluminum. They are always magnetic.
Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloys that harden intensely if they are allowed to cool rapidly from high temperatures. They differ
from the two preceding groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment. The most widely used stainless steels for general use are
those in the 300 series, called 18-8 because they contain approximately 18 % chromium and 8 % nickel. Typical of these types are 301, 302,
321, and 347.
Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages that must be faced by the fabricator and designer.
(1) Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many materials.
(2) Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than of steels, and they conduct heat at a lower rate this makes welding more
difficult
(3) Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high temperatures.
In the use of corrosion-resistant steels for aircraft, the technician must assure that the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft
Airframe Powerplant
60
involved. In most cases a damaged part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified by the part number, however, there are situations
where it is preferable to repair a part by patching or welding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) must be
chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes less deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it
prevents oxidization. The expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than twice that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cut, form, shear, machine, or drill than is ordinary steel. For this reason the
technician who is to work with this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or must be directed by an
experienced technician.
TESTING MATERIAL
As previously state thatthe material must possess the strength required by the demands of dimensions, weight, that metals may be required
to withstand loads of tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion.
Compression Test
Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile testing,
but the test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder. The Load/Deflection graph in the
elastic phase for ductile materials is similar to that in the tensile test. The value of 'E' is
the same in compression as it is in tension. Compression testing is seldom used as an
acceptance test for metallic or plastic materials (except for cast iron). Compression
testing is generally restricted to building materials and research into the properties of
new materials.
The compression test (figure 1.11) is simply the opposite of the tension test with respect
Figure 1.11 Compression
Airframe Powerplant
61
to the direction of loading. In compression testing the sample is squeezed while the load and the displacement are recorded. Compression
tests result in mechanical properties that include the compressive yield stress, compressive ultimate stress, and compressive modulus of
elasticity.
Compressive yield stress is measured in a manner identical to that done for tensile yield strength. When testing metals, it is defined as the
stress corresponding to 0.002 in./in. plastic strain. For plastics, the compressive yield stress is measured at the point of permanent yield on
the stress-strain curve. Moduli are generally greater in compression for most of the commonly used structural materials.
Ultimate compressive strength is the stress required to rupture a specimen. This value is much harder to determine for a compression test
than it is for a tensile test since many material do not exhibit rapid fracture in compression. Materials such as most plastics that do not
rupture can have their results reported as the compressive strength at a specific deformation such as 1%, 5%, or 10% of the sample's original
height.
For some materials, such as concrete, the compressive strength is the most important material property that engineers use when designing
and building a structure. Compressive strength is also commonly used to determine whether a concrete mixture meets the requirements of
the job specifications.
Shear Properties
A shearing stress acts parallel to the stress plane, whereas a tensile or compressive stress acts normal to the stress plane. Shear properties
are primarily used in the design of mechanically fastened components, webs, and torsion members, and other components subject to
parallel, opposing loads.
Shear properties are dependent on the type of shear test and there is a variety of different standard shear tests that can be performed
including the single-shear test, double-shear test, blanking-shear test, torsion-shear test and others. The shear modulus of elasticity is
considered a basic shear property. Other properties, such as the proportional limit stress and shear ultimate stress, cannot be treated as
basic shear properties because of “form factor” effects.
Airframe Powerplant
62
Hardness Test
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. The term can apply to deformation from indentation, scratching, cutting or
bending. In metals, ceramics and most polymers, the deformation considered is plastic deformation of the surface. For elastomers and some
polymers, hardness is defined at the resistance to elastic deformation of the surface. The lack of a fundamental definition indicates that
hardness is not be a basic property of a material, but rather a composite one with contributions from the yield strength, work hardening,
true tensile strength, modulus, and others factors. Hardness measurements are widely used for the quality control of materials because they
are quick and considered to be nondestructive tests when the marks or indentations produced by the test are in low stress areas.
Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also carried out to check case hardening and hardening
and tempering at the various stages of manufacture.
There are a large variety of methods used for determining the hardness of a substance.
The Brinell Test
The Brinell test uses a desktop machine to applying a specified load to a hardened sphere of a specified diameter. The Brinell hardness
number, or simply the Brinell number, is obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the measured surface area of the indentation,
in square millimeters, left on the test surface. The Brinell test is frequently used to determine the hardness metal forgings and castings that
have a large grain structures. The Brinell test provides a measurement over a fairly large area that is less affected by the course grain
structure of these materials than are Rockwell or Vickers tests.
A wide range of materials can be tested using a Brinell test simply by varying the test load and indenter ball size. In the USA, Brinell testing is
typically done on iron and steel castings using a 3,000Kg test force and a 10mm diameter ball. A 1,500 kilogram load is usually used for
aluminum castings. Copper, brass and thin stock are frequently tested using a 500Kg test force and a 10 or 5mm ball. In Europe Brinell
testing is done using a much wider range of forces and ball sizes and it is common to perform Brinell tests on small parts using a 1mm
carbide ball and a test force as low as 1kg. These low load tests are commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests. The test conditions should be
Airframe Powerplant
63
reported along with the Brinell hardness number. A value reported as "60 HB 10/1,500/30" means that a Brinell Hardness of 60 was obtained
using a 10mm diameter ball with a 1,500 kilogram load applied for 30 seconds.
In this test a hardened steel ball is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of a suitable standard load. The diameter of the
impression is then measured using a calibrated microscope the Brinell Hardness Number (H) is found from:
HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D² - Di²)½))
Where
F - applied load, kg
D – indenter diameter, mm
Di – indentation diameter, mm.
The Brinell test was devised by a Swedish researcher at the beginning of the 20th century. The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball
indentor into the surface of the sample using a standard load as shown in figure 1.12. The diameter/load ratio is selected to provide an
impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may be 10,5 or 1mm in diameter; the load may be 3,000, 750 or 30 kgf. The load, P, is related
to the diameter, D by the relationship P/D and this ratio has been standardized for different metals in order that test results are accurate and
reproducible. For steel the ratio is 30: 1 - for example a 10mm ball can be used with a 3,000kgf load or a 1 mm ball with a 30kgf load. For
aluminium alloys the ratio is 5:1.
Airframe Powerplant
64
Figure 1.12 The Brinell Hardness Test
A hardened spherical ball, which is forced into the surface of the metal. This ball is 10 millimeters (0.3937 inch) in diameter. A pressure of
3,000 kilograms is used for ferrous metals and 500 kilograms for nonferrous metals. The pressure must be maintained at least 10 seconds for
ferrous metals and at least 30 seconds for nonferrous metals. The load is applied by hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic pressure is built up by
a hand pump or an electric motor, depending on the model of tester. A pressure gauge indicates the amount of pressure. There is a release
mechanism for relieving the pressure after the test has been made, and a calibrated microscope is provided for measuring the diameter of
the impression in millimeters. The machine has various shaped anvils for supporting the specimen and an elevating screw for bringing the
specimen in contact with the ball penetrator. These are attachments for special tests.To determine the Brinell hardness number for a metal,
measure the diameter of the impression, using the calibrated microscope furnished with the tester. Then convert the measurement into the
Brinell hardness number on the conversion table furnished with the tester.
Airframe Powerplant
65
Airframe Powerplant
66
The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test (figure 1.13.) is similar to the Brinell in that an impression is made by applying a load to an indenter. The hardness
number is then obtained from measurement of the impression. The indenter is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the
measurement is made across the diagonal of the impression.
Figure 1.13 The Vickers Pyramid Identer
As illustrated two diagonals, d1 and d2, are measured, averaged and the surface area calculated then divided into the load applied. As with
the Brinell test the diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables. The hardness may be reported as
Vickers Hardness number (VHN), Diamond Pyramid Number (DPN) or, most commonly, Hv xx where 'xx' represents the load used during the
test.
As mentioned earlier, the Vickers indentation is smaller than the Brinell impression and thus far smaller areas can be tested, making it
possible to carry out a survey across a welded joint, including individual runs and the heat affected zones. The small impression also means
that the surface must be flat and perpendicular to the indentor and should have a better than 300 grit finish.
Airframe Powerplant
67
The width of the slip is adjusted so that its edges line up with the corners of the impression. The diagonal length of the impression is then
obtained from a digital counter geared to the movement of the slip. The reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN) by
reference to tables. The higher the number, the harder the material.
The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid.
The impression, produced by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell indenter, therefore this method is more accurate.
The load, varying from 1kgf to 120 kgf, is usually applied for 30 seconds
The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula:
HV = 1.854*F/ D²
Where
F -applied load, kg
D – length of the impression diagonal, mm
The length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a microscope, which is usually an integral part of the Vickers Tester.
The Rockwell Test
The Rockwell Test (figure 1.14) was developed in the U.S.A. It is used mainly for the rapid routine testing of finished materials, the hardness
number being indicated directly on a dial, no measurement of the diameter of the impression is required.
In the Rockwell test the depth of the indenter penetration into the specimen surface is measured. The indenter may be either a hardened
steel ball with diameter 1/16”, 1/8” or a spherical diamond cone of 120º angle (Brale).
Airframe Powerplant
68
Loading procedure starts from applying a minor load of 10 kgf (3kgf in Rockwell Superficial Test) and then the indicator, measuring the
penetration depth, is set to zero. After that the major load (60, 100 or 150 kgf) is applied. The penetration depth is measured after removal of
the major load.
Hardness is measured in different scales (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K) and in numbers, having no units (in contrast to Brinell and Vickers methods).
Figure 1.14 Rockwell Hardness Test
Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and soft steels are tested with 1/16” diameter steel ball at 100 kgf load (Rockwell hardness scale B).
Harder alloys and hard cast iron are tested with the diamond cone at 150 kgf (Rockwell hardness scale C).
An example of Rockwell test result: 53 HRC. It means 53 units, measured in the scale C by the method HR (Hardness Rockwell)
There are two types of Rockwell tests:
Rockwell : the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf.
Superficial Rockwell : the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested.
Airframe Powerplant
69
Principal of the Rockwell Test:
1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface

2. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established
3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference position as a result of the application of the major
load.
Rockwell Scales
There are several scales associated with the Rockwell test. The 'B' and 'C' scales are most common. The `C' scale is used for harder materials
and uses a 150 kg load. The 'B' scale is used on softer materials and uses a 100 kg load. Scale units are identical but the 'C' scale zero
coincides with the `B' scale 30.
Rockwell Superficial Testis applied for thin strips, coatings, carburized surfaces.
Reduced loads (15 kgf, 30 kgf, and 30 kgf) as a major load and deduced preload (3kgf) are used in the superficial test.
Depending on the indenter, two scales of Rockwell Superficial method may be used: T (1/16” steel ball) or N (diamond cone).
62 R30T means 62 units, measured in the scale 30T (30 kgf, 1/16” steel ball indenter) by the Rockwell Superficial method (R).
Airframe Powerplant
70
Hardness Comparisons
Material BHN HV Rockwell
Aluminium Alloy 100 100 B 57
Mild steel 130 130 B 73
Cutting Tools 650 697 C 60
Instead of measuring the diameter of the impression, the Rockwell tester measures the depth, and the hardness is indicated directly on a
dial attached to the machine. The dial numbers in the outer circle are black, and the inner numbers are red. Rockwell hardness numbers are
based on the difference between the depth of penetration at major and minor loads. The greater this difference, the lower the hardness
number and the softer the material.
Airframe Powerplant
71
Two types of penetrators are used with the Rockwell tester: a diamond cone and a hardened steel ball. The load which forces the penetrator
into the metal is called the major load and is measured in kilograms. The results of each penetrator and load combination are reported on
separate scales, designated by letters. The penetrator, the major load, and the scale vary with the kind of metal being tested.
For hardened steels, the diamond penetrator is used; the major load is 150 kilograms; and the hardness is read on the “C” scale. When this
reading is recorded, the letter “C” must precede the number indicated by the pointer. The C-scale setup is used for testing metals ranging in
hardness from C-20 to the hardest steel (usually about C-70). If the metal is softer than C-20, the B-scale setup is used. With this setup, the
1⁄16-inch ball is used as a penetrator; the major load is 100 kilograms; and the hardness is read on the B-scale.
In addition to the “C” and “B” scales, there are other setups for special testing. The scales, penetrators, major loads, and dial numbers to be
read are listed. The Rockwell tester is equipped with a weight pan, and two weights are supplied with the machine. One weight is marked in
red. The other weight is marked in black. With no weight in the weight pan, the machine applies a major load of 60 kilograms. If the scale
setup calls for a 100 kilogram load, the red weight is placed in the pan. For a 150 kilogram load, the black weight is added to the red weight.
The black weight is always used with the red weight; it is never used alone.
Practically all testing is done with either the B-scale setup or the C-scale setup. For these scales, the colors may be used as a guide in
selecting the weight (or weights) and in reading the dial. For the B-scale test, use the red weight and read the red numbers. For a C-scale
test, add the black weight to the red weight and read the black numbers.
In setting up the Rockwell machine, use the diamond penetrator for testing materials known to be hard. If the hardness is unknown, try the
diamond, since the steel ball may be deformed if used for testing hard materials. If the metal tests below C-22, then change to the steel ball.
Use the steel ball for all soft materials, those testing less than B-100. Should an overlap occur at the top of the B-scale and the bottom of the
C-scale, use the C-scale setup.
Airframe Powerplant
72
Scale Symbol Penetrator Major Load (kg) Dial Color/Number
A Diamond 60 Black
B 1/16 inch 100 Red
C Diamond 150 Black
D Diamond 100 Black
E 1/8 inch 100 Red
F 1/16 inch 60 Red
G 1/16 inch 150 Red
H 1/8 inch 60 Red
K 1/8 inch 150 Red
Before the major load is applied, securely lock the test specimen in place to prevent slipping and to seat the anvil and penetrator properly.
To do this, apply a load of 10 kilograms before the lever is tripped. This preliminary load is called the minor load. The minor load is 10
kilograms regardless of the scale setup.
The metal to be tested in the Rockwell tester must be ground smooth on two opposite sides and be free of scratches and foreign matter.
The surface should be perpendicular to the axis of penetration, and the two opposite ground surfaces should be parallel. If the specimen is
tapered, the amount of error will depend on the taper. A curved surface will also cause a slight error in the hardness test. The amount of
error depends on the curvature; i.e., the smaller the radius of curvature, the greater the error. To eliminate such error, a small flatshould be
ground on the curved surface if possible.
Airframe Powerplant
73
Clad aluminum alloy sheets cannot be tested directly with any accuracy with a Rockwell hardness tester. If the hardness value of the base
metal is desired, the pure aluminum coating must be removed from the area to be checked prior to testing.
Impact Testing
Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability to resist mechanical shock, to ensure that
temper brittleness has not been introduced during heat treatments.
Impact testing reveals how tough a material is. Toughness can be defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy without breaking.
High molecular weight favors high toughness. Crystallinity gives higher strength, yet lower toughness; unless the material can transfer the
energy through its intermolecular structure. For example, nylon is crystalline and is tough due to the molecular strength of its backbone.
Toughness is often considered to be the most critical mechanical property of thermoplastics, because it relates to the service life of the part
and influences product safety and liability. Due to this importance, we must understand the tests involved in determining toughness.
Impact testing is commonly done with pendulum impact tests. The two most common pendulum impact tests are Charpy and Izod. In both
methods the tested piece is notched. The intention of the notch is to approximate end use conditions; the notch serves as a stress
concentrator. These tests give a value for toughness, yet their respective values are not directly comparable. This is due to the differences in
how they are tested.
Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel - to
fracture and fail. The more energy that is required then the tougher the material.
The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the toughness of the test piece under slow loading
conditions. However, in the context of an impact test we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to brittle or fast
fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions.
There are two types (figure 1.15) of machine used for testing aircraft materials, both of which use a pendulum weight to fracture the
Airframe Powerplant
74
specimen. The energy absorbed by the specimen is measured from the angle through which the pendulum swings after causing the
fracture. The IZOD testis required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be tested at high or low
temperatures the CHARPY test is used.
The test is carried out within the 6 seconds of removal of the test piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are available which carry
out both the Izod and Charpy tests. The two tests use different specimens and methods of holding the specimens, but both tests make use
of a pendulum-testing machine. For both tests, the specimen is broken by a single overload event due to the impact of the pendulum. A
stop pointer is used to record how far the pendulum swings back up after fracturing the specimen. The impact toughness of a metal is
determined by measuring the energy absorbed in the fracture of the specimen. This is simply obtained by noting the height at which the
pendulum is released and the height to which the pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen. The height of the pendulum times the
weight of the pendulum produces the potential energy and the difference in potential energy of the pendulum at the start and the end of
the test is equal to the absorbed energy.
Izod impact testing (Fig. B) was initially developed by a metallurgist (whom the test is named after) for testing metals used for cutting tools;
subsequently it was adopted for use by the plastics industry for testing plastics. The piece to be tested is held vertically and the impact
contacts the piece on the notched side in a cantilever beam fashion. The un-notched Izod test occurs with the sample simply turned around
so the notch is opposite the impact side. The test is then labeled "un-notched".
Charpy impact testing (Fig. A) also utilizes a pendulum to impact the piece. Yet, the orientation of the piece is horizontal and the impact is
opposite the notch side. This test simulates a high speed flexural test (three point bend) of the material. Charpy impact is particularly
valuable in measuring the effect of micro cracking, flow and weld lines on the parts toughness.
To carry out the test the standard specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the notch by a
pendulum as shown. The specimen is fractured and the pendulum swings through, the height of the swing being a measure of the amount
of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Conventionally three specimens are tested at any one temperature, and the results
averaged.
Airframe Powerplant
75
A characteristic of carbon and low alloy steels is that they exhibit a change in fracture behavior as the temperature falls with the failure
mode changing from ductile to brittle. If impact testing is carried out over a range of temperatures the results of energy absorbed versus
temperature can be plotted to give the 'S' curve illustrated.
What the curve shows is that a ductile fracture absorbs a greater amount of energy than a brittle fracture in the same material. Knowing the
temperature at which the fracture behavior changes is therefore of crucial importance when the service temperature of a structure is
considered - ideally in service a structure should operate at upper shelf temperatures.
The shape of the S curve and the positions of the upper and lower shelves are all affected by composition, heat treatment condition,
whether or not the steel has been welded, welding heat input, welding consumable and a number of additional factors. All the factors must
be controlled if good notch toughness is required. This means that close control of the welding parameters is essential if impact testing is a
specification requirement. Austenitic stainless steels, nickel and aluminium alloys do not show this change in fracture behavior, the fracture
remaining ductile even to very low temperatures. This is one reason why these types of alloys are used in cryogenic applications.
Airframe Powerplant
76
Figure 1.15 Charpy / Izod Testing
Airframe Powerplant
77
Creep
Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of materials subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation
is plastic and occurs even though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the material.
At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in Kelvin), the creep rate is very low, but, at higher temperatures, it
becomes more rapid. For this reason, creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature phenomenon, associated with super-heated
steam plant and gas turbine technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will creep significantly at, or a little above,
ambient temperatures and some aircraft materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions. Creep is a time-dependent
deformation of a material while under an applied load that is below its yield strength. It is most often occurs at elevated temperature, but
some materials creep at room temperature. Creep terminates in rupture if steps are not taken to bring to a halt.
Creep data for general design use are

usually obtained under conditions of
constant uniaxial loading and
constant temperature. Results of tests
are usually plotted as strain versus
time up to rupture. As indicated in the
image, creep often takes place in
three stages. In the initial stage, strain
occurs at a relatively rapid rate but
the rate gradually decreases until it
Figure 1.16 Stages of Creep
becomes approximately constant
during the second stage. This constant creep rate is called the minimum creep rate or steady-state creep rate since it is the slowest creep
rate during the test. In the third stage, the strain rate increases until failure occurs.
Creep in service is usually affected by changing conditions of loading and temperature and the number of possible stress-temperature-time
Airframe Powerplant
78
combinations is infinite. While most materials are subject to creep, the creep mechanism is often different between metals, plastics, rubber,
and concrete.
Creep is defined as the time-dependent strain that occurs under load at elevated temperature and operates in most applications of heat-
resistant high-alloy castings at normal service temperatures. In time, creep may lead to excessive deformation and even fracture at stresses
considerably below those determined in room temperature and elevated-temperature short-term tension tests.
When the rate or degree of deformation is the limiting factor, the design stress is based on the minimum creep rate and design life after
allowing for initial transient creep. The stress that produces a specified minimum creep rate of an alloy or a specified amount of creep
deformation in a given time (for example, 1% of total 100,000 h) is referred to as the limiting creep strength, or limiting stress.
Stress rupture testing is a valuable adjunct to creep testing and is used to select the section sizes necessary to prevent creep rupture of a
component. It should be noted that the long-term creep and stress-rupture values (For example, 100,000 h) are often extrapolated from
short-term tests. Whether these property values are extrapolated or determined directly, both methods will often provide accurate
information on the operating life of high-temperature parts.
The actual material behavior is often difficult to predict accurately because of the complexity of the service stresses, variation in application
relative to the idealized conditions, uni-axial loading conditions in the standard tests, and also because of the attenuating factors such as
cyclic loading, temperature fluctuations, and metal loss from corrosion. The designer and the metallurgist should therefore be prepared to
anticipate the synergistic effect of these variables.
During creep testing, the tensile specimen is subjected to either a constant load or stress at a constant temperature. Most creep tests
conducted at constant load are concerned with concerned with information relating to specific engineering applications, whereas creep
tests at constant stress are necessary for the specific understanding of the mechanism of creep. During the creep test, strain (change in
length) is measured as a function of elapsed time. Creep test data is presented as a plot between time and strain known as creep curve. The
slope of the creep curve is designated as creep rate dt/dε.
Airframe Powerplant
79
The curve may show the instantaneous elastic and plastic strain that occurs as the load is applied, followed by the plastic strain which occurs
over time. Three stages to the creep curve may be identified:
Creep in Metals when a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic deformation. This is then followed by plastic
strain, which occurs in three stages (figure 1.16):
Primary Creep - begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time as strain-hardening sets in.
(in which the creep resistance increases with strain leading to a decreasing creep strain rate)
Secondary Creep - the rate of strain is fairly uniform and at its lowest value.
(in which there is a balance between work hardening and recovery processes, leading to a minimum constant
creep rate.)
Tertiary Creep - the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally leading to rupture. This final stage coincides with gross necking of the
component, prior to failure. The rate of creep is at a maximum in this phase(in which there is an accelerating creep
rate due to the accumulating damage, which leads to creep rupture, and which may only be seen at high
temperatures and stresses and in constant load machines.)
The first requirement would be typical of that for gas turbine blades, while the second standard would be most typically seen in applications
such as those for steam turbines.
Secondary creep, which occurs as a linear function of time, is heavily dependent on temperature and stress. Since creep is a thermally
activated process, the minimum secondary creep rate can be described by a fundamental Arrhenius equation of the form:
ε= dε/dt = Kσn exp(- Q/RT); for T=const, dε/dt = Kσn
Airframe Powerplant
80
Where:
T - Temperature [K];
T - Time to rupture, [h]
K - Creep constant
n - Creep exponent (varying from metal to metal n=3÷8; most common value is n=5; determined experimentally determined by plotting
the strain rate as a
Function of stress)
σ - Applied stress/nominal stress
Q - Activation energy for creep
R - Gas constant (8,314 J/mol K)
The critical temperature for creep is 40% of the melting temperature in Kelvin:
If T>0.40Tm then creep is likely.
For metallic materials most creep tests are conducted in uni-axial tensile mode. However, uni-axial compression tests are also used for
brittle materials to avoid stress amplification and corresponding crack propagation. For most materials creep properties are independent of
loading direction.
The minimum creep rate is the most important design parameter derived from the creep curve. This particular engineering design
parameter is primarily considered for long-life applications, e.g. nuclear power plant components. Conversely, for short-life components
(e.g. turbine blades, rocket motor nozzles), time to rupture or rupture lifetime is the dominant factor in design. Minimum creep rate is
attained using the stress rupture test which tests the material to the point of failure. This is basically similar to a creep test except that the
Airframe Powerplant
81
test is always carried out at higher loads. In a creep test total strain is often less than 0.5%, while in stress-rupture tests it is normally around
50%.
Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep
Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very low stress, primary creep may occur, but this falls to a
negligible value in the secondary stage, due to strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or temperature, however, the rate of
secondary creep will increase and lead to tertiary creep and inevitable failure.
It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable information for the design of structures, which must carry
static loads over long periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data determined from long- time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours);
are therefore essential. Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep tests are sometimes used as
acceptance tests.
The Effect of Grain Size on Creep
Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain boundaries, creep resistance is improved by increased
grain size, due to the reduced grain boundary region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that some modern, high-performance
turbine blades are being made from directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved single-crystal) castings.
Creep in Plastics
Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical, behavior to that described for metals. Since most plastics possess
lower thermal properties than metals, the choice of plastic for important applications, particularly at elevated temperature, must take creep
considerations into account.
Fatigue
An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 % of failures of engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences
Airframe Powerplant
82
of modern engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in
many instances, has made the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, static strength properties.
Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude, could cause failure in components, which were capable of
safely carrying much greater, steady loads. This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing failure was likened to a progressive
weakening of the material, over a period of time and hence the attribution of the term 'fatigue'. Very few constructional members are
immune from it, and especially those operating in a dynamic environment.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which aircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional
high peaks, due to gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service behavior, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must
be tested in conditions as close as possible to those existing in service.
Fatigue cracking is one of the primary damage mechanisms of structural components. Fatigue cracking results from cyclic stresses that are
below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material. The name “fatigue” is based on the concept that a material
becomes “tired” and fails at a stress level below the nominal strength of the material. The facts that the original bulk design strengths are
not exceeded and the only warning sign of an impending fracture is an often hard to see crack, makes fatigue damage especially
dangerous. Fatigueis a type of failure of a material, occurring under alternating loads. Most of the failures of machine details are caused by
fatigue
The fatigue life of a component can be expressed as the number of loading cycles required to initiate a fatigue crack and to propagate the
crack to critical size. Therefore, it can be said that fatigue failure occurs in three stages – crack initiation; slow, stable crack growth; and rapid
fracture. There are many mechanisms that can lead to failure but fatigue is perhaps one of the most insidious since it can lead to a
catastrophic failure with little or no warning. Fatigue life is the number of cycling stresses, causing failure of the material. Frequency of
these stresses is not important.
Failure can occur at a fluctuating load well below the yield point of the metal and below the allowable static design stress. The number of
cycles at which failure occurs may vary from a couple of hundreds to millions. There will be little or no deformation at failure and the
Airframe Powerplant
83
fracture has a characteristic surface.
Fatigue limit is the maximum value of repeatedly applied stress that the material can withstand after an infinite number of cycles (10-20
mln. Cycles in practice).Fatigue limit of a material is much lower, than its ultimate tensile strength.
Fatigue strength at N cycles is the load, producing the material fracture after N cycling applications of the load.
The rotating specimen in form of a cantilever is driven by an electric motor (figure 1.17). The specimen is loaded by the force F, applied to
the ball bearing, mounted on the end of the specimen. Since the force direction does not change, the direction of the stress applied to the
specimen will be reversed each 180º of the shaft rotation. This scheme provides cycling loading of the specimen, presented in the
equivalent scheme.
There are two stages in the process of fatigue cracking - a period of time during which a fatigue crack is nucleated (dislocations accumulate
near surface stress concentration) and a second stage where the crack grows incrementally leaving the ripples described above (some of the
tiny micro-cracks join together and begin to propagate through the material in a direction that is perpendicular to the maximum tensile
stress). In an un-welded component the bulk of the life is spent in initiating a fatigue crack with a shorter period spent in crack propagation.
S-N Curves
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between the amount
of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the material.
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material, it can be seen that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress
cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the
material will endure an infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level.
This limiting stress is called the `Fatigue Limit' and, for steels, the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the
static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.)
Airframe Powerplant
84
Figure 1.17 Typical S – N Curve
Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit as such and it can be
seen that these materials will fail if subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at very small stresses. When materials have
no fatigue limit an endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles is quoted instead.
It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service at the
appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this philosophy.
Airframe Powerplant
85
Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case with metals, the number of stress cycles, required to produce a
fatigue failure, will increase as the maximum stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is, however, generally no fatigue limit for these
materials and some form of endurance limit must be applied.
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a high- cycle fatigue mode, a mere 10% improvement in fatigue
strength can result in a 100-times life improvement.
To find the fatigue limit the fatigue test is repeated at different loads.The tests results are presented in form of S-N curve (stress vs. number
of cycles). Fatigue fracture is characterized by presence of two different types of the surface.
One part is smooth and discolored with ripple-like marks, indicating slow crack growth from the center of the crack formation. Another part
of the surface has coarse crystalline appearance resulted from the final catastrophic crack propagation.
The following factors affect fatigue fracture:
Surface factor
Fatigue cracks form and initiate on the specimen surface therefore hardened and smooth surface (without stress concentrations - notch,
flaw) will increase the fatigue limit.
Compressive stress
Compressive stresses, produced in the specimen surface by Shot penning, cold work or heat treatment result in considerable increase of
fatigue limit.
Micro-structure defects
Non-metallic inclusions and other micro-defects may initiate formation of fatigue cracks.
Environmental factor
Fatigue in the presence of corrosive environment (Corrosion fatigue) occurs at lower cycling stresses and after lower number of cycles.
Airframe Powerplant
86
Fatigue Failure
As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known (or can be ascertained), it would seem reasonable to suppose that fatigue
failure, due to lack of suitable allowances in design, should not occur.
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the most sophisticated engineering product does not possess immunity from
this mode of failure. Such failures are often due to unforeseen factors in design, environmental or operating conditions, material, and
manufacturing processes.
Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are:
An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or without an applied steady stress).
A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.
The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as experienced in aircraft cabin pressurization, during each take-
off (e.g. daily), or they may have a relatively short time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic buffeting/vibration of a wing
panel. The former example would be considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-cycle fatigue. In practice, the level of the
fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to cause cracking of a given material, are affected by many other variables, such as stress
concentration points (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface finish, material imperfections etc.
Vibration - Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and, because most dynamic structures are subjected
to vibration, this is undoubtedly the most common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natural frequency at which they will freely
vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large, heavy, flexible components vibrate at a low frequency, while small, light, stiff components vibrate
at a high frequency.
Resonant frequencies are undesirable (and in some cases could be disastrous), so it is important to ensure that, over their normal operating
ranges, critical components are not vibrated at their natural frequencies and so avoid creating resonance. The resonant frequency, of a
component, is governed by its mass and stiffness and, on certain critical parts, it is often necessary to do full-scale fatigue tests to confirm
adequate fatigue life before putting the product into service.
Airframe Powerplant
87
Fatigue Metallurgy
Under the action of fatigue stresses, minute, local, plastic deformation on an atomic scale, takes place along slip planes within the material
grains. If the fatigue stresses are continued, then micro cracks are formed within the grains, in the area of the highest local stress, (usually at
or near the surface of the material). The micro cracks join together and propagate across the grain boundaries but not along them.
A fatigue fracture generally develops in three stages (figure 1.18):
• Initiation
• Propagation (crack growth)
• Ultimate (rapid) fracture.
Figure 1.18 Fatique Crack Propagation
The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of:
An area, on which a series of curved, parallel, relatively smooth ridges are present and are center around the starting point of the
crack. These ridges are sometimes called conchoidal lines or 'beach marks' or 'arrest lines'.
A rougher, typically crystalline section, which is the final rapid fracture when the cross-section is no longer capable of carrying its
normal, steady load.
Airframe Powerplant
88
The arrest lines are, normally, formed when the loading is changed, or the loading is intermittent. However, in addition to these
characteristic and informative marks, there are similar, but much finer lines (called 'striations'), which literally show the position of the crack
front after each cycle. These striations are obviously of great importance to metallurgists and failure investigators when attempting to
estimate the crack initiation and/or propagation life. The striations are often so fine and indistinct that electron beam microscopes are
required to count them.
In normal circumstances, a great deal of energy is required to 'weaken' the material sufficiently to initiate a fatigue crack, and it is not
surprising, therefore, to find that the nucleation phase takes a relatively long time.
However, once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentration (present at the crack front) is sufficient to cause the crack
to propagate relatively quickly, and gaining in speed as the crack front not only increases in size, but also reduces the component cross-
sectional area.
A point is eventually reached (known as the 'critical crack length') at which the remaining cross-section is sufficiently reduced to cause a
gross overloading situation, and a sudden fracture finally occurs.
It is not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to failure, with the propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%.
This is one of the major reasons for operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in detecting fatigue cracks in components before a
failure occurs.
Fatigue Promoters
As fatigue cracks initiate at locations of highest stress and lowest local strength, the nucleation site will be:
Dictated largely by geometry and the general stress distribution.

Located at or near the surface or
Centered on surface defects/imperfections, such as scratches, pits, inclusions, dislocations and the like.
Airframe Powerplant
89
Environment
One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the component is operating in a corrosive medium. Steel
(normally), has a well-defined fatigue limit on the S-N curve but, if a fatigue test is conducted in a corrosive environment, not only does the
general fatigue strength drop appreciably, but the curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve (e.g. the fatigue failure stress continues
to fall as the number of cycles increases).
Other environmental effects such as fretting and corrosion pitting, erosion or elevated temperatures will also adversely affect fatigue
strength.
Fatigue Preventers
If a component is prone to fatigue failure in service, then several methods of improvement are available, in the form of:
Quality : Correct and eliminate any failure-related manufacturing or processing short comings.
Material : Select a material with a significantly better fatigue strength, or corrosion-resistance or corrosion-protection if
relevant.
Geometry : a) Increase the size (c.s.a.) to reduce the general stress level or modify the local geometry to reduce the change in
section (large radius).
b) Modify the geometry to change the vibration frequency or introduce a damping feature, to reduce the vibration
amplitudes
c) Improve the surface finish or put a compressive stress in the skin (e.g. shot peen or cold expand).
Cold Expansion (Broaching) - Most fatigue failures occur whilst a material is subject to a tensile, alternating stress. If the most fatigue-
prone areas, such as spar fastener holes, have a compression stress applied, they are significantly more resistant to fatigue failure.
Airframe Powerplant
90
The fastener hole is initially checked for defects (using, usually, an Eddy Current NDT procedure) and the surface finish is further improved
by reaming (and checked once again).A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole, resulting in a localized area of residual
(compressive) stress which will provide a neutral or, at least, a significantly reduced level of fatigue in the area around the fastener hole.
Do's and Don'ts - Preventing Fatigue Failures
DO
• Be careful not to damage the surface finish of a component by mishandling.

• Use the right tools for assembling press-fit components etc.
• Maintain drawing sizes and tolerances.
• Keep the correct procedures (e.g. don't overheat when welding).
• Avoid contact or near contact of components that might cause fretting when touching.
DON'T
• Leave off protective coverings - plastic end caps etc.

• Score the surface.
• Leave sharp corners or ragged holes.
• Force parts unnecessarily to make them fit.
• Work metal unless it is in the correct heat-treated state.
The fatigue crack growth threshold, defining crack growth as either very slow or nonexistent, has been traditionally determined with
standardized load reduction methodologies. These experimental procedures can induce load history effects that result in crack closure. This
history can affect the crack driving force, i.e. during the unloading process the crack will close first at some point along the wake or blunt at
the crack tip, reducing the effective load at the crack tip. One way to reduce the effects of load history is to propagate a crack under
constant amplitude loading.
Airframe Powerplant
91
Fatigue Meters
Fatigue meters are used to check overall stress levels on aircraft and to monitor the fatigue history of the aircraft. Fatigue meters also allow a
check to be made on the moment in time when the aircraft exceeds the design limits imposed on it.
Strain Gauges
Strain gauges may be used to monitor stress levels on specific aircraft structures. Strain gauges are thin-foil, electrical, resistor elements,
bonded to the aircraft structure. Their resistance varies proportional to the applied stress loading.
Fatigue Fuses
Fatigue fuses are metallic fuses, which are bonded to the structure and which fail at different fatigue stresses. The electrical current, flowing
through the fuse, will vary and thus, provide an indication of the stress level.
Intelligent Skins Development
Modern developments in aircraft structures will allow the structures to be designed and built with a variety of sensors and systems
embedded into the structure and skin. This would mainly be restricted to structures manufactured from composite materials. One major
benefit of this is to allow the structure to monitor its own loads and fatigue life.
Smart Structures
The generic heading 'Smart Structures' actually covers three areas of development:
• Smart Structures. These are structures, which have sensors, actuators, signal-processing and adaptive control systems built in
• Smart Skins. These have radar and communications antennae embedded in, or beneath, the structural skin
Airframe Powerplant
92
• Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fiber optic sensors
Smart Structures perceived benefits include:
• Self-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity
• Reduced life cycle costs
• Reduced inspection costs
• Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased knowledge of composite material characteristics
• From a military point of view - an improvement in 'Stealth' characteristics.
A fully monitored and self-diagnostic system could:

• Assess structural integrity.
• Pinpoint structural damage.
• Process flight history.
Composite laminates, containing embedded fiber optic sensors can be used for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), including fatigue
monitoring and flight envelope exceedance monitoring and their advantages include:
• Cover a greater area of structure
• Not prone to electrical interference
• Less vulnerable to damage when embedded in the plies increased knowledge of structural loads aids designers.
Airframe Powerplant
93
HEAT TREATMENT
This lesson covers the forms and principles of heat treatment in general. Both ferrous and nonferrous heat treatment of metals is covered.
Information given is for training purposes only. When actually performing heat treatment tasks, you must refer to the applicable technical
publications.
Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in the solid state for the purpose of obtaining
certain desirable characteristics. The rate of heating and cooling determines the crystalline structure of the material. In general, ferrous
metals (metals with iron bases) and nonferrous metals, as well as their alloys, respond to some form of heat treatment. Almost all metals
have a critical temperature at which the grain structure changes. Successful heat treatment, therefore, depends largely on knowledge of
these temperatures as well as the time required to produce the desired change.
Airframe Powerplant
94
Type of steel, properties and uses :

TYPE OF STEEL PROPERTIES WORKED BY USEFUL QUALITIES USES REMERKS
Cast Iron (up to Brittle weak, fairly soft Casts easily wears to Properties unaffected by
Casting and Machine frames
4.7% and (very hard surface if good surface, resists heat lubricating owing to
cutting only piston rings
impurities) "chilled”) crushing. graphite carbon
Wrought Iron Ductile,

Ductile, Malleable fairly Easily magnetized easily Cores of dynamos, Cannot be hardened by
(about 0.02% and Malleable fairly
strong ,soft welded lifting chains quenching
fewer) strong, soft
Bolt tubes, rivet,

Mild Steel (low Ductile, less malleable , Cannot be hardened by
Easily forged welded plates, all part where
carbon)(up to strong harder and more quenching: for surface
All methods machined or stamped to great strength or
0.003% and few uniform than wrought hardening see “case
shape hardness is not
impurities) iron hardening”
required
Medium carbon
Rather strong and harder Shafts, rods, bolts,
Steel (0.3% to0.6% All methods Not quits so easily worked
but less ductile and tubes. Rather strong
and few (rarely cast) as mild steel
malleable than mild steel parts.
impurities)
Strong, less ductile,

High carbon Steel
hardness and toughness Forging and Can be made very hard Cutting tools of all See“ Hardening
(0.6% to 1.5% and
depend of heat cutting without undue brittleness kinds. Tempering”
few impurities)
treatment
Airframe Powerplant
95
Properties and Uses of Common Steels :
METAL PROPERTIES USES
Brittle, weak, casts easily, resists crushing. Good anti-friction Machine beds, frames and details. General
Cast Iron(up to 4.5% carbon)
properties, self-lubricating. Good vibration damping qualities. castings, bearings.
Ductile, malleable, fairly strong, soft, easily magnetized, easily

Wrought Iron(0.02% carbon) Cores of dynamos, lifting chains, crane hooks.
welded.
Machines bolts and nuts.

Ductile, less malleable, stronger and harder than wrought iron.
Mild Steel(Low carbon) General workshop machined components,
Easily forged, welded, machined or stamped to shape
structural girders forgings, car body panels.
Leaf springs, wire ropes, hammer heads,

Higher strength than mild steel and responds to heat treatment
Medium Carbon Steel hacksaw frames, cold chisels, wood
to further increase its toughness and hardness
saws, axles, crankshaft forgings
More costly than med. carbon steel. Mainly used where its
Cutting tools, such as files, drills, knives, wood
High Carbon Steel properties of hardness and toughness after heat treatment can
chisels, etc. Coil springs.
be exploited.
Adding chromium gives greater hardness for

the manufacture of ball bearings. Adding
By adding other metals in sufficient quantity, the properties of
Alloy Steels nickel gives greater strength and toughness
carbon steel can be altered.
and resistance to fatigue. Adding tungsten it
retains its hardness at high temperatures.
Airframe Powerplant
96
Airframe Powerplant
97
PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
The results that may be obtained by heat treatment depend, to a great extent, on the structure of the metal and the manner in which the
structure changes when the metal is heated and coded. A pure metal cannot be hardened by heat treatment because there is little change
in its structure when heated. On the other hand, most alloys respond to heat treatment because their structures change with heating and
cooling.
An alloy may be in the form of a solid solution, mechanical mixture, or a combination of a solid solution and a mechanical mixture. When an
alloy is in the form of a solid solution, the elements and compounds that form the alloy are absorbed, one into the other, in much the same
way that salt is dissolved in a glass of water. The constituents cannot be identified even under a microscope. When two or more elements or
compounds are mixed, but can be identified by microscopic examination, a mechanical mixture is formed. A mechanical mixture might be
compared to the mixture of sand and gravel in concrete. The sand and gravel are both visible. Just as the sand and gravel are held together
and kept in place by the mixture of cement, the other constituents of an alloy are embedded in the mixture formed by the base metal.
An alloy that is in the form of a mechanical mixture at ordinary temperatures may change to a solid solution when heated. When cooled
back to normal temperature, the alloy may return to its original structure. On the other hand, it may remain a solid solution or form a
combination of a solid solution and mechanical mixture. An alloy that consists of a combination of a solid solution and mechanical mixture
at normal temperatures may change to a solid solution when heated. When cooled, the alloy may remain a solid solution, return to its
original structure, or form a complex solution.
Heat treatment involves a cycle of events. These events are heating, generally done slowly to ensure uniformity; soaking, or holding the
metal at a given temperature for a specified length of time; and cooling, or returning the metal to room temperature, sometimes rapidly,
sometimes slowly. These events are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Heating
Uniform temperature is of primary importance in the heating cycle. If one section of a part is heated more rapidly than another, the resulting
Airframe Powerplant
98
uneven expansion often causes distortion or cracking of the part. Uniform heating is most nearly obtained by slow heating.
The rate at which a part maybe heated depends on several factors. One important factor is the heat conductivity of the metal. A metal that
conducts heat readily may be heated at a faster rate than one in which heat is not absorbed throughout the part as rapidly. The condition of
the metal also affects the rate at which it may be heated. For example, the heating rate for hardened tools and parts should be slower than
for metals that are not in a stressed condition. Finally, size and cross section have an important influence on the rate of heating. Parts large
in cross section require a slower heating rate than thin sections. This slower heating rate is necessary so that the interior will be heated to
the same temperature as the surface. It is difficult to uniformly heat parts that are uneven in cross section, even though the heating rate is
slow. However, such parts are less apt to be cracked or excessively warped when the heating rate is slow.
Soaking
The object of heat treating is to bring about changes in the

properties of metal. To accomplish this, the metal must be
H
heated to the temperature at which structural changes
ea
ti Co take place within the metal. These changes occur when the
ng oli constituents of the metal go into the solution. Once the
10 ng
0o 10 metal is heated to the proper temperature, it must be held
C/ 0o at that temperature until the metal is heated throughout
h C/
and the changes have time to take place. This holding of
h
the metal at the proper temperature is called SOAKING.
The length of time at that temperature is called the
SOAKING PERIOD. The soaking period depends on the
chemical analysis of the metal and the mass of the part.
When steel parts are uneven in cross section, the soaking period is determined by the heaviest section.
Airframe Powerplant
99
In heating steels, the metal is seldom raised from room temperature to the final temperature in one operation. Instead, the steel is slowly
heated to a temperature below the point at which the solid solution begins, and it is then held at that temperature until heat is absorbed
throughout the metal. This process is called PREHEATING. Following the preheating, the steel is quickly heated to the final temperature.
Preheating aids in obtaining uniform temperature throughout the part being heated, and, in this way, reduces distortion and cracking.
When apart is of intricate design, it may have to be preheated at more than one temperature to prevent cracking and excessive warping. As
an example, assume that an intricate part is to be heated to 1,500°F (815°C) for hardening. This part might be slowly heated to 600°F (315°C),
be soaked at this temperature, then be heated slowly to 1,200°F (649°C), and then be soaked at that temperature. Following the second
preheat; the part would be heated quickly to the hardening; temperature. Nonferrous metals are seldom preheated because they usually do
not require it. Furthermore, preheating tends to increase the grain size in these metals.
Cooling
After being heated to the proper temperature, the metal must be returned to room temperature to complete the heat-treating process. The
metal is cooled by placing it in direct contact with a gas, liquid, or solid, or some combination of these. The solid, liquid, or gas used to cool
the metal is called a “cooling medium.”
The rate at which the metal should be cooled depends on both the metal and the properties desired. The rate of cooling also depends on
the medium; therefore, the choice of a cooling medium has an important influence on the properties obtained.
Cooling metals rapidly is called “quenching,” and the oil, water, brine, or other mediums used for rapid cooling is called a “quenching
medium.” Since most metals must be cooled rapidly during the hardening process, quenching is generally associated with hardening.
However, quenching does not always result in an increase in hardness. For example, copper is usually quenched in water during annealing.
Other metals, air-hardened steels for example, may be cooled at a relatively slow rate for hardening.
Some metals are easily cracked or warped during quenching. Other metals may be cooled at a rapid rate with no ill effects. Therefore, the
quenching medium must be chosen to fit the metal. Brine and water cool metals quickly, and should be used only for metals that require a
Airframe Powerplant
100
rapid rate of cooling. Oil cools at a slower rate and is more suitable for metals that are easily damaged by rapid cooling. Generally, carbon
steels are considered water hardened and alloy steels oil hardened. Nonferrous metals are usually quenched in water.
The various heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling of metals. They differ, however, in the
temperatures to which the metals are heated, the rates at which they are cooled, and, of course, in the final result. The most common forms
of heat treatment for ferrous metals are annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering, and case hardening. Most nonferrous metals can be
annealed but never tempered, normalized, or case hardened. Successful heat-treating requires close control over all factors affecting the
heating and cooling of metals. Such control is possible only when the proper equipment is available, and the equipment is selected to fit
the particular job.
Micro-structure of Steel
The constituents of carbon steel are pure iron (ferrite), and a chemical compound of carbon in iron called iron carbide (cementite). In low
carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite.
With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, with 0.8% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite.
Above 0.8% carbon content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile and not very
strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard and brittle. As the carbon content is increased up
to 0.8% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When the carbon content exceeds 0.8%, increasing cementite content, the steel becomes very
hard and more brittle.
When steel is heated, the following changes will occur to the microstructure:
The temperature at which the change starts (lower critical point) is the same for all steels and is about 723°C. At this temperature, the
pearlite disappears and the ferrite and cementite of which it is composed, dissolves and forms a solid solution known as austenite which is
non-magnetic. The finishing point of the transformation (the upper critical point) varies according to the steel. In steel containing 0.8%
carbon (wholly pearlite) there is only one critical point. The whole transformation takes place at about 723°C. Therefore, steel containing
Airframe Powerplant
101
lower or higher carbon content than 0.8% must be subjected to increase in temperature (upper critical point) to bring the free ferrite or
cementite into solid solution. When steel is allowed to cool slowly these changes occur in the reverse order.
Airframe Powerplant
102
The amount of carbon present in steel has a major effect on the mechanical properties. The form in which the carbon is present is also
important.
Slow-Cooled Steels
Carbon can be present in these steels in the following forms:
Airframe Powerplant
103
When the carbon is fully dissolved and, consequently, uniformly distributed in a solid solution, the metallurgical structure is called ferrite.
At room temperature only a very small amount of carbon (0.006%) can be contained in solid solution, therefore this ferrite structure is
almost pure iron. It is (not surprisingly) soft, weak and ductile.
When 1 carbon atom chemically combines with 3 iron atoms the result is called cementite or iron carbide. It is very hard and brittle.
Cementite can be present either as free cementite or laminated with ferrite (in alternate layers) to produce a metallurgical structure
called pearlite. As pearlite is half cementite and half ferrite, it is not surprising to find that pearlite combines the properties of ferrite and
cementite l.e. whereas ferrite was too soft and weak - and cementite was basically strong but too hard and brittle - pearlite is strong
without being brittle.
The amount of carbon necessary to produce a totally pearlite structure is 0.83% but this material is a little too hard for general structural
use. If the carbon content exceeds this value, the excess carbon forms carbon-rich cementite areas along the grain boundaries, and this is
known as free cementite. Such high-carbon steels as already stated are very hard and strong but very brittle. Mild steel has a metallurgical
structure comprising approximately one third pearlites and two thirds ferrites.
Airframe Powerplant
104
During heat-treatment carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a steady rise (if “straight) in temperature occurs. However, at
approximately 700°C, there is a reduction in the rate of temperature rise (a 'hesitation'), even though the heating is continued (figure 1.19).
This hesitation starts at 700°C and finishes at up to 200°C higher (depending on the percentage of carbon present) and, eventually, the
temperature rise speeds up and the rate of rise is similar to that which occurred before the hesitation.
The start of the hesitation is known as the `lower critical point' and the end is called the ùpper critical point', and the phenomenon of the
temperature response is due to a change in the crystalline structure of the steel in between the two critical points.
Airframe Powerplant
105
Forms of Heat Treatment of Steel
There are different forms of heating ferrous materials such as

steel. The methods covered in this chapter are hardening,
quenching, and tempering, annealing, normalizing, and case
hardening. Terms such as carburizing, cyaniding, and
nitriding are also discussed.
Heat treatment considerably transforms the grain structure

of steel, and it is while passing through a critical temperature
range that steel acquires hardening power. When a piece of
steel is heated slowly and uniformly beyond a red heat, its
appearance will increase in brightness until a certain
temperature is reached. The color will change slightly,
Figure 1.19 Temperature – Time of steel heat-treatment

becoming somewhat darker, which may be taken as an
indication that a transformation is taking place within the
metal (pearlite being converted into austenite).When this change of state is complete, the steel will continue to increase in brightness, and if
cooled quickly to prevent the change from reversing, hardness will be produced. If, instead of being rapidly quenched, the steel is allowed
to cool slowly, the metal will again pass through a change of state, and the cooling rate will be momentarily arrested.
To obtain a condition of maximum hardness, it is necessary to raise the temperature of the steel sufficiently high to cause the change of
state to fully complete itself. This temperature is known as the upper critical point. Steel that has been heated to its upper critical point will
harden completely if rapidly quenched; however, in practice, it is necessary to exceed this temperature by approximately 28° to 56°C (50° to
100°F) to ensure thorough heating of the inside of the piece. If the upper critical temperature is exceeded too much, an unsatisfactory
coarse grain size will be developed in the hardened steel.
Airframe Powerplant
106
Airframe Powerplant
107
If carbon steel is heated to just above its Upper Critical Point the structure is called 'Austenite'. This structure is a solid solution of carbon in
iron (i.e. all the carbon is uniformly distributed throughout the iron). If the steel contains above 0.3% carbon, and it is rapidly cooled (i.e.
quenched) from above the Upper Critical Point it becomes hardened.
The more carbon present, the harder the steel will be after quenching. This rapid cooling causes a change in the metallurgical structure and
is called `Martensite'. Martensite is extremely hard but is not suitable for most engineering purposes due to it being very brittle. For most
applications it is necessary to carry out a further heat-treatment to reduce the brittleness of the steel, and this is called 'tempering'.
To temper hardened carbon steel it is necessary to heat it to a suitable temperature below its Lower Critical Point followed by cooling
(usually quenching).
The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the hardness whilst at the same time greatly increasing the toughness. The actual
tempering temperature used depends on the requirements of strength, hardness and toughness.
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength and hardness, but the toughness will be greater. The maximum tensile
strength of hardened carbon steel is achievable when 0.83% carbon is present. If an even greater amount of carbon is present, the hardness
continues to increase but strength will decrease.
Steel is normally quenched in water or oil. Oil gives a slower quench which reduce the hardness of the part but makes it tougher and
reduces the risk of cracking.
The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on the amount of carbon present but also on very rapid cooling from high
temperature. The cooling rate mainly depends on the cooling medium, the size of tank, and the mass of the object to be cooled.
Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and, in terms of cooling severity; brine is more effective than water,
followed by oil and finally air.
Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase, so brine or water is normally used, whereas oil or air-cooling is used on certain alloy
steels. The rapid cooling rates, involved in the hardening of carbon steel, cause enormous thermal stresses in the component and distortion
is commonplace. Cracking may also occur in some cases.
Airframe Powerplant
108
To achieve relatively uniform cooling it is sometimes necessary to immerse the object in a specific way because of its shape and mass.
Refining - Prolonged heating at temperatures well above the upper critical point followed by slow cooling (as in case hardening) causes the
grain structure of steel to coarsen. This reduces the toughness and strength of the steel. The refining process has the effect of reducing the
size of the crystalline structure it consists of reheating the steel to between 840°C and 900°C then quenching either water or oil (figure
1.20).Also, by combinations of cooling rates, incubation and quenching, various effects can be achieved. These include turning the
cementite needle shaped (martensite) or into platelets (bainite) or a mixture of the two.
Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material. Or Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical properties
without changing the product shape.
Heat treatment is defined as an operation or combination of heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in the solid state for the purpose of
obtaining desired change in properties. The heat treatment includes:
Heating the metal to pre-determined temperature (above the critical point – hardening)
Holding the metal at that temp until the structure becomes uniform throughout the mass (for a considerable period).
Cooling at pre-determined rate to cause formation of desired change {(quenching (sudden cooling) in water, oil/molten salt
solution)}.
Objectives
To increase the hardness of metals

To relieve internal stress
To improve machinability
To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, ductility and shock resistance
To change in grain size
Airframe Powerplant
109
To increase resistance to heat and corrosion

To modify electrical and magnetic properties
To change in chemical composition of metal surface
To remove gases
Figure 1.20 Refining of steel grain structure
Airframe Powerplant
110
Hardening
It consists of heating the steel to a temperature above the critical point (30-50oC); holding it at this temperature for a considerable period;
quenching (sudden cooling) in water, oil/molten salt solution. The heating operation is required form the purpose of transforming the
ferrite and pearlite for hypo eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for hyper eutectoid steels into austenite. A rapid cooling form the
hardened temperature causes austenite to be transformed into martensite which is very hard and brittle.
This is done to develop hardness to resist wear and to improve strength, elasticity, ductility and toughness and to enable it to cut other
metals (to make it suitable for cutting tools).
Tempering
Steel is tempered to relieve internal stresses and to reduce the brittleness which is caused by hardening. It is however very important that
sufficient hardness is retained by the steel. The steel is reheated to a fairly low temperature, then quenched in water or allowed to cool in
air.The temperature depends on the purpose for the tool. The higher the tempering temperature, the less the hardness but the greater the
toughness. Thus the purpose of the tool or article must be considered.
The temperature required may be judged from the temper colours which appear on the bright surface of steel which is heated slowly. Each
colour indicates a temperature.
The steel hardened by rapid quenching is very hard and brittle. It also contains internal stresses, which are severe and unequally distributed
to cause cracks or even rupture of hardened steel. Tempering is a process done subsequent to quench hardening. Quench-hardened parts
are often too brittle. This brittleness is caused by a predominance of martensite. This brittleness is removed by tempering. Tempering results
in a desired combination of hardness, ductility, toughness, strength, and structural stability. It consists of reheating the steel after hardening
to a temperature below the critical point; holding it for a considerable period and slow cooling (4-5 min/ mm). This is done to reduce the
brittleness of the hardened steel and thus to increase ductility to relieve the internal stresses and to make the steel tough to resist shock and
fatigue.
Airframe Powerplant
111
Annealing
The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
• To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability.
• To relieve internal stresses induced by a previous process (rolling, forging, or unequal cooling).
• To remove coarseness of grain.
Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to just above the Upper Critical Limit followed by very slow cooling. In practice
the slow cooling rates are achieved by cooling in the furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as ashes. The end result is a
stress-free, fully softened material, suitable for major forming operations such as deep pressing, drawing, extruding etc.
The process consists of slow heating the steel slightly above (30-50oC) the critical point for (Pearlite and Ferrite), holding it at this temp for
considerable period (3.4 min/mm length of piece); slow cooling in sand (the rate of cooling from 30 oC to 200oC depends upon the
composition of the steel. The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite. The steel becomes soft and ductile.The grain
structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite depending on whether hypo (Pearlite and Ferrite) or hyper eutectoid (Pearlite +
Cementite). The steel becomes soft and ductile.
The purpose of annealing may involve one or more of the following aims:
To soften the steel and to improve machinability.
To relieve internal stresses induced by some previous treatment (rolling, forging, uneven cooling).
To remove coarseness of grain.
To refine the grain size and structure to improve strength and ductility.
To alter electrical and magnetic properties.
Airframe Powerplant
112
Normalizing
It consists of heating the metal to a temperature just above the critical point (40-50oC) above and within the normalizing range, holding it at
this temp for period of 15 min and cooling in still air to room temperature. This process provides a homogeneous structure consisting of
ferrite and pearlite for hypo eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for hyper eutectoid steels. This is done,
To produce a harder and stronger steel than full annealing
To refine the grain structure of steel to improve the machinability and tensile strength.
To modify and refine the grain structure.
To obtain a relatively good ductility without reducing the hardness and strength
Surface Hardening of Steels
Unlike conventional through-hardening of steel, it is sometimes desirable to retain a relatively tough (relatively less brittle) inner core,
coupled with a very hard surface. This would, typically, be required of a component, which is subjected to high dynamic stresses, yet also
has to resist surface wear and would include:
• Gears (where the teeth need to be hardened)
• Camshafts and crankshafts (bearing surfaces)
• Cylinder barrels of piston engines (or landing gear legs).
Some materials can be `case-hardened' to achieve this aim. Several methods are used, depending on the parent material and the particular
application.
Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal.
Airframe Powerplant
113
Case Hardening is a process of hardening ferrous alloys so that the surface layer or case is made substantially harder than the interior or
core. The chemical composition of the surface layer is altered during the treatment by the addition of carbon, nitrogen, or both. The surface
hardening processes are:
i. Carburising
ii. Cyaniding
iii. Nitriding
Carburizing
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon steels and, basically, consists of heating the metal to approximately 900°C,
while the component is in contact with a carbon-rich medium followed by a suitable heat-treatment.
Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated steel and the rate of penetration is approximately 1 mm in 5-6 hours. Low-
carbon steels are particularly suited to this type of treatment, as it increases the carbon content and hence the hardness locally.
Carburizing is a process of adding carbon to the surface. It is the process of producing a hard surface on steel. It consists of heating the steel
in the presence of carbonaceous material such as wood, bone, charcoal and energizers for increasing the concentrations of CO to improve
rate of carburizing. Carbon enters the metal to form solid solution with iron and converts the outer surface into a high carbon case. Heating
the composite steel to critical temperature cooling.
Pack carburizing (figure 1.21)
The object is sealed in a container containing a carbon-rich (charcoal based) powder and heated in a furnace. The metal is next quenched in
oil (not water- which would cause the hard case to peel off). The depth of the hard skin depends on the length of time that the metal is
heated.
Airframe Powerplant
114
Parts are packed in a high carbon medium such as carbon powder or cast iron shavings and heated in a furnace for 12 to 72 hours at 900 ºC.
At this temperature CO gas is produced which is a strong reducing agent. The reduction reaction occurs on the surface of the steel releasing
carbon, which is then diffused into the surface due to the high temperature. When enough carbon is absorbed inside the part (based on
experience and theoretical calculations based on diffusion theory), the parts are removed and can be subject to the normal hardening
methods.
Figure 1.21 Pack Carburizing
Gas carburizing
Gas Carburizing (figure 1.22) is conceptually the same as pack carburizing, except that Carbon Monoxide (CO) gas is supplied to a heated
furnace and the reduction reaction of deposition of carbon takes place on the surface of the part. This processes overcomes most of the
problems of pack carburizing. The temperature diffusion is as good as it can be with a furnace.The only concern is to safely contain the CO
Airframe Powerplant
115
gas. A variation of gas carburizing is when alcohol is dripped into the furnace and it volatilizes readily to provide the reducing reaction for
the deposition of the carbon.
The object is placed in a basket in a furnace, through which is passed a suitable, carbon-rich gas (e.g. methane, propane).
Figure 1.22 Gas Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing(figure1.23)
The steel parts are immersed in a molten carbon rich bath. In the past, such baths have cyanide (CN) as the main component. However,
safety concerns have led to non-toxic baths that achieve the same result.
Airframe Powerplant
116
The object is heated to a suitable temperature and then immersed in a hot, salt bath at 900°C. The salts are usually based on sodium cyanide
and the process is often called `cyanide hardening'. The metal is quenched in water (not oil-which would react unfavorably with the salts).
Cyaniding
Producing a hard surface on low carbon or medium carbon steel by immersing in a molten
salt bath of cyanide at 800-900 oC and quenching in water or oil. Change in hardness is
gradual, bright finish and distortion is avoided. This case hardening process heats ferrous
materials above the transformation temperature in a molten salt bath containing cyanide.
The absorption of both carbon and nitrogen at the surface also produces a gradient in from
the surface. Subsequent cooling is specified to produce the required hard, wear-resistant
properties.
Figure 1.23 Liquid Carburizing
Nitriding
Nitriding (figure 1.24) is a surface-hardening heat treatment that introduces nitrogen into the surface of steel. The process involves heating
the steel in an atmosphere of ammonia gas at 560oC to 650oC without further heat treatment. Results in extreme hardness. Used in
automotive, and diesel engine wearing parts. Principal reasons for nitriding are:
To obtain high surface hardness
To increase wear resistance
To improve fatigue life
To improve corrosion resistance (except for stainless steels)
Airframe Powerplant
117
To obtain a surface that is resistant to the softening effect of heat at temperatures up to the nitriding temperature.
In this process, nitrogen is diffused into the surface of the steel being treated. The reaction of nitrogen with the steel causes the formation of
very hard iron and alloy nitrogen compounds. The resulting nitride case is harder than tool steels or carburized steels. The advantage of this
process is that hardness is achieved without the oil, water or air quench. As an added advantage, hardening is accomplished in a nitrogen
atmosphere that prevents scaling and discoloration.
Nitriding temperature is below the lower critical temperature of the

steel and it is set between 496 oC and 566oC. The nitrogen source is
usually Ammonia (NH3). At the nitriding temperature the ammonia
dissociates into Nitrogen and Hydrogen. The nitrogen diffuses into
the steel and hydrogen is exhausted.
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of carbon)

into the surface of the steel. Suitable "Nitralloy" steels are necessary
for this process and they usually contain 1% Aluminium, 1.5%
Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.
A special furnace is used and ammonia gas is circulated through it.

The furnace temperature of 500°C converts the ammonia into a
nitrogen-rich gas and forms hard iron nitride in the surface of the
Figure 1.24 Nitriding
steel.
The case depth, achievable by this process, is less than that by pack carburizing, but the major advantage of nitriding is that no hardening or
tempering is necessary to achieve the final hardness, and no finish machining is required after nitriding. This, relatively low-temperature
process results in negligible distortion and is much cleaner than the carbon methods. Aircraft piston engine cylinder barrels are particularly
suitable for nitriding, as are some crankshaft bearing surfaces and the stems of some aero-engine induction and exhaust valves.
Airframe Powerplant
118
Nitrided surfaces must be protected against pitting corrosion, usually (as with engine gears and shafts) by keeping the surface oiled.
Note:
If certain surfaces of a component are not to be case-hardened, it is necessary to protect them during the carburizing or nitriding processes,
to locally prevent the hardening agent from being absorbed. Copper plating, nickel plating or a proprietary paste are generally used in such
areas.
Other Surface Hardening Techniques - In addition to case-hardening, there are other methods of producing hard surfaces on metals, such
as by electro-plating, welding, bonding, and metal spraying. All usually involve adding a harder surface metal to the parent material.
Surface hardening
Differs case hardening in that analysis of surface steel is not changed, hardening being by extremely rapid heating and quenching of
wearing surfaces which has no effect on the interior core.
Induction hardening
Rapid heating on medium carbon steel by induced current high frequency and rapid cooling by sprays of water. Used on bearing areas of
crank shaft, cam shaft, axial shaft etc., In this process an electric current flow is induced in the workpiece to produce a heating action.
Every electrical conductor carrying a current has a magnetic field surrounding the conductor. Since the core wire is a dead-end circuit, the
induced current cannot flow anyplace, so the net effect is heating of the wire. The induced current in the core conductor alternates at
frequencies from 60 cycles per second (60 Hz) to millions of Hertz. The resistance to current flow causes very rapid heating of the core
material. Heating occurs from the outside inward. Induction hardening process includes water quench after the heating process. The big
advantage of this system is its speed and ability to confine heating on small parts. The major disadvantage is the cost.
Airframe Powerplant
119
Flame hardening
Surface hardening process in which heat is applied by a high temperature flame followed by quenching jets of water. It is usually applied to
medium to large size components such as large gears, sprockets, slide ways of machine tools, bearing surfaces of shafts and axles, etc. Steels
most suited have carbon content within the range 0.40-0.55%. Heating the steel with flame of oxyacetylene torch and quenching.
Flame hardening is the process of selective hardening with a combustible gas flame as the source of heat for austenitizing. (The material
should have at least 0.40 % carbon content to allow hardening.) Water quenching is applied as soon as the transformation temperature is
reached. The heating media can be oxygen acetylene, propane, or any other combination of fuel gases that will allow reasonable heating
rates. This procedure is applied to the gear teeth, shear blades, cams, ways on the lathes, etc. Flame hardening temperatures are around 816
o
C.
Flame/Induction Hardening - Unlike carburizing and nitriding, flame and induction hardening U do not add a hardening agent into the
surface of a basically softer material. Instead, they are merely techniques for hardening the surface of material by a 'local heat- treatment'.
Steels suitable for these processes already contain sufficient carbon (or other elements) to attain a high degree of hardness if heated and
quenched.
Only the surface is locally heated (by a flame or electrical induction coil), and the heated surface is then immediately quenched by water
jets. The flame or induction coil is positioned so that it only heats the area required to be hardened.
Diffusion coating
A coating process used to change the surface composition of a metallic material with (1) another metal or alloy employing heat or (2)
exposure to a gaseous or liquid metal to effect diffusion into the basis metal. Impregnating the surface of steel with aluminium. chromium,
silicon, beryllium and other elements. Impart high heat, corrosion and wear resistance. Heating and holding the steel parts in direct contact
Airframe Powerplant
120
with one of the above elements. Diffusion coatings provide superior oxidation, corrosion and erosion resistance of the base metal up to
11500 C without spallation. Diffusion coating is a highly reliable, substate enhancing process for critical components.
Precipitation hardening or Age hardening
Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable
materials, including most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some stainless steels. In superalloys, it is known
to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-temperature strength.
Spontaneous increase in hardness at room temperature with lapse in time. Precipitation is the decomposition of a solid solution into two
phases of different composition viz., precipitate and solid solution. Precipitation hardening is caused by precipitation of a constituent from a
super saturated solid solution by heating to some elevated temperature. In order that metals may serve useful purposes they must be
shaped into required forms.
Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede
the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice. Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to
harden the material. The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced composite materials. Just as the
formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon the thermal history of a given portion of the atmosphere,
precipitation in solids can produce many different sizes of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinary tempering,
alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to take place. This time delay is called "aging". Solution
treatment and aging is sometimes abbreviated "STA" in metals specs and certs.
Note that two different heat treatments involving precipitates can alter the strength of a material: solution heat treating and precipitation
heat treating. Solid solution strengthening involves formation of a single-phase solid solution via quenching. Precipitation heat treating
involves the addition of impurity particles to increase a material's strength.
Airframe Powerplant
121
A process of aging that increases hardness and strength and usually decreases ductility. Hardening in metals caused by the precipitation of
a constituent from a supersaturated solid solution. Increasing the hardness of an alloy by a relatively low temperature heat treatment that
causes precipitation of components or phases of the alloy from the supersaturated solid solution. Also known as precipitation hardening.
Airframe Powerplant
122
Module 6
6.2 Aircraft Materials – Non Ferrous
Airframe Powerplant
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
Airframe Powerplant
2
INTRODUCTION
A non-ferrous metal is a metal which is not ferrous, including alloys, that does not contain iron in appreciable amounts. Generally more
expensive than ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals are used because of desirable properties such as low weight (e.g., aluminium), higher
conductivity (e.g., copper), non-magnetic property or resistance to corrosion (e.g., zinc).Some non-ferrous materials are also used in the iron
and steel industries. For example, bauxite is used as flux for blast furnaces, while others such as wolframite, pyrolusite and chromite are used
in making ferrous alloys.
The term “nonferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their base or principal constituent. This group includes such
metals as aluminum, titanium, copper, and magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as Monel and babbit.
Important non-ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, tin, titanium and zinc, and alloys such as brass. Precious metals such as
gold, silver and platinum and exotic or rare metals such as cobalt, mercury, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, cerium, cadmium, niobium, indium,
gallium, germanium, lithium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, vanadium, and zirconium are also non-ferrous. They are usually obtained through
minerals such as sulfides, carbonates, and silicates.Non-ferrous metals are usually refined through electrolysis.
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and lead, are used in the commercially 'pure' state for engineering purposes - usually
in the form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin coatings on other metals.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to provide protective coatings onother metals in order to retard the effects of
corrosion.
Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been used for special work in high-grade electrical instruments, aircraft windshields
and, of course, space vehicles.
Mercury (quicksilver) - the only metal to remain liquid at room temperature - may be found in certain types of barometers, discharge lamps,
small, electrical circuit breakers, pressure gauges and vacuum pumps (it can also be found in the detonators of some explosive devices).
In a similar manner to steels, it has been discovered that tremendous advantages are to be gained by alloying non-ferrous metals with each
other and, indeed, with other (ferrous) metals and elements.
Airframe Powerplant
3
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among the more common non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft construction
and repair.
Pure Aluminium
Pure aluminum is a silvery-white metal with many desirable characteristics. It is light, nontoxic (as the metal), nonmagnetic and non-sparking.
It is easily formed, machined, and cast. Pure aluminum is soft and lacks strength, but alloys with small amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and other elements have very useful properties. Aluminum is an abundant element in the earth's crust, but it is not found free in
nature. The Bayer process is used to refine aluminum from bauxite, an aluminum ore. Because of aluminum's mechanical and physical
properties, it is an extremely convenient and widely used metal.
Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite (named after the town of Les Baux, in France, where it was first found). It is a soft,
weak, ductile and malleable metal. Aluminium is approximately one third the weight of steel and has approximately one third the stiffness of
steel.
While its strength may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-strength material. Aluminium is highly corrosion-resistant, due to the
rapid formation of a thin, but very dense oxide surface film, which limits further corrosion. Aluminium is also an excellent conductor of
electricity (and heat), however the conduction of electricity is markedly reduced when the oxide layer is formed.
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore, which is found in various parts of the world. Bauxite is a hydrated oxide of aluminium having the
chemical formula Al2O3 2H20.
The bauxite ore is given a caustic treatment, known as the Bayer process, which reduces the ore to a powder called alumina, or aluminium
oxide. The alumina is mixed with a catalyst called cryolite, and the mixture is placed in carbon-lined tanks which are equipped with large
carbon anodes. A high level of electric current is applied, and this causes the carbon of the electrode /anode to combine with the oxygen in
the alumina to form carbon dioxide (C02) gas.
Airframe Powerplant
4
Bauxite is crushed and treated with caustic soda solution to produce aluminium oxide combined with water. This is then heated to evaporate
the water. The pure aluminium oxide which remains can be converted into aluminium. The process is electrolytic i.e. electricity is used to
separate the aluminium from the aluminium oxide. A furnace made of steel plate and lined with carbon is used. Molten aluminium is
deposited at the cathode.Since aluminium oxide has a very high melting point, it is mixed with another aluminium mineral, cryolite, to form
an electrolyte which will melt at a low temperature.
When the electric current passes through the charge it melts and
aluminium particles, being positively charged, are attracted to the
lining of the furnace, which forms the negative electrode. Molten
aluminium collects at the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off when
necessary. Oxygen is given off the anodes. This oxygen then combines
with the carbon (from graphite) to produce carbon dioxide (C02).
Hence, the anode erodes away and needs to be replaced periodically.
The Bayer process is the principal industrial means of refining bauxite

to produce alumina (aluminium oxide). Bauxite, the most important ore
Figure 2.1 Bayer Process of aluminium, contains only 30–54% aluminium oxide, (alumina), Al2O3,
the rest being a mixture of silica, various iron oxides, and titanium
dioxide. The aluminium oxide must be purified before it can be refined to aluminium metal.
Alumina — oraluminium oxide (Al2O3), is produced from extracted ore. Despite its name, it has nothing to do with clay or black soil
but resembles a flour or very white sand. Alumina is then transformed into aluminium through electrolytic reduction. One tonne of aluminium
is produced from every two tonnes of alumina.
Bauxite consist of 40-60% alumina, as well as earth silicon, ferrous oxide, and titanium dioxide. To separate pure alumina, the Bayer process
is applied. First, the ore is heated in an autoclave with caustic soda. It is then cooled and a solid residue (red mud) is separated from the liquid.
Aluminium hydroxide is then extracted from this solution and calcined to produce pure alumina.
Airframe Powerplant
5
The final stage is the reduction of aluminium through the Hall-Heroult process. It is based on the following principle: when the alumina
solution is electrolyzed in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6), pure aluminium is produced. The reduction cell bottom serves as a cathode, and coal
bars immersed in cryolite serve as anodes. Molten aluminium is deposited under a cryolite solution with 3-5% alumina. During this process,
temperatures reach 950°C, considerably higher than the melting point of the metal itself, which is 660°C.
Properties:
Light - Relative Density 2.7
Weak - Tensile strength only 4 ton f/in2 (6.2 h bar) as cast but this can be increased up to 9 ton f/in2 (13.9 Hbar) by cold working i.e. rolling
Good corrosion resistance - this is due to the very thin oxide film which forms on the surface of the metal when it is exposed to the
atmosphere
Good conductor of heat and electricity
Non-magnetic
Low melting point (660°C)
Can be polished to reflect both light and heat.
Increasing Strength and Hardness
There are three methods of increasing the strength of hardness of aluminium, in increasing effectively:
Reduce the grain size.
Cold work (rolling or forging for example).
Alloy the aluminium with other elements and age-harden (naturally or artificially).
Commercially pure aluminum is a white lustrous metal which stands second in the scale of malleability, sixth in ductility, and ranks high in its
Airframe Powerplant
6
resistance to corrosion. Aluminum combined with various percentages of other metals forms alloys which are used in aircraft construction.
Aluminum alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are manganese, chromium, or magnesium and silicon show little attack in
corrosive environments. Alloys in which substantial percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action. The total
percentage of alloying elements is seldom more than 6 or 7 % in the wrought alloys.
Aluminum is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high
strength to weight ratio and its comparative ease of fabrication. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight. Aluminum
melts at the comparatively low temperature of 1,250°F. It is nonmagnetic and is an excellent conductor.
Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi, but its strength may be approximately doubled by rolling or other
cold working processes. By alloying with other metals, or by using heat-treating processes, the tensile strength may be raised to as high as
65,000 psi or to within the strength range of structural steel.
Aluminum alloys, although strong, are easily worked because they are malleable and ductile. They may be rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017
inch or drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter. Most aluminum alloy sheet stock used in aircraft construction range from 0.016 to 0.096 inch
in thickness; however, some of the larger aircraft use sheet stock which may be as thick as 0.356 inch.
The various types of aluminum may be divided into two general classes :
(1) Casting alloys (those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold, or die castings) (figure 2.2.), and
(2) Wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging). Of these two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in
aircraft construction, being used for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
Aluminum casting alloys are divided into two basic groups. In one, the physical properties of the alloys are determined by the alloying
elements and cannot be changed after the metal is cast. In the other, the alloying elements make it possible to heat treat the casting to
produce the desired physical properties.
The casting alloys are identifiedby a letter preceding the alloy number. When a letter precedes a number, it indicates a slight variation in the
Airframe Powerplant
7
composition of the original alloy. This variation in composition is simply to impart some desirable quality. In casting alloy 214, for example,
the addition of zinc to improve its pouring qualities is indicated by the letter A in front of the number, thus creating the designation A214.
When castings have been heat treated, the heat treatment and the composition of the casting is indicated by the letter T, followed by an
alloying number. An example of this is the sand casting alloy 355, which has several different compositions and tempers and is designated by
355-T6, 355-T51, or C355-T51.
Figure 2.2 Casting Process
Airframe Powerplant
8
Aluminum alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods:
(1) Sand mold,
(2) Permanent mold, or
(3) Die cast.
In casting aluminum, it must be remembered that in most cases different types of alloys must be used for different types of castings. Sand
castings and die castings require different types of alloys than those used in permanent molds. Sand and permanent mold castings are parts
produced by pouring molten metal into a previously prepared mold, allowing the metal to solidify or freeze, and then removing the part. If
the mold is made of sand, the part is a sand casting; if it is a metallic mold (usually cast iron) the part is a permanent mold casting. Sand and
permanent castings are produced by pouring liquid metal into the mold, the metal flowingunder the force of gravity alone.
The two principal types of sand casting alloys are 112 and 212. Little difference exists between the two metals from a mechanical properties
standpoint, since both are adaptable to a wide range of products. The permanent mold process is a later development of the sand casting
process, the major difference being in the material from which the molds are made. The advantage of this process is that there are fewer
openings (called porosity) than in sand castings. The sand and the binder, which is mixed with the sand to hold it together, give off a certain
amount of gas which causes porosity in a sand casting.
Permanent mold castings are used to obtain higher mechanical properties, better surfaces, or more accurate dimensions. There are two
specifictypes of permanent mold castings:
(1) Permanent metal mold with metal cores, and
(2) Semipermanent types containing sand cores.
Because finergrain structure is produced in alloys subjected to the rapid cooling of metal molds, they are far superior to the sand type
castings. Alloys 122, A132, and 142 are commonly used in permanent mold castings, the principal uses of which are in internal combustion
engines.
Airframe Powerplant
9
Die castings used in aircraft are usually aluminum or magnesium alloy. If weight is of primary importance, magnesium alloy is used because it
is lighter than aluminum alloy. However, aluminum alloy is frequently used because it is stronger than most magnesium alloys.
A die casting is produced by forcing molten metal under pressure into a metallic die and allowing it to solidify; then the die is opened and the
part removed. The basic difference between permanent mold casting and die casting is that in the permanent mold process the metal fows
into the die under gravity. In the die casting operation, the metal is forced under great pressure.
Die castings are used where relatively large production of a given part is involved. Remember, any shape which can be forged can be cast.
Die-Casting
This process uses a permanent metal mould, which results in more accurate, and better finished, castings than those produced in sand. Die-
casting, can be sub- divided into 'gravity' or 'pressure' processes, depending on how the metal is fed into the mould.
Gravity Die-Casting - sometimes known as `Permanent-Mould Casting'. This casting process is virtually identical to sand-casting except
that the mould (die) is metal. A wide range of metals can be cast and hollow castings are possible if a sand core is used. Fine grain
structures are produced, due to the more rapid rate of cooling, compared to that achieved in sand-casting.
Pressure Die-Casting - as implied, molten metal is fed under high pressure (thousands of PSI) and held during solidification. Most die-
castings are in non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, zinc, copper and their alloys), because steels have too-high a melting
temperature for the metal dies to accommodate. The dies are, usually, made from hard, tool-steels and are water cooled. This process
can achieve excellent detail, super finish, low porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary, but very high production
rates are possible. Automatic ejection occurs and, on small components, 100 units per minute is not uncommon. Hollow castings cannot
be made by die-casting.
Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are divided into two general classes: Non-heat-treatable alloys and Heat-treatable alloys.
Non-heat-treatable alloys are those in which the mechanical properties are determined by the amount of cold work introduced after the final
annealing operation. The mechanical properties obtained by cold working are destroyed by any subsequent heating and cannot be restored
Airframe Powerplant
10
except by additional cold working, which is not always possible. The “full hard” temper is produced by the maximum amount of cold work
that is commercially practicable. Metal in the “as fabricated” condition is produced from the ingot without any subsequent controlled amount
of cold working or thermal treatment. There is, consequently, a variable amount of strain hardening, depending upon the thickness of the
section.
For heat-treatable aluminum alloys, the mechanical properties are obtained by heat treating to a suitable temperature, holding at that
temperature long enough to allow the alloying constituent to enter into solid solution, and then quenching to hold the constituent in
solution. The metal is left in a supersaturated, unstable state and is then age hardened either by natural aging at room temperature or by
artifcial aging at some elevated temperature.
The International Alloy Designation System (PADS) Designation
Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are designated by a four digit index system. The system is broken into three distinct
groups:
1xxx group,
2xxx through 8xxx group, and
9xxx group (which is currently unused).
The frst digit of a designation identifes the alloy type. The second digit indicates specifc alloy modifcations. Should the second number be
zero, it would indicate no special control over individual impurities. Digits 1 through 9, however, when assigned consecutively as needed for
the second number in this group, indicate the number of controls over individual impurities in the metal.
The last two digits of the 1xxx group are used to indicate the hundredths of 1 % above the original 99 % designated by the firstdigit. Thus, if
the last two digits were 30, the alloy would contain 99 % plus 0.30 % of pure aluminum, or a total of 99.30 % pure aluminum. Examples of
alloys in this group are:
Airframe Powerplant
11
1100—99.00 % pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.
1130—99.30 % pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.
1275—99.75 % pure aluminum with two controls over individual impurities.
In the 2xxx through 8xxx groups, the firstdigit indicates the major alloying element used in the formation of the alloy as follows:
2xxx—copper
3xxx—manganese
4xxx—silicon
5xxx—magnesium
6xxx—magnesium and silicon
7xxx—zinc
8xxx—other elements
In the 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups, the second digit in the alloy designation indicates alloy modifcations. If the second digit is zero, it
indicates the original alloy, while digits 1 through 9 indicate alloy modifications.
The last two of the four digits in the designation identify the different alloys in the group. (figure 2.3.)
Airframe Powerplant
12
Percentage of alloying elements(aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder)

Alloy
Copper Silicon Manganese Magnesium Zinc Nickel Chromium Lead Bismuth
1100 - - - - - - - - -
3003 - - 1.2 - - - - - -
2011 5.5 - - - - - - 0.5 0.5
2014 4.4 0.8 0.8 0.4 - - - - -
2017 4.0 - 0.5 0.5 - - - - -
2117 2.5 - - 0.3 - - - - -
2018 4.0 - - 0.5 - 2.0 - - -
2024 4.5 - 0.6 1.5 - - - - -
2025 4.5 0.8 0.8 - - - - - -
4032 0.9 12.5 - 1.0 - 0.9 - - -
5052 - - - 2.5 - - 0.25 - -
6151 - 1.0 - 0.6 - - 0.25 - -
6053 - 0.7 - 1.3 - - 0.25 - -
6061 0.25 0.6 - 1.0 - - 0.25 - -
7075 1.6 - - 2.5 5.6 - 0.3 - -
Figure 2.3 Nominal composition of wrought aluminum alloys
Airframe Powerplant
13
Effect of Alloying Element
1000 series. 99 % aluminum or higher, excellent corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties,
excellent workability but is not very strong. Iron and silicon are major impurities.
2000 series. Copper is the principal alloying element. Solution heat treatment, optimum properties equal to mild steel, poor corrosion
resistance unclad. The major benefit of copper is a large increase in strength, although if the alloy is not correctly heat- treated, intergranular
corrosion can occur between the aluminium and copper grains within the metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys used in
aircraft construction. It is usually clad with 6000 or high purity alloy. Its best known alloy is 2024.
3000 series. Manganese is the principal alloying element of this group which is generally non-heat treatable. The percentage of manganese
which will be alloy effective is 1.5 %. The most popular is 3003, which is of moderate strength and has good working characteristics.
4000 series. Silicon is the principal alloying element of this group, and lowers melting temperature. Its primary use is in welding and brazing.
When used in welding heat-treatable alloys, this group will respond to a limited amount of heat treatment.
5000 series. Magnesium is the principal alloying element. It has good welding and corrosion resistant characteristics, if exposed to high
temperature or cold working, it can corrode quite badly. High temperatures (over 150 °F) or excessive cold working will increase susceptibility
to corrosion.
6000 series. Silicon and magnesium form magnesium silicide which makes alloys heat treatable. It is of medium strength, good forming
qualities, and has corrosion resistant characteristics.
7000 series.Alloy are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. These are difficult to bend and are more often used where flat plates
are required. Zinc is the principal alloying element. The most popular alloy of the series is 6061. When coupled with magnesium, it results in
heat-treatable alloys of very high strength. It usually has copper and chromium added. The principal alloy of this group is 7075.
Airframe Powerplant
14
Marking of Aluminium Alloy Sheets
American sheet metal, for aerospace use from the manufacturer is usually marked with letters and numbers in rows about 5 inches apart.
These identification symbols may include a Federal specification number with temper designation, an the thickness of the material in
thousandths of an inch e.g.
QQ-A-250/5 2024 - T3 0.025
Colour coding can also be applied to American materials e.g.
QQ-A-250/5F Aluminium alloy Alclad 2024 sheet, temper condition - T3 White, Blue, White, Blue, White.
British sheet metal is stamped, on one corner showing specifications reference, inspection stamp, manufacturer, manufacturing batch
number and test report number. Each sheet is marked in green ink with the specification reference and manufacturers symbol, in lines, 4
inches apart. Coloured bands on the stamped corner indicate the material specification and heat treatment.
These coloured bands may be applied to metal in the quarantine store.
Examples
BS L72 Solution treated and naturally aged Black, Brown
Annealed as rolled Brown, Yellow, Red,
Brown, Red, Green
BS L163 Solution treated and cold rolled (T3 condition) (superseded BS L72) Black, Brown
BS 1470 HSI5 - TB Solution treated and naturally aged Blue, Brown
Airframe Powerplant
15
Cast Aluminium Alloys
These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their lack of strength, poor fatigue characteristics and lack of elasticity when
compared to the wrought aluminium alloys.
The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex considerably without
cracking.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are used extensively on engines, where there is a need to produce
complex cored shapes such as crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method than casting would be viable for such items. The
stresses can be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust castings of adequate stiffness.
Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and, for high-duty engine casings and pistons, some very strong,
temperature-resistant alloys exist. One of the most common in the category is RR 58 (sometimes known as 'Y' Alloy), which is an age-
hardening material containing approximately 2 ½ % copper, 1 ½ % magnesium, 1 ½ % nickel, and 1% iron. A derivative of this material was
also used (in wrought form) for the skin of the supersonic Concord aircraft, due to the high metal temperatures encountered.
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus, is good for producing complex shapes. It also reduces the
coefficient of linear expansion, so is often included in piston castings.
Pure Magnesium
Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of 1.74), no metal can be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as magnesium -
provided that certain precautions are taken to prevent it over-heating.
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. Great care must be taken when filing and grinding this metal and, if a fire
should occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER MUST NOT BE USED.
Magnesium does not possess sufficient strength in its pure state for structural uses, but when alloyed with zinc, aluminum, and manganese it
Airframe Powerplant
16
produces an alloy having the highest strength to weight ratio of any of the commonly used metals.
Magnesium is probably more widely distributed in nature than any other metal. It can be obtained from such ores as dolomite and magnesite,
and from sea water, underground brines, and waste solutions of potash. With about 10 million pounds of magnesium in 1 cubic mile of sea
water, there is no danger of a dwindling supply.
Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater or brine from deep wells. In its pure state it lacks sufficient strength and
characteristics for use as a structural metal. It can, however, be alloyed with a range of other elements to greatly improve its strength. These
elements include aluminium, manganese, thorium, zirconium, and zinc.
Some of today’s aircraft require in excess of one-half ton of this metal for use in hundreds of vital spots. Some wing panels are fabricated
entirely from magnesium alloys, weigh 18 % less than standard aluminum panels, and have flownhundreds of satisfactory hours. Among the
aircraft parts that have been made from magnesium with a substantial savings in weight are nosewheel doors, flapcover skin, aileron cover
skin, oil tanks, foorings, fuselage parts, wingtips, engine nacelles, instrument panels, radio masts, hydraulic fuid tanks, oxygen bottle cases,
ducts, and seats.
Magnesium alloys possess good casting characteristics. Their properties compare favorably with those of cast aluminum. In forging, hydraulic
presses are ordinarily used, although, under certain conditions, forging can be accomplished in mechanical presses or with drop hammers.
Magnesium alloys are subject to such treatments as annealing, quenching, solution heat treatment, aging, and stabilizing. Sheet and plate
magnesium are annealed at the rolling mill. The solution heat treatment is used to put as much of the alloying ingredients as possible into
solid solution, which results in high tensile strength and maximum ductility. Aging is applied to castings following heat treatment where
maximum hardness and yield strength are desired.
Magnesium embodies fre hazards of an unpredictable nature. When in large sections, its high thermal conductivity makes it difficultto ignite
and prevents it from burning. It will not burn until the melting point of 1,204 °F is reached. However, magnesium dust and fne chips are
ignited easily. Precautions must be taken to avoid this if possible. Should a fireoccur, it can be extinguished with an extinguishing powder,
such as soapstone or graphite. Water or any standard liquid or foam fireextinguisher cause magnesium to burn more rapidly and can cause
Airframe Powerplant
17
explosions.
Magnesium alloys produced in the United States consist of magnesium alloyed with varying proportions of aluminum, manganese, and zinc.
These alloys are designated by a letter of the alphabet, with the number 1 indicating high purity and maximum corrosion resistance.
Many of the magnesium alloys manufactured in the United States are produced by the Dow Chemical Company and have been given the
trade name of Dow-metal™ alloys. To distinguish between these alloys, each is assigned a letter. Thus, we have Dowmetal J, Dowmetal M, and
so forth.
Another manufacturer of magnesium alloys is the American Magnesium Corporation, a subsidiary of the Aluminum Company of America. This
company uses an identificationsystem similar to that used for aluminum alloys, with the exception that magnesium alloy numbers are
preceded with the letters AM. Thus, AM240C is a cast alloy, and AM240C4 is the same alloy in the heat-treated state. AM3S0 is an annealed
wrought alloy, and AM3SRT is the same alloy rolled after heat treatment.
American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter or letters identify the main alloying elements. The
middle digits identify the percentage of each of the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of the alloy.
Example: AZ31A - T4
AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc
31 This is 3% aluminium and 1 % zinc
A Indicates that the alloy is original
-T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated.
Pure Copper
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and
electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of
Airframe Powerplant
18
heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.
Copper also has the ability to retard the progress of corrosion, by developing a patina of green copper carbonate (also called verdigris or
aerugo) on its surface.
With a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only to silver, and having the ability to be beaten, cast, drawn, forged, pressed, rolled or
spun into many different (and often complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper's ductility and malleability allow it to be used in electrical systems (in bus bars, bonding, electrical
motors, wiring etc.), though neither copper, nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the construction of aircraft.
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper.
Copper Alloy
Copper is one of the most widely distributed metals. It is the only reddish colored metal and is second only to silver in electrical conductivity.
Its use as a structural material is limited because of its great weight. However, some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high electrical
and heat conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor.
Because it is very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for making wire. It is corroded by salt water but is not affected by fresh water. The
ultimate tensile strength of copper varies greatly. For cast copper, the tensile strength is about 25,000 psi, and when cold rolled or cold drawn
its tensile strength increases to a range of 40,000 to 67,000 psi.In aircraft, copper is used primarily in the electrical system for bus bars,
bonding, and as lockwire.
Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses, and various bronzes are the primary types used on aircraft.
Copper and its alloys constitute one of the major groups of commercial metals. More than 300 standard coppers and copper alloys are
produced by the copper and brass industry. These alloys encompass a wide range of wrought and cast materials that are available in virtually
all of the commercial mill and product forms (strip, plate, sheet, pipe, tube, rod, forgings, wire, bar, foil, extrusions, and castings). Cast
products are available in varied shapes and sizes as needed for specific applications.
Airframe Powerplant
19
The basic alloy systems for copper are:
copper-zinc (brass),
copper-tin (bronze),
copper-nickel (cupronickels),and variations of these, including aluminum-bronzes, phosphor-bronzes, and nickel- silvers (copper-
nickel-zinc alloys).
Coppers and copper alloys are widely used because of their excellent electrical and thermal conductivities, ease of fabrication, good corrosion
resistance in diverse media, moderate cost, and good strength and fatigue resistance.
They are generally non-magnetic. New alloys continue to be developed and introduced to meet the challenging requirements of the
electronics industry.
Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper base alloys. It is a recently developed alloy containing about 97 % copper, 2 %
beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase the percentage of elongation. The most valuable feature of this metal is that the physical properties
can be greatly stepped up by heat treatment, the tensile strength rising from 70,000 psi in the annealed state to 200,000 psi in the heat-
treated state. The resistance of beryllium copper to fatigue and wear makes it suitable for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball
cages, and spring washers.
Brass
Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, manganese, magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin.
Brass with a zinc content of 30 to 35 % is very ductile, but that containing 45 % has relatively high strength.
These alloys contain zinc as the principal alloying element with or without other designated alloying elements such as iron, aluminium, nickel
and silicon.
Airframe Powerplant
20
Wrought. The wrought alloys comprise three main families of brasses: copper-zinc alloys, copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses) and
copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin brasses).
Cast. The cast alloys contain four main families of brasses: copper-tin-zinc alloys (red, semi-red and yellow brasses); "manganese
bronze" alloys (high-strength yellow brasses); leaded "manganese bronze" alloys (leaded high- strength yellow brasses); and copper-
zinc-silicon alloys (silicon brasses and bronzes).
Brass is used in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms, bellows assemblies and pitot heads.
Binary alloys of copper and zinc are known as "brasses". Brasses with up to 15% zinc are ductile but difficult to machine. Machinability
improves with increasing zinc content up to 36% Zn.
Brasses with less than 20% Zn have corrosion resistance equivalent to copper, but with better tensile strengths. Brasses with 20 to 40% Zn
have lower corrosion resistance and are ubject to dezincification and stress corrosion cracking, especially when ammonia is present.
Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60 % copper and 40 % zinc. It has excellent corrosion resistant qualities in salt water. Its strength can be
increased by heat treatment. As cast, this metal has an ultimate tensile strength of 50,000 psi, and it can be elongated 18 %. It is used in
making bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come in contact with salt water.
Red brass, sometimes termed “bronze” because of its tin content, is used in fuel and oil line fittings.This metal has good casting and
finishingproperties and machines freely.
Bronze
Bronzes are copper alloys containing tin. The true bronzes have up to 25 % tin, but those with less than 11 % are most useful, especially for
such items as tube fittings in aircraft.
Today the term is generally used not by itself but with a modifying adjective.
Airframe Powerplant
21
Wrought : For wrought alloys, there are four main families of bronzes: copper-tin-phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes), copper-
tin-lead phosphorus alloys (leaded phosphor bronzes), copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronzes) and copper-silicon
alloys (silicon bronzes).
Cast : The cast alloys have four main families of bronzes: copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes), copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded and
high-leaded tin bronzes), copper-tin-nickel alloys (nickel- tin bronzes), and copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium
bronzes).The family of alloys known as "manganese bronzes," in which zinc is the major alloying element, is included in
the brasses.
Among the copper alloys are the copper aluminum alloys, of which the aluminum bronzes rank very high in aircraft usage. They would
findgreater usefulness in structures if it were not for their strength to weight ratio as compared with alloy steels. Wrought aluminum bronzes
are almost as strong and ductile as medium carbon steel, and they possess a high degree of resistance to corrosion by air, salt water, and
chemicals. They are readily forged, hot or cold rolled, and many react to heat treatment.These copper base alloys contain up to 16 % of
aluminum (usually 5 to 11 %), to which other metals, such as iron, nickel, or manganese, may be added. Aluminum bronzes have good tearing
qualities, great strength, hardness, and resistance to both shock and fatigue. Because of these properties, they are used for diaphragms, gears,
and pumps. Aluminum bronzes are available in rods, bars, plates, sheets, strips, and forgings.
Cast aluminum bronzes, using about 89 % copper, 9 % aluminum, and 2 % of other elements, have high strength combined with ductility, and
are resistant to corrosion, shock, and fatigue. Because of these properties, cast aluminum bronze is used in bearings and pump parts. These
alloys are useful in areas exposed to salt water and corrosive gases.
Manganese bronze is an exceptionally high strength, tough, corrosion resistant copper zinc alloy containing aluminum, manganese, iron and,
occasionally, nickel or tin. This metal can be formed, extruded, drawn, or rolled to any desired shape. In rod form, it is generally used for
machined parts, for aircraft landing gears and brackets.
Silicon bronze is a more recent development composed of about 95 % copper, 3 % silicon, and 2 % manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and aluminum.
Although not a bronze in the true sense because of its small tin content, silicon bronze has high strength and great corrosion resistance.
Airframe Powerplant
22
Tin and Phosphor Bronze
Originally, the name "bronze" was reserved for the copper-tin alloys. These "tin bronzes" contain from about 1.25 to 10% tin. The most
important copper-tin alloys are those that have been deoxidized with phosphorus during the refining process. For this reason, they have
taken up their popular name "phosphor bronze". They possess good strength and cold forming characteristics and the typical bronze color.
The amount of residual phosphorus may range from a trace to about 0.35% or even higher in some special grades. The excess phosphorus,
which exists in solid solution, materially increases the hardness and strength of the alloy, but it does so at the expense of ductility and
electrical conductivity.
It improves the toughness, elevated temperature properties and resistance to corrosion. In amounts greater than 1.0%, phosphorus causes
excessive brittleness and impairs surface appearance but affords a good bearing surface, as is evident by the use of high-phosphorus bronze
compositions for gears and other machine parts subject to wear.
The phosphor bronzes include a variety of distinctive metals, characterized by strength, high resistance to corrosion and fatigue, and high
yield strength.
Casting bronzes frequently contain as much as 10% lead, and some bearing compositions as much as 25%. The high lead content precludes
the use of cold forming operations and limits the use of such alloys to temperatures below the melting point of lead.
The substitution of zinc for tin in the tin bronzes improves casting qualities, but zinc is seldom added in amounts greater than about 5%
because of unattractive color and lower corrosion resistance to some media.
Aluminium Bronze
Aluminum bronzes have high strengths (comparable to medium-carbon steel), high hardness in the as-cast state, and excellent corrosion
resistance properties. They possess good anti-frictional characteristics and resist scaling and oxidation at elevated temperatures. Aluminum
bronzes can be hot worked readily, and some grades possess good cold forming characteristics and respond to a form of precipitation
Airframe Powerplant
23
hardening.
The aluminium bronzes are essentially copper-aluminum alloys, containing up to about 13.5% aluminum, small amounts of manganese and
nickel, and up to 4% iron for the purpose of hardening the alloys. The presence of iron in these alloys, in the form of an intermetallic
compound (FeAl3), contributes to wear resistance and hardness.
The good anti-frictional characteristics of these alloys make them suitable for bearings, bushings, rollers and gears. They resist scaling and
oxidation at high temperatures and can be hot worked readily.
Silicon Bronze
These alloys possess high strength (similar to mild steel) and good toughness, plus they exhibit excellent resistance to corrosion by brine and
sulfite solutions, non-oxidizing inorganic acids, alkalis and other media.
They are readily hot worked, and the low-silicon alloys particularly have good cold working characteristics. The high-silicon alloys have
excellent casting qualities and are superior in this respect to other high-strength nonferrous alloys such as aluminum bronze.
The composition of the silicon bronzes may vary between rather wide limits and may contain about 14% silicon, 0.25-1.5% manganese, 0.5-
1.0% iron when present, and zinc as high as 22%. The addition of about 0.5% lead produces alloys with good machining characteristics.
Manganese Bronze
Manganese bronzes are essentially high-strength, modified copper-zinc casting alloys containing 55-60% copper, 38-42% zinc, 0-1.5% tin, 0-
2% iron, 0-1.5% aluminum, and up to about 3.5% manganese.
These alloys are available in various wrought forms and are characterized by good mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
Manganese bronzes have poor cold forming characteristics, but they can be readily hot worked. Their principal uses are for ship propellers,
rudders and other marine fittings.
Airframe Powerplant
24
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Nickel
Nickel and the nickel-base alloys constitute a family of alloys with increasing importance in many industrial applications because they can be
corrosion resistant in a wide variety of service environments that range from sub-zero to elevated temperatures. Some types have an almost H
unsurpassed corrosion resistance in certain media, but nickel alloys are usually more expensive than, for example, iron-base or copper-base
alloys or than plastic materials of construction.
Aside from its application as an alloying element, Nickel as such is used as a material of construction, as a plating on a steel substrate or
another less noble metal, or as a cladding on steel. The plating may be deposited either by electrochemical techniques or as an electroless
plating deposited by a chemical reduction process.
Nickel piping is available as commercially pure wrought nickel and in a low-carbon version (< 0.02%).
Nickel Alloys
"Nickel alloys" are defined as alloys in which nickel is present in greater proportion than any other alloying element. The most important
alloying constituents are iron, chromium, copper, and molybdenum, and a variety of alloy classes is available.
Two groups of alloy classes can be distinguished:
(1) Allloys which depend primarily on theinherent corrosion characteristics of nickel itself (plus some influence of alloying elements),
(2) Alloys which greatly depend on chromium as the passivating alloying element (similar to the stainless steels). Usually, one
distinguishes the following alloy classes.
Room temperature yield strengths may range from about 30 to 200 KSI, depending on composition and degree of cold working. The
maximum yield strength is governed by alloy composition, the cold worked characteristics of the material, the maximum yield strength
permitted by the application, and the ductility specified. Room temperature specified minimum yield strengths op precipitation-hardenable
Airframe Powerplant
25
Ni-alloys may vary from 50 to 150 KSI, typically being either 90 to 120 KSI, 120 to140 KSI, or 125 to 145 KSI.The mechanical properties of cold-
worked tubing, especially in thicker sections, may vary through the section.
Specific Alloys
HASTELLOY.- "Hastelloy" signifies a line of commercial alloys containing Ni, Mo, Cr, and Fe. The B- and C-designated alloys enjoy the widest
use. Hastelloy B, however, contains no chromium and should therefore only be used in reducing environments. Hastelloy C has excellent
resistance to a very wide range of chemicals (both oxidizing and reducing). Both alloys have a tensile strength of about 100,000 PSI and a yield
strength of about 45,000 PSI.
Equivalent alloys to Hastelloy B and C are nowadays available from different producers. In general, they are indicated as "Alloy B" and "Alloy
C".
MONEL.- "Monel" is the proprietary name for one of the best known nickel alloys. Monel 400 is the most widespread grade and contains 67%
Ni and about 30% Cu (with up to 2.5% Fe). It is a general engineering alloy with good resistance to corrosion by seawater, mineral and organic
acids, pharmaceuticals, inorganic salts, etc. This nickel-copper alloy is ductile and tough, and can be readily fabricated and joined (welded,
brazed). It is slightly magnetic.
Equivalent alloys to Monel 400 are nowadays available from different producers and are indicated as "Alloy 400" (UNS N04400).
Monel K-500 has similar corrosion resistance to Monel 400 but is precipitation hardenable for increased strength, hardness and abrasion
resistance. It is, for example, preferred for pump shafts, impellers, bolts, valve trim and spindles, doctor blades and. scrapers, etc.
Tungum
Tungum is an alloy containing 81 % to 86% copper and small amounts of nickel, silicon, aluminium and zinc. It is highly resistant to fatigue
Airframe Powerplant
26
and corrosion. It is strong and ductile. It is used to make hydraulic and other pipelines.
Lead and Lead Alloys
Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidized to a dull grey. It is very heavy, relative density 11.3 . It is soft and malleable,
resistant to corrosion and has a low melting point, 327°C.
Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It is used to make flying control surface mass balance weights. It gives protection from X-rays and is
used to make containers for radio-active isotopes, used during certain non-destructive tests on aircraft engines and airframes.
White Bearing Metals
White bearing metals used in piston engines are either tin base or lead base. Tin base bearing models are known as Babbitt metals and
contain between 3.5% and 15% Antimony e.g. 7% antimony, 90% tin and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty bearing metals.
The lead base white metals are intended for lower duty since they can withstand only limited pressures. They also contain tin and antimony
e.g. 13% antimony, 12% tin, 0.75% copper and lead the remainder.
Lead and Bronze Bearing Metals
These are used in the manufacture of main bearings in piston aero-engines and for auto mobile and diesel crankshaft bearings. They have a
high wear resistance and good thermal conductivity which helps to keep them cool during operation.
Pure Titanium
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel has almost the same strength as iron. It is highly resistance to corrosion, non-
Airframe Powerplant
27
magnetic and is readily shaped by all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft and ductile.
Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires usually start through high- speed rubbing. The low thermal conductivity of
titanium prevents the rapid dissipation of heat, which progressively builds up locally, until ignition finally occurs. Accumulations of small
particles of small and dust are a possible fire riskand all such accumulations should be avoided.
The use of titanium is widespread. It is used in many commercial enterprises and is in constant demand for such items as pumps, screens, and
other tools and fixtureswhere corrosion attack is prevalent. In aircraft construction and repair, titanium is used for fuselage skins, engine
shrouds, frewalls, longerons, frames, fittings, air ducts, and fasteners.
Titanium is used for making compressor disks, spacer rings, compressor blades and vanes, through bolts, turbine housings and liners, and
miscellaneous hardware for turbine engines. Titanium, in appearance, is similar to stainless steel. One quick method used to identify titanium
is the spark test. Titanium gives off a brilliant white trace ending in a brilliant white burst. Also, identificationcan be accomplished by
moistening the titanium and using it to draw a line on a piece of glass. This will leave a dark line similar in appearance to a pencil mark.
Titanium falls between aluminum and stainless steel in terms of elasticity, density, and elevated temperature strength. It has a melting point
of from 2,730 °F to 3,155 °F, low thermal conductivity, and a low coefficientof expansion. It is light, strong, and resistant to stress corrosion
cracking. Titanium is approximately 60 % heavier than aluminum and about 50 % lighter than stainless steel.
Because of the high melting point of titanium, high temperature properties are disappointing. The ultimate yield strength of titanium drops
rapidly above 800 °F. The absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at temperatures above 1,000 °F makes the metal so brittle on long
exposure that it soon becomes worthless. However, titanium does have some merit for short time exposure up to 3,000 °F where strength is
not important. Aircraft frewalls demand this requirement.
Titanium is nonmagnetic and has an electrical resistance comparable to that of stainless steel. Some of the base alloys of titanium are quite
hard. Heat treating and alloying do not develop the hardness of titanium to the high levels of some of the heat-treated alloys of steel. It was
only recently that a heat-treatable titanium alloy was developed. Prior to the development of this alloy, heating and rolling was the only
method of forming that could be accomplished.
Airframe Powerplant
28
However, it is possible to form the new alloy in the soft condition and heat treat it for hardness. Iron, molybdenum, and chromium are used to
stabilize titanium and produce alloys that will quench harden and age harden. The addition of these metals also adds ductility. The fatigue
resistance of titanium is greater than that of aluminum or steel.
Titanium becomes softer as the degree of purity is increased. It is not practical to distinguish between the various grades of commercially
pure or unalloyed titanium by chemical analysis; therefore, the grades are determined by mechanical properties.
Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden atmosphere. To prevent
reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a reducing agent, to produce a coating of
titanium dioxide.
When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-treatable. The strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-hardening material.
Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines, but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners, and high
temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields, hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.
In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel. Two practical methods of identification apart from weight are:
Spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a brilliant white trace, ending in a brilliant white burst.
Moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of glass - this will leave a dark line similar to a pencil mark.
Working with Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Titanium materials are, generally, not susceptible to normal corrosion attack, but it has been established that stress corrosion cracking can
take place in some welded structures which are exposed to trichloroethylene and other chlorinated hydro-carbons (the alloys most affected
in practice being the titanium-aluminium-tin family).
Titanium may also show evidence of deterioration in the presence of salt deposits or metal impurities, especially at high temperatures. It is,
therefore prohibited to use steel wool, iron scrapers or steel brushes for the cleaning of, or for the removal of corrosion from,
Airframe Powerplant
29
titaniumcomponents.
If titanium surfaces need cleaning, then hand-polishing, or the use of soft bristle fiber brushes, with aluminium oxide compound or a mild
abrasive may be permissible. Use only the recommended procedures outlined in the relevant Maintenance or Overhaul Manual.
When it is necessary to machine a welded titanium structure, or doubt exists regarding the use of cutting fluids with a particular titanium
alloy, the material manufacturer should be consulted.
Titanium Designations
There are three types of classification titanium alloys were established to provide a convenient and simple means of describing all titanium
alloys. Titanium and titanium alloys possess three basic types of crystals: A (alpha), B (beta), and C (combined alpha and beta). Their
characteristics are:
A (alpha) —all around performance; good weldability; tough and strong both cold and hot, and resistant to oxidation.
B (beta) —bendability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold and hot, but vulnerable to contamination.
C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances)—strong when cold and warm, but weak when hot; good bendability;
moderate contamination resistance; excellent forgeability.
Titanium is manufactured for commercial use in two basic compositions: commercially pure titanium and alloyed titanium. A-55 is an
example of a com-mercially pure titanium. It has a yield strength of 55,000 to 80,000 psi and is a general purpose grade for moderate to
severe forming. It is sometimes used for nonstructural aircraft parts and for all types of corrosion resistant applications, such as tubing. Type
A-70 titanium is closely related to type A-55 but has a yield strength of 70,000 to 95,000 psi. It is used where higher strength is required, and it
is specifed for many moderately stressed aircraft parts. For many corrosion applications, it is used interchangeably with type A-55. Both type
A-55 and type A-70 are weldable.
One of the widely used titanium base alloys is des-ignated as C-110M. It is used for primary structural members and aircraft skin, has 110,000
Airframe Powerplant
30
psi minimum yield strength, and contains 8 % manganese.
Type A-110AT is a titanium alloy which contains 5 % aluminum and 2.5 % tin. It also has a high minimum yield strength at elevated
temperatures with the excellent welding characteristics inherent in alpha-type titanium alloys.
Identification Tests
The approximate identification of some of the more commonly known metals may be established by making the following tests, but such
tests are unreliable and must not be employed when material to specification is required for use.
METAL IDENTIFICATION TEST
Aluminium Tin white in colour, light in weight, non-magnetic; soft, and sheet aluminiumbends easily.
Application of caustic soda turns metal white
Alclad Differs form sheet aluminium by being springy and more resistant to bending;application of
caustic soda turns the surface of sheet white and the edge black.
Duralumin Same properties as Alclad except that the application of caustic soda turnssurface black.
Magnesium alloys Tin white in colour, very light non-magnetic; easy to file, filings ignite in a flame; application of
copper sulphate causes effervescence and the affectedparts turn black.
Solder Tin white in colour, very heavy and soft; non-magnetic, low melting point(ascertained by use
of hot soldering iron); will mark white paper due to leadcontent, crackling sound when bent
indicates high tin content.
Titanium Very similar to stainless steel in appearance. High strength. High corrosionresistance. When
grinding, sparks are white.
Airframe Powerplant
31
Summary of Properties and Uses of Common Metals
Titanium Alloys Very high strength/weight ratio. Very good May be used to replace stainlesssteel & non- stainless steel as
physicalproperties and corrosion resistance at high asaving in weight. Used to manufacture compressor & fan
temperatures. blades in turbine engines. Firewall heat shields.
Aluminium Light in weight, soft, malleable,corrosion resistant, high Used extensively in light alloys as a base material. Examples:
electricalconductivity, thermal conductivity, inits pure Duralumin - Aluminium plus copper, magnesium,manganese,
state. and silicon. Used for aircraft structuralcomponents, tubes,
rivets, etc.
Hiduminium - Aluminium base, pluscopper, nickel,
magnesium, silicon.
Used for aircraft structural parts,rivets.
Nickel Strong - Good corrosion resistance at Mostly as an alloy and electro-plating.

high temperatures.
Magnesium Alloy Light in weight, alloyed to give itstrength as pure Aircraft wheels, levers , brackets,car engines (cylinder heads).
magnesium is weak and soft.
Copper Tough, ductile, malleable. Highthermal and electrical Tubing, elect. Conductors, used as a base for many alloys e.g.
conductivity. brass,Bronze
Fair corrosion resistance. Joined bysoldering and
brazing.
Brass Copper + zinc + some tin,manganese, lead, Lightly stressed castings, pipefittings, tubing, filter gauzes,
nickel,aluminium, silicon. Good wearing, anti- bearingbushes.
friction,corrosion resistant.
Bronze Copper + tin + some nickel and lead. Bearing bushes.

Good wearing qualities. Goodcorrosion resistance. Good
anti-friction.
Airframe Powerplant
32
Phosphor Copper + tin + phosphorous. Bearing bushes.

Bronze Stronger than bronze and withstandsBearing
bushesheavy loads.
Solder Tin + lead Soft soldering.

Low melting point.
Zinc Soft - good corrosion resistance. Protection of all parts.
Forging
This is a squeezing/hammering technique, which is intended to achieve large deformation/shaping of the material. The process is usually
carried out hot (i.e. above the re-crystallisation temperature), so that these large deformations can be attained without being accompanied by
any massive, residual stresses.
Sometimes a cold forging operation may be necessary but, in this instance, the material will be harder, stronger and pre-stressed (i.e. still
containing unrelieved internal stresses).
Forging ranges from the simplest form of the hand operations, conducted by the blacksmith, to the massive, mechanical, powered rams, used
for very large forgings. The forging hammer will often have a relatively low strike rate, but sometimes high-speed, pneumatic hammers are
used for High-Energy-Rate Forming.
Forging not only shapes the metal, but also reduces grain size and produces a directional control of grain flow. Both of these are desirable
features for many engineering applications, particularly for highly-stressed components, such as crankshafts and especially if they are subject
to a mechanical fatigue environment.
Drop-stamping, or drop-forging, involves the use of shaped dies and a heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The piece of
material, to be forged, is placed between the top and bottom dies and the drop-hammer is allowed to fall the necessary number of times for
the contact faces of the dies to come together. 'Flash gutters' are provided, to accommodate the excess metal (flash), which squeezes out
Airframe Powerplant
33
between the top and bottom dies.
Connecting rods are typical components made by the drop-forging process.
Hot Pressing
Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is actuated by one, long, steady, squeezing operation, as compared to a number of
blows. This processtends to affect the whole structure of the component, whereas some forging processes, using multi- (but light) blows will,
mainly, affect the material closest to the surface.
Upsetting (Upset-Forging)
Upsetting is, sometimes, called 'Heading' and usually involves locally heating of the end or ends of the material, immediately prior to forging.
Poppet valves are formed in this way, as well as forged bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold (in which case it is referred to as 'Cold
Heading'), and some rivet heads are formed in this way.
Airframe Powerplant
34
Rolling
Rolling can be carried out hot or cold.
When done hot, it is capable of achieving major re-forming/re-shaping, and slabs can be reduced to plate or sheet while bars of circular or
rectangular cross section can also be produced. Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes such as `H' or'I' section beams.
If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality, better accuracy, and increased hardness/strength. Hot, dilute, sulphuric acid
Airframe Powerplant
35
is used to remove the hot scale from steel prior to cold rolling. The rolling process would also be used to produce the clad (and unclad) sheets
of aluminium alloys.
The following table shows some of the changes that take place when a sheet of annealed aluminium is rolled and its thickness reduced.
Hardness
Reduction in sheet thickness % Tensile Strength N/mm2 Elongation
HV
0 20 40 20
15 28 15 28
30 33 8 33
40 38 5 38
60 43 3 43
Airframe Powerplant
36
It can be appreciated from the above table that after about 60% reduction in thickness the material will be too brittle to be useful.
Drawing
Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out hot. Wire, rod and tubing, can be produced by this process, where the material is
pulled through a shaped, hardened die. A ductile material is essential.
Deep Drawing/Pressing
This process uses a ram, to deform a piece of sheet metal into a recessed die and is usually done hot.
Pressing
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers for shaping sheet material. The sheet is placed between the formers, which are then
forced together by a powered ram. Pressing is usually done hot (except for the soft, ductile materials).
Airframe Powerplant
37
Stretch-Forming
This is a technique used for shaping sheet metal over a stretch-block or former. The sheet metal is firmly gripped by clamps and the sheet is
then stretched over the former (by moving the clamps or the former) and the material is stretched beyond its elastic limit so that permanent
deformation occurs.
This process is convenient for small batches of material (and is particularly financially attractive since only one former is needed) but, local
changes of form (concave/convex or vice versa) cannot be produced by this process.
Rubber-Pad Forming
In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a hydraulic ram, which forces a piece of sheet metal to conform to the shape
of a forming block.
Like stretch-forming, the process only uses one former, so it eliminates critical matching and alignment problems of conventional pressing,
When used for small batches (e.g. aircraft production), low-cost, easy to machine, materials can be used for the forming block.
Rubber-Bag forming (Hydro-forming) uses the same principle, but incorporates a flexible diaphragm and hydraulic pressure in place of the
Airframe Powerplant
38
rubber pad.
Extruding
The extrusion process, forces hot metal through a shaped die, to produce circular, rectangular, tubular, angular, half-round sections etc.
In some respects, the process is similar to drawing, but extruding forces metal from a heated billet, through hardened dies by compression,
whereas, in drawing, it is achieved by tension. Malleability is, therefore, an essential material property for the extrusion process.
Extruding is normally restricted to aluminium alloys and copper alloys, where extrusion temperatures of 400°C-500°C and 650°-1000°C
respectively are used. Steel ìs extremely difficult to extrude, due to the excessive pressures required.
Impact-Extrusion
This process is, usually, a cold-forming operation, which is suitable to very soft and malleable materials (e.g. aluminium). The shaped
component is formed, by forcing a punch onto a 'blank' ofmaterial within a shallow recess. The extruded shape results from the metal being
forced to escape through the small gap, between the punch and the recess.
Airframe Powerplant
39
Sintering
Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to approximately 70%-80% of its melting temperature and then squeezed to shape
in a die.
The process is often used to form components made from materials with a very high melting temperature (e.g. tungsten). It also allows non-
metallic materials, such as graphite and carbon, to be incorporated into the mixture.
The operation is usually conducted in a controlled atmosphere (typically argon or nitrogen) to prevent oxidation. Under the high pressures
used, a metallurgical bond occurs (diffusion bonding), between the particles of powder. The sintered end-product is, typically, around
10%20% porous and can then be impregnated with graphite (or high melting-point grease), to provide excellent, self-lubricating properties
for plain bearings, bushes etc.
Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials are required, as when copper and graphite are used for electrical brushes
(i.e. copper to carry the current and graphite to act as a low-friction contact) Tungsten carbide cutting tools can also be produced in this way,
by incorporating tungsten carbide particles within a cobalt matrix.
Hot, Isostatic-Pressing, uses a similar technique to sintering, but uses higher temperature and very much higher pressures to produce zero
porosity. The technique is sometimes used to heal micro-porosity in super-critical castings.)
Airframe Powerplant
40
Spinning
Spinning is an old process, in which a piece of sheet metal may be formed, to shape, around
a rotating former, which is mounted on the spindle of a lathe. The necessary force to deform
the sheet metal is generated by a long tool, which is levered about a suitably positioned
fulcrum.
For thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can be manipulated by hand, while, for thicker gauge
materials, a hydraulic actuator is used on a purpose-built machine.
Cones, flares, bowls and bell-mouth shapes, are produced by spinning.
Airframe Powerplant
41
Chemical Milling
Chemical milling is, sometimes, referred to as chemical etching. It is a purely chemical process, not electro-chemical.
Although simple in principle, chemical milling offers a method of producing complex patterns and lightweight parts and is used for
incorporating integral ribs and stiffeners in sheet metal. Tapered sections can also be easily formed - the unwanted material being eaten away
by a suitable chemical.
The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical, in this instance, is a hot alkaline solution (usually caustic soda) and, while it is a
relatively slow process, its unique advantages make it very attractive for airframe components. The areas, which must not be eaten away by
the fluid, are simply protected by a thin layer of plastic, which can be brushed or sprayed on. Although the chemically etched surface is not
very rough, a drop in fatigue strength does result and, in critical applications, restoration of fatigue strength is desirable. A light, peening
operation, using glass beads or steel shot, achieves this.
Electro-Chemical Machining
Using electrolysis and, by making the work-piece the anode of the dc electrical circuit, an electrolyte is pumped rapidly (under pressure)
through the gap between the shaped cathode (also referred to as the tool) and the work piece.
The tool is moved slowly towards the work piece, by a ram, so that metal is progressively removed from the work piece, until the desired
shape is achieved.
The process is ideal for metals, which are difficult to machine by conventional methods, and the finish achieved is good. High electric current
is required, and other, essential, requirements for the process are that the tool needs to be a good conductor (copper or brass) and it must
resist corrosion, because the electrolyte is often a salt solution.
Airframe Powerplant
42
Electro-Discharge Machining E.D.M.
This process is, sometimes, called spark machining (or spark erosion), because, rather than using electrolysis, the technique involves the
removal of metal by the energy (and heat) of electrical sparks, which travel from the electrically negative tool electrode, through a dielectric
fluid, and explosively strike the electrically positive work piece.
The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to instantaneously vaporize, without a molten metal phase (a process known as
`sublimation'), though, away from the actual centre of the explosion, molten fragments of metal are washed away, with the vapors, by the
dielectric fluid.
A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed, under pressure, between the electrode and the work piece, to maintain a uniform electrical
resistance. The spark rate is around 10,000 per second and the gap between the tool and the work piece is critical and must be maintained,
throughout the operation, at approximately 0.025 mm - 0.075 mm (0.001 in - 0.003 in).The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable
on materials which are difficult to machine conventionally, but it also excels in its ability to produce high-aspect ratio, very small holes of any
cross-sectional, in very hard metals.
Typical holes achievable, by this method, are in the regions of 0.025 mm diameter x 750 mm deep (0.010 in x 3 in).
A novel variation of EDM is a technique sometimes referred to as `wire-cutting', which uses a moving, fine piece of copper or nickel wire as the
electrode. The wire, 0.05 mm - 0.25 mm in diameter (0.002 in - 0.010 in), is positioned by, and fed over, two pulleys and resembles a simple
band-saw operation. The work piece is mounted on a table, which can be moved in two axes and, when the table is computer controlled, the
wire-cutting process can cut accurate, complex shapes in metals (e.g. dovetails, fir-trees etc.) which are difficult to machine with conventional
tools.
Conventional Machining
Conventional machining is done, using seven basic techniques, which are:
Airframe Powerplant
43
o Drilling/reaming
o Turning
o Milling
o Sawing
o Shaping/planing/slotting
o Broaching
o Abrasive machining (i.e. grinding)
These techniques have been well established for many years, and most of the advances, until relatively recently, have been confined to
tooling improvements which have permitted higher material removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel tools, have been superseded by high-
speed steels (tungsten/cobalt alloy steels), cemented carbides and ceramics. So-called 'Machining Centres' have also been developed, which
are capable of automatic tool changes and of doing difficult types of machining without the need for transferring work to a different machine
and re-setting up. In this way a much more versatile machine tool has evolved. However, the biggest single machining advance in modern
times (especially with regard to aircraft manufacture) has been the introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines. NC milling, in
particular, has revolutionized airframe manufacture.
NC machines are machines in which motion is controlled by a series of numbers, either via punched tape or magnetic tape. Instructions, on
the tape, are based on the Binary System (or a variant) which is common to most electronic computing devices. The primary advantage of NC
machining is the ability to accurately control the spindle, the tool or the work piece movements in three directions (x, y and z axes)
independently or simultaneously. NC machines are capable of producing compound shapes and contours, and are especially suited to the
task of generating integral spars, ribs, and stiffeners in slabs or forgings.NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which `tells' the
control unit how much actual movement is made, analysis, is then done and final compensation eliminates any error (i.e. the motion ceases
when the input and feed-back signals agree). Electrical control of the machine servo-motors can control movements as small as 0.0005 mm
(0.00002 in).
Airframe Powerplant
44
CNC machines (i.e. Computer Numerically Control) differ from NC machines only in that the electronic control unit on the CNC machine is
more sophisticated in that it is adaptable to a wide variety of software and can accommodate a diverse range of programs. Although the
capital cost of NC/CNC machines is high, the following advantages make such machines technically desirable and economically viable, where
super-light, complex, high-tech, manufacture is concerned:
o Complex shapes with integral features are possible
o The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
o A reduction in manufacturing time
o Adaptable to short runs
o Greater accuracy and consistency
o Program can be changed to accommodate modifications
Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming
Diffusion bonding and super-plastic forming is joining in the solid state. Unlike welding, no melting of the metallic materials takes place.
Materials are heated to high temperatures in a vacuum environment and subjected to pressures high enough to cause plastic deformation.
Intimate contact of the surfaces under these conditions assures a quality bond, having the strength and ductility of the parent metal.
Airframe Powerplant
45
Diffusion bonding, however, is a misnomer. There is no mass transfer of atoms across the joint interface. Re-crystallization is not required to
achieve high strength quality bonds. If thesurfaces to be joined are clean and free of metallic oxides or other forms of contamination, and are
brought together under high heat and forming pressure, they will join together to form a solid state bond. Atoms in the joint, will lock
together if they achieve interatomic spacing. High temperatures result in wide spacing as well as rapid molecular activity. Both of these
factors assist in achieving high quality bonds.
Titanium is a metallic material that is ideally suited for this type of processing. Titanium is highly reactive at elevated temperatures. Titanium
can be used in a high temperature vacuum environment as a getter. Titanium will absorb it's own surface oxides. When heated to
temperature, Titanium will stick to itself even under low pressure. Other materials can be readily joined together by these methods. The basic
requirements are the same. Even greater care must be taken to assure that contamination of the surfaces does not occur during heating to
temperature. Titanium foil can be used to clean up oxides within the vacuum chamber. Dissimilar metallic materials can also be joined
together, if they are compatible with each other. If they react with each other to form brittle intermetallics, then barrier materials must be
placed within the joints to achieve a transition.
Airframe Powerplant
46
Titanium can be joined together as sheet metal laminates, or as various combinations of sheet, plate, bar, or machined parts. Tooling is
required to hold the pieces together to form complex structures
made up from these elements. Large titanium structures have
been fabricated using these concepts for the production B-1
Bomber and the Space Shuttle.
Tooling was machined from stainless steel plate or bar stock.

Tooling may also be fabricated from castings to achieve greater
resistance to creep deformation under sustained pressures
during bonding. Castings also provide a more cost effective
method of fabrication for some tooling configurations.
Stainless steel retorts were used to enclose the bond assembly.

Vacuum lines were attached to purge the interior of the
container. Inert gas was used to flush out air. Multiple purges
were required.
Titanium structures were heated to temperatures of 1700 F

under a pressure of 2,000 pounds per square inch, and held at pressure for three hours. The mass was then allowed to cool to room
temperature. The retort was opened, the tooling removed, and a single Titanium part was removed that was made up from hundreds of
individual pieces.
TESTING MATERIAL
A non-ferrous metal is a metal which is not ferrous, including alloys, that does not contain iron in appreciable amounts. Hardness testing is a
method of determining the results of heat treatment as well as the state of a metal prior to heat treatment. Since hardness values can be tied
Airframe Powerplant
47
in with tensile strength values and, in part, with wear resistance, hardness tests are a valuable check of heat treat control and of material
properties.
Practically all hardness testing equipment now uses the resistance to penetration as a measure of hardness. Included among the better
known hardness testers are the Brinell and Rockwell, both of which are described and illustrated in this section. Also included is a popular
portable-type hardness tester currently being used.
Factors that require consideration in proper selection of a hardness testing (order does not necessarily reflect degree of importance):
Hardness range of the test material.

Size of the workpiece
Shape of the workpiece
Degree of flatness of the workpiece
Surface condition of the workpiece
Nature of the test material homogeneous or nonhomogeneous
Effect of identification marks
Number of identical pieces to be tested
Equipment availability
Hardness Range of Material
To select the optimal testing methode, it is essential to have some knowledge of the hardness range of the material being tested, which can
be determined from its general composition and processing history. In many instances, some trial and error is essential to arrive at the desired
result.
Airframe Powerplant
48
For nonferrous metals, selection of a method is seldom a problem. The Rockwell B scale is probably used more than any other test and will
usually suffice for testing most copper, aluminium, and amgnesium alloys. The Rockwell B scale represents good starting point. If reading
exceed 100 HRB, another scale should be selected – probably the Rockwell C. As a rule, Rockwell B readings in excess of 100 occur only on
heat treated copper alloys.
On the other hand, if Rockwell B readings are below 50, the identer is sinking too deeply for accurate readings, and the load should be
decreased or the size of the identer should be increased, as in the Rockwell E or F scale.
Nonferrous metals also may be tested with the Brinell method, usually with a 500 kg load. However, the accuracy of the Brinell test decrease
rapidly when the size of the impression is less than 3 mm (0.12 in) or more than 6 mm (0.24 in). All of these approaches assume that the size
and thickness of the work metal are compatible with the identation depth.
There are exceptions, but as a rule, parts made from rolled products or forgings of the same composition can be considered the same as far as
hardness testing is concerned. Similarily, cast versions of steels and nonferrous metals usually may be given the same consideration as their
forged and rolled counterparts.
Brinell Tester
The Brinell tester uses a hardened spherical ball, which is forced into the surface of the metal. This ball is 10 millimeters (0.3937 inch) in
diameter. A pressure of 3,000 kilograms is used for ferrous metals and 500 kilograms for nonferrous metals. The pressure must be maintained
at least 10 seconds for ferrous metals and at least 30 seconds for nonferrous metals. The load is applied by hydraulic pressure.
Rockwell Tester
The Rockwell hardness tester measures the resistance to penetration, as does the Brinell tester. Instead of measuring the diameter of the
impression, the Rockwell tester measures the depth, and the hardness is indicated directly on a dial attached to the machine. The dial
Airframe Powerplant
49
numbers in the outer circle are black, and the inner numbers are red. Rockwell hardness numbers arc based on the difference between the
depth of penetration at major and minor loads. The greater this difference, the less the hardness number and the softer the material. Two
types of penetrators are used with the Rockwell tester, a diamond cone and a hardened steel ball. The load which forces the penetrator into
the metal is called the major load and is measured in kilograms. The results of each penetrator and load combination are reported on separate
scales, designated by letters. The penetrator, the major load, and the scale vary with the kind of metal being tested.
Clad aluminum alloy sheets cannot be tested directly with any accuracy with a Rockwell hardness tester. If the hardness value of the base
metal is desired, the pure aluminum coating must be removed from the area to be checked prior to testing.
Barcol Tester
The Barcol tester (figure 2.4) is a portable unit designed for testing aluminum alloys, copper,
brass, or other relatively soft materials. It should not be used on aircraft steels. Approximate
range of the tester is 25 to 100 Brinell. The unit can be used in any position and in any space that
will allow for the operator's hand. It is of great value in the hardness testing of assembled or
installed parts, especially to check for proper heat treatment. The hardness is indicated on a dial
conveniently divided into 100 graduations.
The design of the Barcol tester is such that operating experience is not necessary. It is only
necessary to exert a light pressure against the instrument to drive the spring loaded indenter
into the material to be tested. The hardness reading is instantly indicated on the dial.
Several typical readings for aluminum alloys are listed in tabel. Note that the harder the material
is, the higher the Barcol number will be. To prevent dam-age to the point, avoid sliding or
scraping when it is in contact with the material being tested. If the point should become
Figure 2.4 Barcol Hardness Test damaged, it must be replaced with a new one. Do not attempt to grind the point.
Airframe Powerplant
50
Each tester is supplied with a test disk for checking the condition of the point. To check the point, press the instrument down on the test disk.
When the downward pressure brings the end of the lower plunger guide against the surface of the disk, the indicator reading should be
within the range shown on the test disk.
Alloy and Temper Barcol Number
1100-O 35
3003-O 42
3003-H14 56
2024-O 60
5052-O 62
5052-H34 75
6061-T 78
2024-T 85
Durometer Tests
The durometer is a portable hardness tester for measuring hardness of rubber, plastics, and some soft metals. The instrument is designed to
apply pressure to the specimen and the hardness is read from a scale while the pressure is maintained. Various scales can be used by
changing the indentor and the load applied.
Shore (Durometer) figure 2.5 is one of several measures of the hardness of a material. Hardness may be defined as a material's resistance to
permanent indentation. The term durometer is often used to refer to the measurement as well as the instrument itself. Durometer is typically
used as a measure of hardness in polymers, elastomers, and rubbers.
Airframe Powerplant
51
Durometer, like many other hardness tests, measures the depth of an indentation in the material created by a given force on a standardized
presser foot. This depth is dependent on the hardness of the material, its viscoelastic properties, the shape of the presser foot, and the
duration of the test. ASTM D2240 durometers allows for a measurement of the initial hardness, or the indentation hardness after a given
period of time. The basic test requires applying the force in a consistent manner, without shock, and measuring the hardness (depth of the
indentation). If a timed hardness is desired, force is applied for the required time and then read. The material under test should be a minimum
of 6.4 mm (0.25 inches) thick.
Test setup for type A & D
Durometer Indenting foot Applied mass (kg) Resulting force (N)
Hardened steel rod 1.1 mm – 1.4 mm diameter, with a

Type A 0.822 8.064
truncated 35° cone, 0.79 mm diameter.
Hardened steel rod 1.1 mm – 1.4 mm diameter, with a 30°

Type D 4.550 44.64
conical point, 0.1 mm radius tip
Shore hardness is a measure of the resistance of a material to penetration of a spring loaded needle-like indenter
Hardness of Polymers (rubbers, plastics) is usually measured by Shore scales.
Airframe Powerplant
52
Figure 2.5 Durometer Hardness Test
Shore A scale is used for testing soft Elastomers (rubbers) and other soft polymers.
Hardness of hard elastomers and most other polymer materials (Thermoplastics, Thermosets) is measured by Shore D scale.
Shore hardness is tested with an instrument called Durometer. Durometer utilizes an indenter loaded by a calibrated spring. The measured
hardness is determined by the penetration depth of the indenter under the load.
Two different indenter shapes (see the picture below) and two different spring loads are used for two Shore scales (A and D). The loading
forces of Shore A: 1.812 lb (822 g), Shore D: 10 lb (4536 g).
Shore hardness value may vary in the range from 0 to 100. Maximum penetration for each scale is 0.097-0.1 inch (2.5-2.54 mm). This value
corresponds to minimum Shore hardness: 0. Maximum hardness value 100 corresponds to zero penetration.
Airframe Powerplant
53
INTRODUCTION
A non-ferrous Aluminum is a white, lustrous metal, light in weightand corrosion resistant in its pure state. It is ductile,malleable, and
nonmagnetic. Aluminum combined withvarious percentages of other metals, generally copper,manganese, and magnesium, form the
aluminum alloysthat are used in aircraft construction. Aluminum alloysare lightweight and strong, but do not possess thecorrosion resistance
of pure aluminum and are generallytreated to prevent deterioration. “Alclad” is analuminum alloy with a protective coating of aluminumto
make it almost equal to the pure metal in corrosionresistance.
Several of the aluminum alloys respond readily toheat treatment. In general, this treatment consists ofheating the alloy to a known
temperature, holding thistemperature for a definite time, then quenching the partto room temperature or below. During the heatingprocess,
a greater number of the constituents of the metalare put into solid solution. Rapid quenching retains thiscondition, which results in a
considerable improvementin the strength characteristics.
The heating of aluminum alloy should be done in anelectric furnace or molten salt bath. The salt bathgenerally used is a mixture of equal
parts of potassiumnitrate and sodium nitrate. Parts heated by this methodmust be thoroughly washed in water after treatment. Thesalt bath
method of heating should never be used forcomplicated parts and assemblies that cannot be easilywashed free of the salt.
Temper Designations
The treating of aluminium after it is milled sometimes called temper) is designated by a letter following the four digit TADS number. Each
letter signifies exactly how the aluminium was treated. Not all treating is heat treating and not all treating affects temper.
F as fabricated, no digits appended (no special control)
W solution heat treated, no digits appended
O Annealed, no digits appended
H Strain Hardening (designation by two or more numbers)
Airframe Powerplant
54
H1 Strained hardened only
H2 Strain Hardened and annealed
H3 Strain Hardened and stabilized thermally
An additional digit may follow which designates hardness
 H_2 quarter hard
 H_4 half hard
 H_6 three quarter hard
 H_8 fill hard
Example:
3040-H41 would signify a treating of strain hardening to half hard.
T Thermally treated (designation by one or more numbers)
T1 Cooled from hot work an naturally aged
T2 Annealed
T3 Solution treated and cold worked
T4 Solution treated and naturally aged
T5 Cooled from hot work and furnace aged
Airframe Powerplant
55
T6 Solution treated and furnace aged
T7 Solution treated and stabilized
T8 Solution treated, cold worked, and furnace aged
T9 Solution treated, furnace aged, and cold worked
T10 Cooled from temperature, furnace aged, and cold worked
T51 Stress relieved by stretching
T510 Stress relieved by stretching with no further processing
T511 Stress relieved by stretching and minor straightening
T52 Stress relieved by compression
T54 Stress relieved stretching and compression
T42 Solution treated from O or F temper and naturally aged
T62 Solution treated from O or F
Additional digits may be used after the first T temper digit to indicate subsequent stress relieving by processes such as stretching,
compressing, or a combination.
Airframe Powerplant
56
The British Standards (BS) Designation
British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In this series the prefix N is used to denote non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys
and prefix H for the heat-treatable alloys. British Standards for aerospace use: BS X LXX. (The "L" series)
e.g. BS 3 L72 indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 spec.
LM - indicates a cast material. The wrought materials are commonly abbreviated to L71, L72, L73 etc.
Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:
a) L159 DURALUMIN Solution-Treated - Artificially aged
b) L163 ALCLAD Solution-Treated - Naturally aged
DURALUMIN (or simply DURAL) is a trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy, originally manufactured by the Duren Aluminium Company
(Germany) and first used on airship frames, but it tends to be used as a generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of manufacture.
ALCLAD is a trade name of the ALCOA Company, but also tends to be used as a generic name for similar alloys, regardless of source of
manufacture.
Airframe Powerplant
57
More modern wrought aluminium alloys are covered by BS 1470 to BS 1475. Each alloy is identified by a number. Prefix letters (before
number) indicate its form and whether or not it is a heat treatable alloy. Suffix letters (after number) show what treatment it has received.
Heat treatment (first prefix letter)
N non heat treatable alloy
H heat treatable alloy.
Form of material (second prefix letter)
Some examples are:
S plate, sheet and strip (BS1470)
T drawn tube
F forgings and forging stock (BS 1472)
R rivet, bolt and screw stock
Condition (Suffix letter(s) )
M asmanufactured state
0 Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8 strain hardened material subjected to cold work after annealing or a combination of cold work and partial
Airframe Powerplant
58
Module 6 – Materials and hardware
annealing. Designations are inorder of increasing tensile strength.
TB Material solution heat treated and naturally aged.
TD Material solution heat treated and cold worked and naturally aged.
TF Material solution heat treated and precipitation heat treated.
TH Material solution heat treated, cold worked and then precipitation heat treated.
Examples
1. The specification number NS5-H4 refers to the non heat treatable alloy number 5, in the form of half hardened aluminium alloy plate.
2. The number HT20-TB refers to the heat treatable alloy number 20 in the tube form which has been solution treated and naturally
aged.
The cast aluminium alloys are covered by BS1490. The specification numbers give information on the form and condition of the material.
Conversion of Designations
The closest UNS conversion for TADS aluminium follows the information above. The UNS system uses the first digit "9" to differentiate
wrought aluminium from cast aluminium. So IADS 6061 aluminium would be UNS A96061, however there is no room in the UNS system for
traditional temper tags such as TADS 6060-T6. It remains to be seen how new UNS standards will address this.
Clad Aluminium Alloys
Though strong, aluminium alloys are not as resistant to corrosion as pure aluminium and, for external use such as skins, the high-strength
sheet has a thin layer of pure aluminium hot-rolled onto the surfaces. These are then known as clad materials with commercial names such
as.
Airframe Powerplant
59
Alclad and Pureclad.
Alclad is a `pure' aluminium coating that is rolled onto the surface of an aluminium alloy, which may, then, be heat-treated. The thickness of
the coating is approximately 5% of the material thickness on each side. For example, if an Alclad sheet of aluminium alloy has a thickness of
1.2 mm (0.047"), then 0.06 mm (0.0024") of `pure' aluminium is applied to each side.
This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of an aluminium alloy. If, however, the cladding is penetrated, corrosive agents
can attack the alloy under the cladding. For this reason, sheet metal should be protected from scratches and abrasions. In addition to
providing a starting point for corrosion, abrasions can create potential `stress raisers' (points from which cracking can initiate).
HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and subsequent cooling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the
metal harder, stronger and more resistant to impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for working into a required
shape (bending etc.). One treatment cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are achieved at the expense of others when, for
example, a hardened material usually becomes more brittle.
Heat treating processes for aluminum are precision processes. They must be carried out in furnaces properly designed and built to provide
the thermal conditions required, and adequately equipped with control instruments to insure the desired continuity and uniformity of
temperature-time cycles. To insure the final desired characteristics, process details must be established and controlled carefully for each
type of product.
The general types of heat treatments applied to aluminum and its alloys are:
Preheating or homogenizing, to reduce chemical segregation of cast structures and to improve their workability
Annealing, to soften strain-hardened (work-hardened) and heat treated alloy structures, to relieve stresses, and to stabilize
properties and dimensions
Airframe Powerplant
60
Solution heat treatments, to effect solid solution of alloying constituents and improve mechanical properties
Precipitation heat treatments, to provide hardening by precipitation of constituents from solid solution.
There are two basic divisions of aluminium alloys with respect to heat treatment:
o Non-heat treatable - those that can be softened but not hardened by heat treatment.
o Heat treatable - those that can be softened and hardened by heat treatment.
Alloys 1100, 3003 and 5052 are not heat treatable. If they are heated to their annealing temperature and allowed to cool slowly they will be
softened to theirannealed, or -0 condition.
Note:
When discussing heat treatment of aluminium alloys, annealing (although a heating process) is often not considered to be a "heat
treatment" since its purpose is to return the alloy to its original grain structure after cold working. The term "heat treatment" therefore refers
only to the process of hardening the alloy by controlled heating and cooling.
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two
main heat-treatments, which are referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.The procedures for heat-treating
aluminium alloys are critical if correct properties are to be obtained.
Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are used:
A muffle furnace or
A salt bath
The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an inner chamber in which the aluminium alloy is placed.
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would evaporate long before the required temperatures were reached. The salts (usually
nitrate of soda or similar) are solid at room temperature, but become liquid when they are electrically heated. Gradual heating of the bath is
Airframe Powerplant
61
necessary to avoid spattering or spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to avoid spattering) can then be submerged within the
heated liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is to avoid any adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.
Accurate thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on temperatures are specified (typically plus or minus 5°C).
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to avoid delay between removing from the heating source and quenching.
Most quench tanks contain cold water but hot water is sometimes specified (especially for heavy sections e.g. large forgings). Limits are also
stipulated for the permissible period between heating and quenching which is known as the lagtime (typically 10 seconds max.). If these
lag-times are exceeded, material properties or corrosion resistance may be adversely affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too
slow this may also affect the corrosion resistance.
Thorough washing of the material in cold water is essential after salt bath heat-treatment to remove any salt residue.
There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may be carried out on normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the material is
clad with pure aluminium, for corrosion resistance (Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments is imposed. This is to limit the migration of
copper, from the alloyed material, into the pure aluminium cladding, which would significantly reduce its corrosion resistance.
There are two types of heat treatment applicable toaluminum alloys. They are known as solution andprecipitation heat treatment. Certain
alloys develop theirfull strength from the solution treatment, while othersrequire both treatments for maximum strength.
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT
The solution treatment consists of heating the metal to the temperature required to cause the constituents to go into a solid solution. To
complete the solution, often the metal is held at a high temperature for a sufficient time, and then quenched rapidly in cold water to retain
this condition. It is necessary that solution heat treatment of aluminum alloys be accomplished within close limits inreference to
temperature control and quenching. Thetemperature for heat-treating is usually chosen as highas possible without danger of exceeding the
meltingpoint of any element of the alloy. This is necessary toobtain the maximum improvement in mechanicalproperties. If the maximum
specified temperature isexceeded, eutectic melting will occur.
Airframe Powerplant
62
The consequencewill be inferior physical properties, and usually aseverely blistered surface. If the temperature of the heattreatment is low,
maximum strength will not beobtained.
The process consists of heating the sheet to a temperature of 500°C (to take the alloying elements into solution), keeping it at that
temperature for a suitable period, (20 minutes for sheet) and then immediately quenching into cold water not exceeding 20°C.
The time of heat treatment will depend on the size of the job and the type of alloy. Typical soaking times for sheet aluminium alloy are as
follow. This allows the material to reach therequired temperature.
METAL GAUGE TIME
22 SWG 12 to 18 minutes
If required, forming may be carried out, but must be completed within two hours of quenching. Four to five days must then be allowed for
natural ageing to take place.
Certain rivets e.g. BS SPL37 made of Duralumin must be solution heat treated before use and used within two hours of quenching. (A period
of 20 minutes is specified for American 2024 rivets). Age hardening can be delayed by storing the rivets at a low temperature immediately
after quenching. At a temperature of 0°C to -5°C they will keep for 45 hours and at a temperature of -15°C to -20°C for 150 hours. The rivets
must be used within two hours of removal from cold storage. If the rivets have not been used within 2 hours they may be solution treated
again, up to a maximum of three times. Further heat treatments would increase the grain size and result in low strength even after ageing.
Airframe Powerplant
63
After solution treatment the rivets should be quenched in clean, cold running water. All traces of the salts must be removed before drying,
otherwise corrosion may occur in the future.
Refrigeration
To prevent the start of natural age hardening, solution treated alloys may be stored in a refrigerator at temperatures as low as -20°C. This
allows the storage of aluminium alloy parts awaiting pressing operations. Solution treated rivets may also be stored in this way.
Solution treatment is sometimes called re-crystallization. This operation serves to distribute thecopper uniformly throughout the aluminium
(i.e. to create a solid solution). The heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven or, more commonly (to obtain better overall
heating),in a bath of special, molten salts. However, although the aluminium can accommodate 5% or soof copper in solid solution at high
temperature, this condition is unstable at lower temperatures and, after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the copper
slowly comes out of solution and separates into local 'islands' of copper aluminide.By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching),
the copper becomes trapped 'in solution', making the aluminium very strong.
PRECIPITATION (AGE) HARDENING/NATURAL AGE HARDENING
The precipitation treatment consists of “aging” material previously subjected to solution heat treatments by natural (occurs at room
temperature) or artificial aging (figure 2.6). Artificial aging consists of heating aluminum alloy to a specific temperature and holding for a
specified length of time. During this hardening and strengthening operation, the alloying constituents in solid solution precipitate out. As
precipitation progresses the strength of the material increases until the maximum is reached. Further aging (overaging) causes the strength
to decline until a stable condition is obtained. The strengthening of the material is due to the uniform alignment of the molecule structure
of the aluminum and alloying element.
Airframe Powerplant
64
Natural aging alloys can be artificially aged; however, it increases the susceptibility of the material to intergranular corrosion. If used, it
should be limited to clad sheet and similar items.
The gradual formation of the copper alumide 'islands' (also referred to as 'slip'), causes an increase in hardness and strength and these
properties reach maximum values after several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time lapse involved, this gradual
hardening is termed 'age-hardening'. Although copper may be the major alloying element (in the '2000 series' alloys) other elements,
including magnesium and manganese can also be present.
Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common age-hardened, high-strength metals, they are not unique. Aluminium, when
alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc, is also able to be age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/ copper type and is the highest-
strength aluminium alloy in general use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded applications such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and Main plane
Attachment brackets etc.
The Mechanics of Age Hardening
We shall use the example of aluminium/copper to illustrate the process. An aluminium alloy containing 4% copper at room temperature (21
°C) will have 0.5% of the copper in solid solution with the aluminium. The remaining 3 ½ % of copper is chemically combined with the
aluminium to form the intermetallic compound CuAl2.
The ability of copper to dissolve in aluminium increases with temperature so that, as the alloy is heated, the CuA12 is dissolved with the 4%
copper is in solid solution with the aluminium.
When the alloy is slowly cooled from about 500°C, the CuAl2 will gradually re-appear as fairly large particles, visible under the microscope. At
room temperature only 0.5% of the copper remains in solid solution.
Airframe Powerplant
65
Figure 2.6 Solutionising, Naturally aging and Artificial aging
If however, the alloy is quenched from 500°C, no CuAI2 is seen in the structure. After a period of about two hours, the tensile strength and
hardness begin to increase until, after about 5 days, these properties are at a maximum.
This is known as "Age Hardening" and the heat treatment process is known as "Solution Heat Treatment" (S.H.T.), or Solutionising.
The reason for this increase in strength and hardness can be explained in a simple way. After the quenching treatment, all the 4% copper is
trapped in solid solution at room temperature. The structure is unstable and so, small particles of CuAl 2, (too small to be seen under an
optical microscope) begin to precipitate (come out of solution). These small particles continue to come out of solution until, after five days,
only ½% copper is in solid solution. The remaining 3 ½% of copper has combined with aluminium to form very small particles of CuAI2,
dispersed throughout the structure. These particles will obstruct slip on more planes than the relatively large particles of CuAI2, present after
a slow cool from 500°C.
Airframe Powerplant
66
Artificially aged alloys are usually slightly “overaged” to increase their resistance to corrosion, especially the high copper content alloys. This
is done to reduce their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion caused by under aging.
Artificial Age Hardening (Precipitation Treatment), although the process of age hardening (Natural or Artificial) is technically called
precipitation treatment, the term "Precipitation Hardening" is often taken to mean the process of Artificial Age Hardening. This process
enables a strength and hardness of aluminium alloys over and above that which would be possible by natural age hardening.
Some of the heat treatable aluminium alloys do not age harden naturally after solution treatment and require heating to a temperature
between 1100°C and 200°C, to allow the CuAl2 particles to come out of solution.
Heat uniformly for the requisite period at a temperature between 160°C and 190°C, then allow to cool in air.
Examples:
Temperature °C Time in hours

165 12 to 18
175 9 to 12
185 3 to 6
Quenching
The basic purpose for quenching is to prevent the immediate re-precipitation of the soluble constituents after heating to solid solution. To
obtain optimum physical properties of aluminum alloys, rapid quenching is required. The recommended time interval between removal
from the heat and immersion is 10 seconds or less. Allowing the metal to cool before quenching promotes inter granular corrosion and
slightly affects the hardness. There are three methods employed for quenching. The one used depends upon the item, alloy, and properties
desired.
Airframe Powerplant
67
COLD WATER QUENCHING.—Small parts made from sheet, extrusions, tubing, and small fairings are normally quenched in cold water. The
temperature before quenching should be 85°F or less. Sufficient coldwater should be circulated within the quenching tanks to keep the
temperature rise under 20°F. This type of quench will ensure good resistance to corrosion, and is particular y important when heat-treating
2017 and2024 alloys.
HOT WATER QUENCHING.—Large forgings and heavy sections can be quenched in hot or boiling water. This type of quench is used to
minimize distortion and cracking, which are produced by the unequal temperatures obtained during the quenching operation. The hot
water quench will also reduce residual stresses, which improves resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
SPRAY QUENCHING.—Water sprays are used to quench parts formed from alclad sheets and large sections of most alloys. Principal reasons
for using this method are to minimize distortion and to alleviate quench cracking. This system is not usually used to quench bare 2017 and
2024 due to the effect on their corrosion resistance.
Annealing
Annealing as with steel serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to enable it to be worked without cracking. Even in this condition, ageing will
gradually occur and 24 hours is the normal limit for working after annealing, although this can be extended if the material is stored under
refrigerated conditions to slow the ageing process. A temperature of -5°C will provide approximately 2 days' delay while one of -20°C will
provide approximately 1 week's delay in the age-hardening process. The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -
20°C.Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the temperature of the alloy to between 340°C and 410°C. The alloy is then
cooled slowly at about 10°C per hour (rates will differ with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined temperature. At this point
it is allowed to cool naturally.
These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an aircraft structure while in the annealed state, since material properties and
corrosion resistance will be severely affected.
Annealing serves to remove the strain hardening that results from cold working and, in the case of the heat-treated alloys to remove the
Airframe Powerplant
68
effect of the heat treatment. Annealing is usually carried out in air furnaces, but salt baths may be used if the melting point of the bath is low
enough. A bath made up of equal parts by weight of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate is satisfactory.
ANNEALING OF WORK HARDENED MATERIAL.—Annealing of material that was initially in the soft or annealed condition but which has been
strain-hardened by cold working, such as 1100, 3003, 5052, etc., is accomplished by heating the metal to a temperature of 349 ±5°C (660
±10°F). It is only necessary to hold the metal at this temperature for a sufficient length of time to make certain that the temperature in all
parts of the load has been brought within the specified range. If the metal is heated appreciably above 354°C (670°F), there is a partial
solution of the hardening constituents, and the alloy will age harden while standing at room temperature unless it has been cooled very
slowly. If the temperature is not raised to 343°C (650°F), the softening may not be complete. The rate of cooling from the annealing
temperature is not important. However, a slow cool is desirable in case any part of the load may have been heated above the recommended
temperature range.
ANNEALING OF HEAT-TREATED ALLOYS.— The heat-treatable alloys are annealed to remove the effects of strain hardening or to remove
the effects of solution heat treatment.
To remove strain hardening due to cold work, a 1-hour soak at 640° to 660°F, followed by air coding, is generally satisfactory. This practice is
also satisfactory to remove the effects of heat treatment if the maximum of softness is not required.
To remove the effects of partial or full heat treatment, a 2-hour soak at 750° to 800°F, followed by a maximum cooling rate of 50° per hour to
500°F, is required to obtain maximum softness.
To remove the effects of solution heat treatment or hardening due to cold work, the high zinc-bearing alloy 7075 should be soaked 2 hours
at 775°F, air cooled to 450°, and soaked 6 hours at 450°. The stabilizing temperature at 450° is necessary to precipitate the soluble
constituents from solid solution.
The annealing of solution heat-treated material should be avoided whenever possible if subsequent forming and drawing operations are to
be formed. If such operations are not severe, it is generally advantageous to repeat the solution heat treatment and form the material in the
freshly quenched condition.
Airframe Powerplant
69
Module 6
6.3 Aircraft Materials - Composite and
Non-Metallic
Airframe Powerplant
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
Airframe Powerplant
2
COMPOSITE
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
To produce the required strength characteristics, advanced compsites rely on a combination of matrix type, fiber type, ply orientation, and
processing method. All ibrous materials are characterized as having strength parallel to the fiber direction and a lack of
strengthperpendicular to the fiber direction. Plywood was the first practical laminated composite material, formed by laying plies in two
directions. Fiberglass brought improved structural strength to this class of materials.The much stiffer fibers of boron and carbon have given
composite materials structural properties superior in several ways to the metal alloys they have replaced. The term ADVANCED applies to
these and other composites, which have fibers of high stiffness and strength. The development of advanced composite materials has been
accompanied by a substantial improvement in the theory required for an adequate understanding of laminated composites. This theory
may be applied equally well to fiberglass composites. The same is true of research in composite repair technology. In this manual, the
adjective ADVANCED will be implied, although the adjective may not be used. This manual refers speciically to composite materials with
fibers oriented in selected directions rather than those composites with fibers of random orientation, though at times random ibrous
materials would also be utilized in particular systems.
Thermoset and Thermoplastic Materials
There are both thermoset and thermoplastic matrix material systems being used in the construction of advancedcomposite parts.
Thermoset materials are systemsthat take a permanent set or shape when cured. Curetemperatures range from room temperature to 3500F
for polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies, and cyanateesters, around 4500F for Bismaleimide (BMI) materials, and close to 7000F for polyimides.
Curepressures are usually less than 100 pounds per squareinch (psi). Thermoplastic materials are non-curing systems that can be reshaped
or reformed after the parthas been processed or consolidated. Reshaping is accomplished by reheating the part until the materials oftens
and applying pressure to produce a newlymolded shape. Thermoplastics are consolidated attemperatures up to 800 0 F and pressures up to
200psi. Continuous length fiber/thermoplastics are notcommon, but are seen at times. Refer to system specific repair manuals for repairs to
thermoplasticsystems.
Airframe Powerplant
3
Advanced Composite Structure
A structure constructed by combining fibers in specific orientation swith a resin to form a solid shape. Structures madeexclusively from
chopped fiber are not considered tobe advance composite structures; however, choppedfibers could be part of an advanced material
system.
Pre-preg
Pre-preg material is the basic building block of most advanced composites. It consists offibers pre-impregnated with a partially cured (B-
staged) matrix material. It is supplied by a pre-preg manufacturer in thin sheets in two different forms, unidirectional pre-preg (fibers all in
one direction) and wovenpre-preg (fibers woven into a speciied weave style).The fibers in both of these forms are continuous.
Laminate
Considering its light weight, a lamina (ply) of fiber reinforced composite is remarkably strongalong the fiber direction. However, the same
ply isconsiderably weaker in all off fiber directions. Toaddress this issue and withstand loadings from multipleangles, aircraft structure is
manufactured by laminatingplies of composite, usually pre-preg. Plies are cutto the required orientation and shape and stackedtogether in
specified directions to obtain the requiredstiffness and strength. To obtain repeatable laminateproperties, approved manufacturing
operations mustbe followed to exacting detail. This stack up is thencured using heat and pressure to form a solid laminate.Process control is
essential for manufacturing basicstructural materials such as aluminum or compositelaminates. (Figure 3.1) for laminate details.
Sandwich Construction
An advanced composite structure consisting of two face skins separated by a lightweight core material is known assandwich construction.
This construction is capableof the highest strength to weight and rigidity to weightratios presently obtainable by ordinary design methods.
Designers of missiles, air and spacecraft, andground support equipment rely heavily upon the uniquestructural properties of sandwich
construction. Theflexibility and versatility of sandwich construction cansolve many design problems. Specific design requirements can be
matched through proper selection ofskin and core materials as well as their thickness, density, and orientation in relation to the
sandwichconstruction span. See figure 3.2 forsandwich construction details.
Airframe Powerplant
4
FIBERS
The primary function of the fibers is tocarry load and to provide the required part stiffness.Carbon, boron, fiberglass and aramid (Kevlar®)
arethe most common fibers in use on aircraft. Individualfibers are bundled together into groups. These groupsare called strands for
fiberglass products and towsresin type to be used (i.e., epoxy, polyester, phenolic) for carbon. Larger fiber groups consisting of
multiplestrands or tows are called yarns when twisted orroving when not twisted. Strands, tows, yarns, and/or rovings are combined in
different ways tomake different types of fabric. The fabric may becoated or left funished. Some fabrics, such asfiberglass, require a finish to
bond properly to theresin matrix. The type of finish used depends on theFinish should not be confused with the size (or sizing) applied to
the fibers during the weaving process.
Carbon
Carbon and graphite fibers are madefrom organic materials. The two major types of carbonare pitch based or those derived from synthetic
fiberprecursors. The fibers aremanufactured by heatingthese precursor filaments in a controlled atmosphereto drive off hydrogen and other
non-carbon atoms.Depending on processing, the strength and stiffnessof the fibers can be modified. Carbon fibers andgraphite fibers differ
in the temperature at which thefibers are made and heat treated, and the amountof residual carbon left behind. Carbon fibers typicallyare
heated to about 2400 °F and are 93 to 95%carbon, while graphite fibers are heated to between3450 to 5450 °F and are more than 99%
carbon.This results in different properties for each material. Due to these different properties, carbon fibers are not necessarily
interchangeable, similar to differences between 2024-T3 and a 7075-T6 aluminumalloys. While they are both aerospace grade
aluminumalloys, they have very different strength and stiffnessproperties and are not generally considered interchangeable.
Airframe Powerplant
5
Figure 3.1 Laminate
Figure 3.2. Sandwhich Construction
Airframe Powerplant
6
The most desirable property for highperformance structures is the stiffness to weight ratio.Fiber bundles (tows) are identified by the
number offibers in the bundle by thousands. For example, 12K tow contains 12,000 fibers. Carbonfibers are always dark gray or black in
color. They are moderately flexible. Carbon fibers have a highpotential for causing galvanic corrosion when usedwith metallic fasteners and
structures.
Aramid
Kevlar® is DuPont s trademark namefor aramid fibers. This type of fiber is producedfrom two liquid chemicals using a complex
processresulting in spun filaments. Aramid is an organic fiberthat is 43 % lighter than and twice as strong intension as glass. One of the
outstanding propertiesof aramid is toughness; therefore, it is often usedfor ballistic protection and body armor. Aramid fibersare generally
weak in compression and difficult tocut due to fuzzing. Bundles of aramid fibers are notdesignated by the number of fibers but by the
weight.
The weight term (denier) is defined as the weight ingrams of 9000 meters of filament. Aramid fibers areavailable in any fabricis naturally
yellow in color and darkens whenexposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation with degradedproperties.
Fiberglass
Fiberglass is made from glass marbles melted and spun or extruded through tiny holesinto fibers. Glass is an inorganic material that will
notburn and will not support combustion. These fibersnormally appear white and any color may be addedduring manufacture. Glass fibers
are very flexibleand may be woven, draped or formed to almost anycontour. The most common types of fiberglass areS-glass and E-glass.
Quartz
Quartz fiber is similar to fiberglass butis far less "visible" to radar, a property known astransmissibility. Because of this, the primary use
ofquartz is the construction of radomes. Quartz isalso used for high temperature applications in theneighborhood of 700 0F. These fibers
are clear butappear white and may be dyed any color duringproduction.
Airframe Powerplant
7
Boron
One of the stiffest and strongest reinforcing fibers is boron. The boron fiber is 0.005 inchin diameter. It is made by chemical vapor
depositionof elemental boron onto a cleaned 0.0005 inch diameter tungsten filament. The boron fiber has a high bending stiffness and
cannot be bent around an objectany smaller than the diameter of a dime. Due to this relatively high bending stiffness, boron fibers
cannotbe woven into cloth or used for complex contoured parts. Boron s high tensile and compressive strengthplus its lack of galvanic
corrosion potential makes thefiber very popular for repairs to cracked metallic structures. Boron is only available as pre-impregnated,
unidirectional tape.
Polyethylene
This fiber is sold under the trade-mark Spectra® or Dyneema®. The fibers are thesame as those found in plastic milk containers butare
processed to align themolecular structure. Thematerial is used in composite armor. Polyethylene isnaturally clear but appears white and
may be dyedany color during production. Tomake polyethylene fibers bondable, they are usuallycorona treated. The treatment strips
electrons to create more chemically bondable sites.
FIBER FORMS
Most composite materials areavailable in two basic forms: unidirectional materialsor woven fabrics.
Fabrics
Most fabrics are classified by theirareal weight, usually in ounces per square yard orgrams per square meter. The areal weight is based onthe
fiber, tow size and weave density measured in towsper inch or centimeter. Repair fabrics will be specifiednot only by the fiber type, tow size
and weave style, but also the areal weight. Differences in areal weight affect the structural performance composite. Twofabrics with the
same fiber, tow size and weave styleare not necessarily interchangeable due to differencesin areal weight. Additionally, a single ply of fabric
has strength in not just one, but two directions (figure 3.3).
Airframe Powerplant
8
Figure 3.3. Warp vs Fill fibers in a Roll of Facric
This is due to the simple fact that weaving isthe interlacing of yarns, or tows in a distinct pattern,usually at 90 0 to each other. The fabric s
integrityis maintained by the mechanical interlocking of theyarns. Drape (the ability of a fabric to conform to acomplex surface), surface
smoothness, and stabilityof a fabric are controlled primarily by the weave style.
Airframe Powerplant
9
(1) Plain Weave
Each warp yarn passes alternately under and over each ill yarn. The fabric is symmetrical, with
good stability and reasonable porosity. Plain weave is the most difficult to drape and thehigh
level of fiber crimp imparts relatively low mechanical properties compared with the other weave
styles.With large fiber bundles, this weave style gives excessive crimp and, therefore, it is not
usually used forheavy fabrics (over 24 ounces per square yard). Figure 3.4.
(2) Twill Weave
One warp yarn is alternately woven over and under two

ill yarns in a regular repeated manner offsetting the over
Figure 3.4. Plain Wave and under pattern by a single yarn with each pass. This
produces a distinctive visual effect of a broken diagonal rib in the fabric. Superior drape
properties are seen in the twill weave over the plain weave with only a small reduction in
stability. With reduced crimp, the fabric also has a smoother surface and slightly higher
mechanical properties. Twill is classiied by the number of ill yarns crossed under and over by
the warp iber before the pattern repeats. A 4 X 4 Twill weave is alsoavailable. (Figure 3.5). Figure 3.5. Twill Wave (2 X 2 Twill
Shown
(3) Harness Satin Weave.
Harness Satin weaves were first produced in China over a thousand years ago. The weave style was designed toenhance the
appearance of silk making it appear toshimmer in the light. This is accomplished by limitingthe interlacing of warp and ill yarns to a
fractionof that seen in plain weave fabrics. For example, ifwe follow a warp yarn (horizontal) in figure 3.6 wesee that it interlaces
(goes under) only one ill yarnevery three it goes over. Three plus one equals four, thus this weave style is known as a four-harness
satin weave. Weaving a fabric in this way creates a material on which we see three-times as much of the warp yarns on one side of
the fabric as we do on the other. This is referred to as the "warp face" of the fabric. Conversely, on the other side of the fabric we see
three times as much of the ill yarns traveling at 90 degrees to their counterparts.
Airframe Powerplant
10
Figure 3.6. Satin Wave (4 x 8 Harness Satin Shown)
Composites also provide further benefits in their ability to be easily formed, comparatively lower production costs, resistance to corrosion
and reduced maintenance costs.
The principal types of composite materials are those involving fibrous elements which may be used as strands, or be woven into fine 'tapes'
and 'cloths' (or coarser 'mats'), held in a suitable resin matrix and formed into the required shapes.
Composites are materials consisting of a combination of high-strength stiff fibers embedded in a common matrix (binder) material; for
example, graphite fibers and epoxy resin. Composite structures are made of a number of fiber and epoxy resin laminates. These laminates
can number from 2 to greater than 50, and are generally bonded to a substructure such as aluminum or nonmetallic honeycomb. The much
stiffer fibers of graphite, boron, and Kevlar® epoxies have given composite materials structural properties superior to the metal alloys they
have replaced.
The use of composites is not new. Fiber glass, for example, has been used for some time in various aircraft components. However, the term
Airframe Powerplant
11
advancedcomposites applies to graphite, boron, and Kevlar®, which have fibers of superior strength and stiffness. The use of these advanced
composite materials does represent a new application for aircraft.
Composite materials are replacing and supplementing metallic materials in various aircraft structural components. The first materials were
used with laminated fiber glass radomes and helicopter rotor blades. In recent years, the replacement of metallic materials with more
advanced composite materials has rapidly accelerated. This has become particularly evident with the advent of the aircraft; and it is
anticipated that composite materials will continue to comprise much of the structure in future aircraft. As a result, there is a growing
requirement to train you in the use of advanced composite materials. thickness.
There are numerous combinations of composite materials being studied in laboratories and a number of types currently used in the
production of aircraft components. Examples of composite materials are as follows: graphite/epoxy, Kevlar®/epoxy, boron polyamide,
graphite polyamide, boron-coated boron aluminum, coated boron titanium, boron graphite epoxy hybrid, and boron/epoxy. The trend is
toward minimum use of boron/epoxy because of the cost when compared to current generation of graphite/epoxy composites.
Composites are attractive structural materials because they provide a high strength/weight ratio and offer design flexibility. In contrast to
traditional materials of construction, the properties of these materials can be adjusted to more efficiently match the requirements of specific
applications. However, these materials are highly susceptible to impact damage, and the extent of the damage is difficult to determine
visually. Nondestructive inspection (NDI) is required to analyze the extent of damage and the effectiveness of repairs. In addition, repair
differs from traditional metallic repair techniques.
GRAPHITE.--Carbon graphite fibers were first developed by Thomas Edison while experimenting with the incandescent light bulb. It is
made from synthetic material and carbonized in an inert environment at temperatures around 3000°F. Carbon fibers are readily woven into
various patterns. They are used to manufacture complex contoured parts. The majority of advanced composite parts on aircraft are made of
carbon fibers.
KEVLAR®.--DuPont's Aramid Kevlar® material is a synthetic polymer. Although these fibers may be readily woven into fabrics, they have
poor compression properties that limit their use to internal ducts, nonstructural access covers, fairings, and lightly loaded helicopter skins.
Airframe Powerplant
12
BORON.--Boron fibers are made by chemical vapor deposition (deposits) of boron onto a tungsten wire 0.0005" in diameter. Boron fibers
have a high bending stiffness, and cannot be easily woven into cloth or used for complex contoured parts.
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)
The first man-made fiber, glass can be spun into cloth and used for fire-proof curtains or (when extremely pure glass is used), made into
fibers which are able to transmit light over long distances. The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small diameter glass fibers is
extremely high, although the strength is reduced significantly if the fibers are slightly damaged. In its structural use it is often merely
referred to as glass fiber or fiberglass, when glass fibers (in various forms) are bonded together by appropriate resins.
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also, of considerably lower strength but, nevertheless, good GRP structures are
stronger than mild steel and, on a simple strength-for weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile steel if the fiber form and lay-up is
near optimum. It is however, considerably less stiff than steel or even aluminium.
A graphic example of GRP flexibility is the enormous deflection, which takes place in the pole during a pole vault. As the glass fibers are
about a hundred times stronger than the resin, it is obviously necessary to get as much fiber packed into the molding as possible.
Non-structural items may be made from, or include, a percentage of chopped strand mat, (i.e. glass fibers in a random, nonwoven state)
but, where considerable strength is required, unidirectional glass cloth is used.
To provide all round strength, sheets of unidirectional cloth can be layed up at 900 to each other, in a similar manner to the grain in
plywood. Sometimes suchsheets are used as facings for an internal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a very efficient
structure in terms of strength, stiffness and weight.
The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already impregnated with resin and partially cured ('Pre-preg'), in which case it is
necessary to keep thematerial in refrigerated storage. Resin curing is usually done at elevated temperatures (120°C - 170°C), with the GRP
component in its mould and, often, under pressure, in an autoclave.
Airframe Powerplant
13
The main reasons for using GRP are:
• In instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar domes or other non-electrical conducting applications)
• The ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes
• To provide good strength/weight ratio
• Its ability to produce selected directional strength.
The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and, as such, is not suitable for applications subject to high structural loadings.
Ceramic Fibres
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic fibres are a form of glass fibre, used in high-temperature applications. They can
be used at temperatures up to 1650°C and are suited for use around engine and exhaust systems. Ceramic fibres are heavy (and expensive)
and are only used where no other materials are suitable.
Carbon Fibre Composite (CFC)
CFC (also referred to as 'Graphite') is a composite material, which was primarily developed to retain (or improve upon) the high strength-to-
weight ratio characteristics exhibited by GRP, but with very much greater stiffness values.
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, the Young's Modulus ('E') value can be higher than steel. CFC is not only six
times stiffer than GRP but is also over 50% stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength aluminium alloy and three times the
stiffness.
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in diameter and are produced by subjecting a fine thread of a suitable nylon-type
plastic to a very high temperature (to decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with the exception of carbon. The carbon
thread is then stretched, at white heat (2000°C - 3000°C), to develop strength. Unfortunately, the process is complex and very costly.
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFC can offer considerable weight savings over conventional materials. CFC components
Airframe Powerplant
14
are generally made from 'Pre-preg' sheet (fibres impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only require heat and pressure to cure).
Some specialist items are made by a laborious, but ideal, process called 'Filament Winding', in which a carbon fibre string is wound over a
former in the shape of the workpiece whilst bonded with resin.
Because of CFC's high stiffness modulus, it is also used extensively to stiffen GRP or aluminium alloy structures.
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also graphitised), is used for the rotors and stators on brake units. It offers a
significant weight saving, as well as high efficiency, due to the fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly.
Replacing 40% of an aluminium alloy structure by CFC would result in a 40% saving in total structural weight and CFC is used on such items
as the wings, horizontal (and vertical) stabilisers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft.
The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor blades, has led to significant increases in their life and, in some cases, they
may have an unlimited life span (subject to damage). The modern blade is highly complex and may be comprised of CFC, GRP, stainless
steel, a honeycomb core and foam filling.
Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic (ARP)
The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type of synthetic fibres and are well known for their superior toughness, strength-to-
weight characteristics andheat-resistance. Tyres, reinforced with aramid fibres are comparable to those reinforced with steel cords.
Better known under its trade name - Kevlar - in cloth form, it is a soft, yellow, organic fibre that is extremely light, strong and tough. Its great
impact-resistance makes it useful in areas, which are liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in areas around engine reverse-thrust
buckets. Kevlar is used to manufacture bullet-proof jackets and, also, as a reinforcement, in aircraft fuel tanks.
Composite Structures
A sheet of fibre reinforced material is 'anisotropic', - which means its properties depend on the direction of the fibres. Random direction
Airframe Powerplant
15
fibres would result in a much lower strength than uni-directional fibres, laying parallel to the applied load. However, the strength (and
stiffness) of a uni-directional lay-up would be very low, with the applied load at 90° to the fibres, as this is primarily a test of the resin (hence
the usual practice of placing alternate layers at 90° to each other).
Due to small variations in the size of the individual fibres, and the final quality of the finished component (which can be affected by careless
handling, variations in cleanliness or lay-up, voids, pressures, temperatures, etc), there will, inevitably, be a greater scatter on final strength
than on a conventional, metallic component. Due allowance on stress reserve factors is, therefore, essential.
It has already been stated that composites usually have good internal damping characteristics and are less prone to vibration resonances.
Where high strength, combined with stiffness is required, then a CFC is used but, when lesser levels of stiffness are necessary, then GRP or
ARP are used.
Composites have very low elongation properties and toughness. Aluminium alloy has a typical elongation-to-fracture value of 11 %,
whereas composites range from 3% for GRP to 0.5% for CFC.
The maximum operating temperatures, for GRP, CFC and Kevlar composites, depend, to some extent, on the actual adhesives used, but are,
generally, in the range 220°C-250°C.
Some composites, such as carbon fibre in a carbon matrix, have very high permissible operating temperatures (around 3000°C), and are
used for high-energybraking applications and as thermal barriers for space vehicles).
Boron, Tungsten, Silicon Carbide and Quartz may also be used to provide fibres for high-temperature composites.
Laminated, Sandwich and Monolithic Structures
Laminated plastics consist of layers of synthetic resin-impregnated fibres (or other, coated, fillers), which are bonded together (usually
heated and under pressure), to form a single laminate or sheet of composite material. Plastic laminates are used to `face' other structural
materials, in order to,
Airframe Powerplant
16
• Provide a more durable surface to a softer (less expensive) material.

• Enhance the surface appearance (colour, porosity, smoothness etc.).
• Increase the strength and rigidity of many non-metallic structures.
• Produce other desirable surface characteristics such as when acid- or corrosion-resistance, non-conductivity, non-magnetismability or
the ease of keeping a surface clean is required.
Figure 3.7. Fibrous materials encapsule in a matrix
To provide a light-weight structure, which possesses strength and rigidity, one of several structural materials, is sandwiched between two
laminated composites.
The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid material, such as wood, or a series of thin corrugations of a material, which are
Airframe Powerplant
17
joined and placed end-on (in the form of the cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.
Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of low-density balsa wood, which has been cut across the grain and sandwiched
between two layers of reinforced resin (or a metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet strong material, which can be used as
floor panels, wall panels and, occasionally, aircraft skins.
The cellular core, used for laminated honeycomb material, may be made from resin- impregnated paper, or from one of the many fibre
cloths. The core is formed or shaped and then bonded between two face sheets of resin-impregnated cloth. The finished sandwich structure
is very rigid, has a high strength-to-weight ratio, and is transparent to electromagnetic (radar/radio) waves, making it ideal for radomes of all
kinds.Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless steel), are also sandwiched between two face sheets of fibre-reinforced
resins. On other occasions the metal honeycombs may be found sandwiched between sheets of light alloy, stainless steel or titanium. This
type of core is referred to as 'metal-faced honeycomb' and is used where abrasion- and heat-resistance is important or when sound-
absorption qualities are desired.
In monolithic structures, angle sections ('Top Hat', 'U', 'I' and 'Z'), frames ribs and stringers are fashioned from similar materials to the outer
layers of the sandwich structure, then covered with the appropriate surface 'skin', before the stronger, metallic spars and hinges are
attached, Such a structure can save many kilograms (or pounds) in the weight of the flying control surfaces (or the fin structure) of a large
aircraft.
General Characteristics of Composites
Composite structures are those aircraft components that are manufactured using fibrous materials combined with a specially formulated
medium called a matrix. The matrix supports the fibres, as shown in figure 3.7.
The original composite materials used in aircraft components were limited to fibreglass fibers combined with thermoset polyester resins as
the matrix and were not used in critical applications.
A thermoset resin is a type of resin that, once cured, cannot return to the uncured, or soft, state.
Airframe Powerplant
18
Improved thermoset adhesives, such as epoxies and vinyl-ester resins, bismaleimides, and thermoplastic adhesive, such as poly-ether-ether-
keytones (PEEK) as well as new fibre-reinforcement materials have been developed for applications that include critical flight parts.
Thermoplastic resins may be repeatedly softened with heat, even after they are originally cured.
Both thermosetting resins and thermoplastics increase the workability of a material. In addition, thermosetting resins may be added to the
material before thecomponent-fabrication process begins. When a matrix is added to the fibrous material as part of a material's
manufacturingprocess - but prior to its use, it is preimpregnated, this material is commonly called pre-preg.
The most critical properties of a composite, which are controlled by the direction of the reinforcement fibres and the ability of the matrix to
transfer loads from one fibre to another, are called transverse properties. The load-carrying properties of a fibrous composite are greatest
when the load applied runs in the same direction as the fibres. Loads that do not run parallel to the reinforcement fibres must, at least in
part. be transferred through the matrix, which typically has the lowest load-carrying capability. Therefore, to a point, the greater the ratio of
reinforcement fibres to matrix, the greater the strength of the composite.
Kevlar®, a Du Pont trade name, carbon fibre, commonly referred to as graphite (even though it is not a mined material), boron, tungsten,
quartz, silicon carbide, ceramics, and SPECTRA, a trade name of Allied Signal Corporation, are commonly used composite materials.
Collectively they are referred to as advanced composite materials.
In 1969, Grumman aircraft, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy, fabricated the world's first primary flight-critical structure made of advanced
composites for aproduction aircraft. This was a boron-epoxy combination horizontal stabilizer for the F-14 TOMCAT fighter.
As the demand for the use of composites increased, additional developments in the areas of specialized fibre-reinforcement materials,
adhesives, and processes have taken place. These developments have made the use of composite material in aircraft more economical and
structurally compatible. As a result, bonded and composite structures can be found in a great many parts of today's aircraft. Landing-gear
doors, flaps, vertical and horizontal tail structures, propellers, internal turbine engine parts, helicopter rotor blades, and flight-control
surfaces are just a few places where these structures are found. The advantages of the high material strength-to-weight ratio coupled with
corrosion and fatigue resistance frequently makes fibrous reinforced composite materials the first choice of aircraft designers and
manufacturers.
Airframe Powerplant
19
When compared to conventional sheet-metal structures, composites have a low sensitivity to sonic vibrations (good vibration resistance).
There are also lower assembly costs due to a reduction in the number of mechanical fasteners and parts in a particular assembly. In addition,
there are other advantages such as reduced weight, high corrosion resistance, high deterioration resistance, and the capability of achieving
a smooth surface, thereby reducing aerodynamic and parasitic drag.
Composite structures can either be a solid laminate or a

honeycomb/rigid foam sandwich construction. A solid laminate is
made by bonding together several layers of reinforcing fibre materials
that have been impregnated with the resin matrix (see figure 3.8)
A sandwich assembly is made by taking a high-density laminate or

solid face and back plate and sandwiching a low-density tiller (core)
between them. This filler can be honeycomb (see figure 3.2), which
may be fabricated from reinforced paper, Nomex, fibreglass,
aluminium, orcarbon; a rigid foam (for example, high-temperature
polyurethane),as illustrated in figure 3.9; or balsa wood (using a low-
temperature curing matrix). The sandwich arrangement creates an
Figure 3.8. Solid laminate using reinforced fibers improved structural performance and high strength-to-weight ratio.
Laminates depend more on the combination of the assembly materials than sandwich assembles for their strength and durability. In
sandwich applications the core material is often constructed using mechanical principles in order to produce additional strength, such as
the inherent strength of a honeycomb design compared to a simple square pattern. The selection of materials used for the face, core, and
back materials as well as the design configuration of the core material are varied by the design engineer, depending upon application
anticipated for the component part.
Airframe Powerplant
20
Figure 3.9. An assembly using composite commponents
Composites Fibres
Reinforcement fibres are produced in several forms using various materials. Fibreglass material is the most widely used in aircraft. It is
manufactured in either S-glass fibre or E-glass fibre forms for aircraft applications. Glass can be found as chopped strands, woven roving,
woven fabrics, continuous-strand mats, chopped-strand mats, and milled fibres. Figure 3.10 shows some of the configurations of glass.
Airframe Powerplant
21
Figure 3.10. Hollow fibers, Fiber of noncircular cross section, circular cross-sectional fibers
As stated, carbon, Kevlar, boron, tungsten, quartz, and ceramics are collectively known as high- strength advanced composites. They are
produced in the form of particles, flakes, fillers, and fibres of various lengths. A detailed analysis of all composite forms is beyond the scope
of this text. However, due to the common use of fibre-form composites in the aviation industry, further discussion of fibre forms is
appropriate.
Even in the fibre form, there are a number of variations. There are hollow fibres, fibres of noncircular cross section, and solid, circular cross-
sectional fibres, as shown in figure 3.10. The most common of these are solid-circular cross-sectional fibres, which are commonly found in
general and commercial aviation applications.
These solid-circular cross-sectional fibres are combined with strong, stiff heat-resistant, synthetic resin matrices to form a composite
material. The engineering performance of a fibre-matrix combination depends upon the fibres' orientation, length, shape, and composition.
The mechanical properties of a composite are directly proportional to the amount of fibre that is oriented by volume in a particular
direction.
Since fibre length has a bearing on the process ability of the composite, this consideration is of major concern during part fabrication.
Continuous fibres are much easier to handle than short ones, but the former are sometimes more limited in their ability to make compound
Airframe Powerplant
22
curved shapes, particularly boron. Continuous fibres can either be woven into fabrics that are bi-directional, woven at right angles to each
other, or unidirectional, woven in a continuous straight line (figure 3.11).
Filament winding consists of resin-impregnated continuous fibres wrapped on a mandrel simulating the shape of the part (figure 3.12),
using one continuous strand, as applied in the manufacture of helicopter rotor blades.
Figure 3.11. Undirectional weave Bi-directional weave
The fibres are manufactured by first creating individual filaments. These filaments are then assembled into tows. Tows can have as many as
160,000 filaments. Tapes are processed directly from the tow. In the case of fabric, the tows are then twisted together in bundles to form
yarns (or rovings), and the yarns are then processed into fabrics.
Figure 3.12. Filament windings
Airframe Powerplant
23
A weave (see figure 3.13) consists of warp yarn, fill (weft) yarn, and selvage. The warp yarn is the yarn that runs parallel to the sewn or
manufactured edge of the roll and is usually made up of the longest threads. The fill (weft) yarn is the yarn woven perpendicular to the
manufactured edge. Fill yarn is woven so that it passes over and under warp yarns in a weave pattern.
Selvage is a closely woven pattern used to prevent the edges of the cloth from unraveling during handling. Selvage is typically removed
from the fabric during the composite manufacturing process. To help the technician identify the warp yarn direction during the usage of the
cloth, warp tracers, which are warp fibres of the same composition but dyed a different colour, are woven into the fabric.
Bi-directional fabrics are available with various weave patterns, yarns per inch and ounce per yard weight. A plain-weave (figure 3.14) fabric
pattern has an individual warp yarn wovenover one individual fill yarn and under the next. A plain weave is considered the most stable
weave pattern, providing bothopenness in the weave (for even resin flow) and weave stability (reducing slippage and draping during the
part lay-up). Uniform strength is achieved in both directions.
Figure 6.3 – 13. Weave definition Figure 6.3 – 14. A Plain Weave
Airframe Powerplant
24
Satin weaves (figure 3.15) are manufactured when the warp yams are
woven over several successive fill yarns and then under one fill yarn.
When the warp yarns are woven over three fill yarns and under one fill
yarn, the pattern is known as a crowfoot satin-weave pattern. If the warp
yarns are woven over four fill yarns andunder one fill yarn, the pattern is
called a five-harness satin-weave pattern.
Figure 3.15. A Satin weave
An eight-harness satin-weave pattern is identified by the warp yams
having been woven over seven fill yarns first and then under one fill yarn. The satin weaves are more pliable than the plain-weave pattern
and therefore conform more easily to complex shapes. These bi-directional weave patterns allow the material to retain high strength in
both directions.
Unidirectional fabrics are fabricated with all structural fibres laying in the same lengthwise direction on the roll. Unidirectional fabrics use a
few fibres loosely woven at right angles to the warp yam to keep the warp yams together in a flat shape.
Composite Matrices
A composite matrix is the plastic-based medium that encapsulates or surrounds, the reinforcement fibres to protect them and help transmit
the stress forces between the fibres. These matrices can either be thermosetting or thermoplastic in makeup. They can be a two-part liquid
mixture that has a room temperature cure of 70°F (21 °C), or a factory-mixed and frozen system that requires an accurately controlled
elevated temperature cure cycle up to 700°F (371°C). Epoxy matrix is normally cured at either 250°F (121°C) or 350°F (1177°C). Polyamide
adhesives cure in the 260°F (127°C) to 450°F (232°C) range but may require temperatures as high as 600°F (316°C. Bismaleimides adhesives
cure in the 350°F (177°C) range but require higher posture temperatures of up to 700°F (37 1 °C). A posture requires additional time at
elevated temperatures to ensure the completeness of the bonding process. Post cures may also be used to increase strength and relieve
stress.
Airframe Powerplant
25
The matrices can have metal flakes added to them during the manufacturing process. In this combination the matrix provides an
impermeable barrier between the atmosphere and the metal flakes, both limiting the potential for corrosion of the metal flakes and giving
the pan thermal and electrical conductivity. Stainless steel wire whiskers are added to some matrices to give them additional impact
strength, heat-distortion points, and lightning strike protection.
Resin matrices are available to the technician in many forms, including a one-part polymer, two - part liquid mixture, sheet-film adhesive,
and preimpregnated reinforcement fibres. The term wet lay-up is frequently used to describe the process of applying the two-part liquid
mixture.
In the two-part liquid mixture, the technician must accurately proportion. by weight or volume (depending upon the manufacturer's
instructions), the two liquid components and mix them thoroughly before applying the mixture to the fibre-reinforcement materials. This
stage of the resin-curing process in the liquid form, is said to be in the A stage (it is in a runny liquid stage - the beginning stage).
This method is common for simple manufacturing or repair situations where accuracy of the fibre-to-matrix ratio is not critical. The
individual matrix components have a maximum storage life prior to use, called a shelf life that must be controlled. After the components
have been thoroughly mixed, the combination then has a pot life, which is the maximum time it can be applied prior to gelling.
Another form of matrix application is a sheet-film adhesive, which must be stored at low temperatures. It has a maximum shelf life of 6
months. This stage of the resin-curing process, in stiff sheet form, is known as the B stage (it's not a liquid or a cured solid - an intermediate
stage). A sheet-film foaming adhesive is used when bonding together sections of honeycomb. The foaming adhesive expands during the
cure cycle to fill voids (a pocket that lacks adhesive) that may occur due to improper fit of the core pieces.
A more accurate method of matrix application involves using fibre reinforcement materials that have been pre-impregnated (pre-preg) with
matrix at the material manufacturer, it is during this stage in the resin-curing process that the resin is blended with the reinforcement
material and kept frozen in the Stage B condition.
The technician must assure that pre-preg materials are stored and used properly. Pre-preg materials must be kept at 0°F (-18°C) or below
until ready for use. There is a maximum out time (accumulative time that the pre-preg roll is out of the freezer) that must be controlled to
Airframe Powerplant
26
assure "freshness" of the adhesive. The material must be checked by a chemical engineer for usability. The pre-preg materials must be
handled in a clean room environment (temperature-and humidity-controlled without dust and dirt). This does present a handling problem
but helps assure a good bond. When the pre-preg material has been cured using the controlled elevated-temperature curing system, the
resin is said to be in the C stage (fully cured).
When using the wet lay-up method, the technician can get a ratio of approximately 40 %resin to 60 % fibre reinforcement, which is
sufficient for most aerospace application. When using the pre-preg method, mixes of 30 % resin to 70 % fibre can be achieved.Remember
that to a point, the more the reinforcement fibre volume, the more strength the final assembly will have.
Solid microspheres or solid beads of plastic, are often added to matrices to increase strength while controlling costs. When solid or hollow
beads of plastic are introduced to the resin mixture,the mixture is often called syntactic foam. Syntactic foams are non-gas blown. Not only
does this mixture increase the matrix resin strength, but it also helps to solve problems in shrinkage and warpage during the cure cycles.
This mixture may be used on the edges of honeycomb core as a potting compound prior to shaping in order to prevent core crush.
When hollow microspheres (micro balloons) of glass or plastic are introduced to the resin mixture, the glass spheres have a tendency to
disperse throughout the part being manufactured, resulting in stronger edges and corners. Micro balloons are used as a filler to assure
uniform shrinkage without causing possible internal stresses during curing.
Matrices with solid microspheres or hollow microspheres added are isotropic, which means that they have no specific strength orientation.
The improved strength characteristics of both processes typically occur with an overall improved strength-to-weight ratio, because the
microspheres have less density than the matrix.
Fabrication Techniques for Composites
From previous discussions, it is clear that composite parts may be fabricated into a variety ofconfigurations depending upon the design
needs determined by the aircraft engineer. The fabrication may be accomplished by the use of moulds or dies. Since this text deals primarily
with maintenance-related activities the discussion is limited to fabrication techniques using moulds.
Airframe Powerplant
27
Forming these configurations is accomplished by combining the fibres and matrix over a form, called a mould. A mould is a tool that
conforms to the desired shape of the finished product. Moulds may be either open or closed moulds.
Open moulds, often referred to as a bond form or lay-up tool allow easy access to thecomposite materials during the fabrication process
and depend upon gravity and atmospheric pressure or externally applied pressure to mould the composite material against the mould until
the curing process is complete. Closed moulds are designed in a matched male-female configuration. Forcing the two mould halves
together ensures that the composite material takes the shape of the mould. Gravity from the weight on the top mould half or externally
applied pressure may be used to ensure the proper mating of the mould.
One important consideration in the design of moulds for close-tolerance composite parts is the coefficient of thermal expansion of all the
related materials. As previously discussed, the process typically involves the generation of or the use of externally applied heat. The use of
materials with the same or similar coefficients of expansion for moulds is preferred. If a mould is fabricated using materials with coefficients
of expansion different than those of the composite materials, adaptations for the different expansion rates must be included in the mould
design.
The first step in mould design, when using materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion is to determine how the finished-part
dimensions change at the curing temperature. For example, a composite part that has a dimension of 10 in. at room temperature might
measure 10 1/32 in. at the elevated curing temperature. Therefore, for the part to be at the 10 in. finished dimension at room temperature, it
must be 10 1/32 in. at curing temperature.
The mould must also be at the expanded dimension at the elevated curing temperature. However, if the coefficient thermal expansion of
the mould material is different than that of the finished part, the dimensions of the mould will be different at room temperature. Continuing
the preceding example, the mould must have a dimension of 10 1/32 in. at elevated temperature. When cooled to room temperature the
mould will have different dimensions. For example, assume that the coefficient of thermal expansion for theme material was half that of the
partmaterial. The mould cooled to room temperature would measure 10 1/64 in. When the mould is fabricated, it is fabricated to the cool
dimension, which when heated to the elevated curing temperature, would result in a mould dimension equal to the dimension of the part
at the curing temperature.
Airframe Powerplant
28
Figure 3.16 illustrates the proper relationship between the coefficients of expansion of themould material and the part material. The proper
relationship between the coefficients expansion of the part and mould materials depends upon the configuration of the finished part.
For example, if the part is U channel and the mould form is the inside the channel; the coefficient of thermal expansion for the mould
material must greater than that of the part material. If this were not true, the mould would not reduce dimensionally enough to allow the
part to contract to the proper finished dimension, causing interference between the mould and the part. However, if the mould is the
outside the Ù' channel, the coefficient of thermalexpansion for the mould material must be less than that of the part material or
interference will again develop as the part and mould are cooled to room temperature.
The removal of the composite materials from the mould can result in damage to the part if the moulds are not properly prepared with a
release agent or release film, which used to prevent the bonding of the matrix to the mould itself The type of releasing media used is
determined by the type of matrix used, the heat of the curing process, and material from which the mould is fabricated.
In low-volume production processes and repairs, a vacuum bag, which is a plastic bag surrounding the part from which air has been
evacuated, and a separate heat source may be used.Common heat sources include controlled ovens, portable "hot bonders," and heat
blankets.
Figure 6.3 – 16. Compensating for the different coefficients of thermal expansion of mould and part material are bonded.
Airframe Powerplant
29
High volume and critical composite structures are often heated using an autoclave, which is an oven that heats the material while it is under
pressure.
Warp-Orientation Techniques
As previously mentioned the strength or load-carrying properties of a fibrous composite are greatest when the load applied runs in the
same direction as the fibres. Loads that do not run parallel to the reinforcement fibres must, at least in part be transferred through the
matrix, which typically has the lowest load-carrying capability.
When designing a composite part, the engineer considers the relation of the design load to an arbitrarily selected orientation line on the
part. The reinforcing fibres in a composite material will usually be designed to run parallel to the load. It is, therefore, important that the
fabricator of the part understand the directional relationship of the fibres to the design of the part. To do this the engineer will specify a 0°
plane as an alignment indicator. The orientation of the warp fibres as a fabric is rolled off the bolt is defined as the 0° position for the fabric.
Because the alignment indicator is not always in the same plane as the design loads, the engineer may specify a warp orientation in terms of
degrees relative to the reference, or 0° plane. This is frequently done in the form of a warp clock (see figure 3.17), which is a circle divided
into four quadrants. Each quadrant has a plus or minus orientation, which reflects the direction of rotation required of the warp fibres if they
were to be positioned parallel to the alignment line. Clockwise is usually plus. Counter-clockwise is usually negative.
Airframe Powerplant
30
Figure 3.17. Wrap Orientation
A warp clock is typically included as part of the manufacturing drawing or in the text of the manufacturers' specification sheets for the
particular aircraft. Generally, most manufacturers use the same orientation for warp clocks as just discussed, but the technician should
always consult the particular manufacturer's information sheets before building a part or making repairs.
If the warp fibres are positioned in such a manner that they lay in only one direction, they are said to be unidirectional, or anisotropic, in
stress design. Quasi-isotropic stress design refers to design capabilities that are capable of carrying loads in more than one direction but not
in all directions. For example, if the warp fibres are laid perpendicular to each other - that is, at a 00 and a 90° point they are said to be bi-
directional because the stress design is in two intersecting directions, they are also considered quasi-isotropic. If the warp fibres are placed
in such a way that they fall at a point of 00 and 450 to the alignment point (0° on the lay-up tool), the lay-up is again said to be quasi-
isotropic. When the warp fibres are assembled in a laminate with the fibres heading in the 0°, 45°, 90°, and -45° positions, the lay-up is said to
be a cross-ply U stress design. This multidirectional pattern is sometimes referred to as isotropic, because the stress design is in all directions
typically specified on the warp-orientation indicator. Isotropic refers to the capability of a material to bear loads in all directions, so
technically cross-ply V applications are not truly isotropic.
Airframe Powerplant
31
PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS
The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos - to mould, and plasticity (as was discussed in The Properties of Metals) is the ability to
retain a deformation after the load, producing it, has been removed. Plastics are particularly useful for applications, which involve relatively
low-stress levels, where lightness is important, and where low electrical or thermal conductivity is required.
The earliest plastic materials (before the synthetics) were those made from the sap, or latex, of certain trees (gutta-percha), the secretions of
tiny, scaly insects (shellac) and the softened, moulded parts of the horns of animals.
The American inventor, John Wesley Hyatt (in 1869), produced the first synthetic plastic material (used as an inexpensive substitute for
ivory), from the cellulose of plants (and called it Celluloid), while the chemist; L H Baekeland (in 1909) developed the first entirely synthetic
plastic material (Bakelite), from phenol-formaldehyde. Bakelite is hard and fairly brittle. It is often used with a suitable filler material (mica, or
wood flour) and is widely used for various electrical mouldings and low-stressed handles.
Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify various materials (natural and synthetic), based on long-chain molecules
(polymers) of carbon, that can be cast, extruded or moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments to be used as fibers.
While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic and Thermosetting compositions, the manufacture of synthetic rubbers (called
Elastomers) is also considered to be part of the plastics industry.
Thermoplastic Materials
Thermoplastic materials, in their normal state, are hard but become soft and pliable when heated (the Greek word thermo -- heat). When
softened, thermoplastic materials can be moulded and shaped, and they retain their new shape when cooled. Unless their heat limit is
exceeded, this process can be repeated many times without damaging the material.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for aircraft windshields and side windows, and are usually referred to as cellulose
acetate and acrylic.
Airframe Powerplant
32
Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its transparency and light-weight. A disadvantage of cellulose acetate is its tendency
to shrink and discolour with time, which has led to it being phased out almost completely.
Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint (especially when aged), and by the fact that a scrap of it will burn with a
sputtering flame and give off black smoke. It will also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials, such as acetone.
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex (UK) and Plexiglass (USA). It is stiffer than cellulose acetate, more transparent
and practically colourless. Acrylic burns with a clear flame and gives off a fairly pleasant odour. Acetone, if applied, will cause white marks
but will leave the material as hard as it previously was.
Examples of Thermoplastic Materials
ABS : Very tough, high impact strength.
Common applications: boat hulls and model car bodies.
Common forms: Powders, granules, wide range of colours.
Nylon : Engineering plastic - Hard, very tough, and rigid and wear resistant (it is self-lubricating) High melting point. It
machines well and is good for bearings.
Common applications: power tool casings, gear wheels, curtain rail fittings, clothing
Common forms: Powder, granules, rod, tube, sheet - usually white or off white but other colours available.
PVC : Stiff, hard and tough at room temperature. Very good acid and alkali resistance.
Common applications: pipes guttering, bottles and containers, shoe soles.
Common forms: Powder, pastes, sheet - wide range of colours available.
Polypropylene : Strong and tough, light, floats, is flexible and is not affected by boiling water or chemicals.
Common applications : crates, chair shells, waste and chemical pipes, packaging film, string, rope and sacks, car
Airframe Powerplant
33
bumpers, syringes, containers with integral hinges.
Common forms: Powder, granules, rod, tube, sheet - usually pale pink or off white but can be pigmented.
Polystyrene : As thin sheets - stiff, hard and inexpensive
Common applications: Food containers, disposable cups, cutlery, plates. Model kits, refrigerator linings,
kitchenware, toys, and electricalequipment cases.
Common forms: Powder, granules, sheet - wide range of colours available.
Expanded Polystyrene : very light and bouyant. Absorbs shocks.A good sound and heat insulating material.
Common applications: sound and heat insulation, packaging. Common forms: sheets, slabs, beads - usually
white.
Acrylic (PMMA) : A hard, stiff material, but fairly brittle material. Very durable outdoors, easily machined, cemented and polished.
Good electrical resistance, safe with food. Splinters and scratches easily.
Common applications: light units and illuminated signs. Lenses, windows, rear light covers, skylights, baths.
Common forms: rod, tube, sheet - can be clear, translucent or opaque a wide range of colours available.
Polythene : Tough, good chemical resistance, good electrical insulator, flexible and soft.
Hardness, stiffness and impact resistance increases with density. Attracts dust unless anti-static.
Common applications: squeegee bottles, plastic sacks and bags, cling film, wire andcable insulation. In its high
density form it is used for bottles, barrels, tanks, buckets and bowls.
Common forms: Powder, granules, films, sheet - wide range of colours available.
Airframe Powerplant
34
Thermosetting Materials
Thermosetting materials (also called Thermosets) will, initially, soften when heated, but will remain soft for only a short time and will set
(and harden) if the heatcontinues to be applied.The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when heated, is called 'curing' and curing can
also be achieved by chemical (exothermic) reactions.During the curing process, the long-chain molecules of the material cross-link (link
togetherbetween chains) and, once the cross-links are formed, the plastic becomes hard and cannot be re-softened by heating.
Thermosets are, thus, chosen where a plastic component will be exposed to relatively high temperatures, as some of them can tolerate
temperatures in excess of 250°C before beginning to char.
Note: Thermosetting materials are generally stronger, have a lower ductility and lower impact properties than the Thermoplastics.
Examples of Thermosetting Materials:
Polyester Resin : A clear hard resin - brittle unless it is reinforced with glass matt.
Common applications: It can be cast and is used for embedding small objects, e.g. injewellery. When used in
conjunction with glass matt it is called (GRP) Glass Reinforced
Polyester resin which is very strong,it can be moulded into very complex forms whichare then tough and resist
splitting. It is used for boat hulls and car bodies etc.
Common forms: Liquids or pastes
Epoxy Resin : Has exceptional adhesive qualities. Low shrinkage rate, high strength when reinforced
Common applications: As a bonding agent, encapsulation, surface coating laminating
Common forms: Liquids or pastes
Melamine Formaldehyde : It has a very hard tough surface which is highly resistant to ignition.
Common applications: Used as a thin laminate to finish man-made boards. A very usefulmaterial which
Airframe Powerplant
35
transforms inexpensive man-made boards, especially chipboard, intoattractive hygienic and useful materials.
Common forms: Powder, granules, laminates
Phenolic Resin : A strong, hard and rigid thermoset. It is usually black or brown in colour.
Common applications: Pan handles, Knobs, Electrical switch covers, electrical appliances
Common forms: Powder, granules, reinforced laminates
Resins
Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain trees and other plants and as clear, translucent, yellow (amber), brown, solid,
or semisolid agents, they are used in inks, lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and, of course, plastics.
While the words plastics and resins are often used synonymously, they are, in fact, quite different, in that plastics refers to the material in the
finished items while resins are the rawmaterials which may be found in the form of flakes, pellets, powder, or a syrup.
Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually, additives are employed with them, to assist in the moulding characteristics, or to
enhance the properties of the finished product.
The resin may be thickened and given more `body' by the addition of inert fillers, which may be used to fill gaps and voids in the structure.
Typical fillers are micro-balloons, cotton and glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).
Reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilisers, colorants, flame-retardants, smoke suppressants and processing aids, such as lubricants and
coupling agents, are amongthe other additives used with resins.
Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used to impregnate linen, paper, and `cloths' made up from various synthetic
fibres. For many years, aircraft control cable pulleys have been made from thermosetting resins, reinforced with layers of linen cloth. These
pulleys are cured in a mould, at high temperature, and have high strength without causing wear to the control cables.
Airframe Powerplant
36
When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting resin such as phenol-formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they can be
moulded into flat sheets or other shapes. Once hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical insulator and can be found in use as
terminal strips and printed circuit boards.
Polyester Resin
Polyester resin can be extruded into fine filaments and woven into fabric (like nylon) or cast into shape and it is also useful as a heat-
resistant lacquer.
Glass fibres and mat, for example, have great strength for their weight, but lack rigidity so, to convert glass fibre into a useful structural
material, it is impregnated with polyester resin and moulded into a desired form.
Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from materials, which cure by the evaporation of an oil or solvent. As polyester is thick and
unmanageable, a styrene monomer is added to make it thinner and easier to work.
If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually, cure into a solid mass, so inhibitors are added to delay this curing process
and to improve shelf life.
A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no longer wanted and the curing process is to be started and an accelerator will
appreciably shorten the curing time of the resin, depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.
The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical reaction between the catalyst and accelerator generates heat within the resin.
This (exothermic reaction can be seen when a thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.
Thixotropic Agents
The heat, generated by the chemical reaction, can make the material less viscous and cause it to `run' (particularly if it is on a vertical
surface). To overcome this problem, a thixotropic agent is added to the resin after mixing, to increase its viscosity. The increased viscosity
Airframe Powerplant
37
allows the resin to remain in place no matter where it may be used.
Epoxy Resin
Another type of resin that can be used in place of polyester in laminated structures is epoxy resin. Epoxy resin has a low percentage of
shrinkage, high strength for its weight and the ability to adhere to a wide range of materials. Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst,
epoxy resins require a hardener or curing agent without recourse to heating.There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between
polyester and epoxy resins. For polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to catalyst whilst, for epoxy resin, the ratio is 4:1, resin to hardener.
Advantages of Plastics
Plastics are being used on an ever-increasing scale and are frequently replacing some of the more conventional materials such as metals,
wood and natural rubbers. Plastics have properties, which make them a popular choice over conventional aircraft materials. Some of the
more important characteristics of plastics, which help to explain their popularity, are:
• Lightness - most plastics have specific gravities of 1.1 to 1.6 whereas the more common engineering materials, such as aluminium
and steel, have values of 2.7 and 7.8 respectively.
• Corrosion Resistance - plastics will tolerate hostile corrosion environments and many of them resist acid attack.
• Low Thermal Conductivity - this property makes many plastics ideal for thermal insulators.
• Electrical Resistance - plastics are used in enormous quantities for electrical insulation applications.
• Formability - many plastics are easily formed into the finished product, by casting moulding or extrusion, often in a single operation.
• Surface Finish - excellent surface finishes can be achieved in the basic forming operation, so finishing operations are not necessary.
• Relatively Low Cost - because, although some of the materials may not be particularly cheap, the lack of machining necessary and
the high production rates possible, keeps the costs down.
Airframe Powerplant
38
• Light Transmission - some plastics are naturally clear, whilst other are opaque. These characteristics, consequently, provide the
possibility for a range of light-transmission properties. Optical properties can also be achieved with some plastics.
• Vibration Damping - many plastics are naturally resistant to fatigue and, because of the high value of internal damping present,
resonances will tend to be of relatively low amplitude.
Disadvantages of Plastics
Although plastics are extremely useful materials, some shortcomings inevitably exist, particularly when compared to some metals. Plastics
major deficiencies are:
• Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than metals and mild steel has approximately six times the strength of nylon. Mild
steel, however, is six times the weight of nylon so, on a strength/weight ratio, they are comparable.
• Low Stiffness - plastics have a very inferior value of Young's Modulus compared with the common metals.
• Low Impact Strength - many plastics have poor impact strength, but there are a few exceptions, such as with certain
polycarbonates.
• Poor Dimensional Stability - mainly due to high values of thermal coefficient of expansion.
• Poor High-Temperature Capability - metals are generally capable of retaining reasonable strength at much higher temperatures
than the plastics. The long-term maximum operating temperature, for the better plastics, is not usually above 250°C. High-
temperature metals can operate for long periods well in excess of 800°C.
• Moisture Absorption - many types of plastic absorb moisture, which can result in a significant loss of strength in a humid
environment.
• Ultra Violet Light - some plastics deteriorate when exposed to UV light for long periods.Increased brittleness and loss of strength
can occur.
Airframe Powerplant
39
Some Common Plastics
Name Type Uses
ABS thermoplastic (acrfonitrile butadiene Thermoplastic Car dash boards, telephones, safety helmets, electrical appliances
styrene)
Acrylic (polymethyl-methacrylate) Thermoplastic Displaysigns, machine guards, baths, roof lights
Cellulose Acetate Thermoplastic Spectacleframes, cutlery handles, chisel / screwdriver handles
Epoxy Resin (epoxide, ER) Thermoset Adhesives, castings, printed circuit boards (PCB's), surface
coatings
Melamine Formaldehyde (melamine Thermoset Tableware, electrical insulation, synthetic resin paints, decorative
methanol, MF) laminates for work surfaces
Nylon (polyamide) Thermoplastic Curtainrail fittings, combs, bearings, hinges, clothes, gear wheels
PET Thermoplastic Bottlesfor food and drink (up to 2 litres)

thermoplastic(polyethyleneterephthalate)
Phenol Formaldehyde (phenol Thermoset Darkcoloured electrical fittings and parts for domestic appliances,
methanol,PF) high strength fabrics, bottle tops, kettle / iron / saucepan handles
Polycarbonate Thermoplastic Riotshields, safety spectacles, machine guards, light diffusers,

skylights
Polyester Resin (PR) Thermoset Laminatedto form GRP, casting, encapsulating, car bodies, boats
Polypropylene (polypropene, PP) Thermoplastic Chemicalresistant containers, bottle crates, medical equipment,
syringes, food containers, nets, storage boxes
Airframe Powerplant
40
Polystyrene (expanded, PS) Thermoplastic Packaging, sound and heat insulation, ceiling tiles
Polystyrene (high impact, HIPS) Thermoplastic Lowcost and disposable items produced by vacuum forming or
injection moulding, internal secondary glazing, toys, model kits,
refrigerator linings
Polythene (high Thermoplastic Bottles, pipes, bowls, milk crates, buckets

densitypolyethylene,HDPE)
Polythenethermoplastic (low Thermoplastic Packagingfilm, carrier bags, toys, detergent 'squeegy' bottles, dip
densitypolyethylene,LDPE) coating
Polyurethane (PU) Thermoset/thermoplas Assolid: skateboard wheels, shoe soles, buoyancy in boat hulls,
tic Asfoam: sponges, cushioning,
Asliquid: varnish,
PTFE (polytetrafluoro- ethylene Thermoplastic Nonstick coatings (Teflon), low friction applications,mechanical
pipe joint sealing tape
PVC, plasticized (polyvinylchloride) Thermoplastic Leathercloth, dip coating, hose pipes, insulation around electrical
wiring, vinyl wallpaper, toys, dolls, footballs
PVC, rigid (polyvinylchloride) thermoplastic Rainwatergoods, air and water pipes, chemical tanks, shoe soles,
shrink and blister packaging, floor and wall coverings
Urea Formaldehyde (urea methanol, UF) thermoset Electricalfittings, domestic appliance parts, textiles, wood
adhesives
Airframe Powerplant
41
Some Special Engineering Plastics
Kevlar®
Kevlar was introduced by DuPont in the 1970s. It was the first organic fiber with sufficient tensile strength and modulus to be used in
advanced composites. Originally developed as a replacement for steel in radial tires, Kevlar is now used in a wide range of applications.
Kevlar is an aramid, a term invented as an abbreviation for aromatic polyamide. The chemical composition of Kevlar is poly para-
phenyleneterephthalamide, and it is more properly known as a para-aramid. Aramids belong to the family of nylons. Common nylons, such
as nylon 6,6, do not have very good structural properties, so the para-aramid distinction is important. The aramid ring gives Kevlar thermal
stability, while the para structure gives it high strength and modulus.
Like nylons, Kevlar filaments are made by extruding the precursor through a spinneret. The rod form of the para-aramid molecules and the
extrusion process make Kevlar fibres anisotropic--they are stronger and stiffer in the axial direction than in the transverse direction. In
comparison, graphite fibres are also anisotropic, but glass fibres are isotropic.
Today, there are three grades of Kevlar available: Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49, and Kevlar 149. The table below shows the differences in material
properties among the different grades. If you purchase Kevlar cloth, it is most likely Kevlar 49.
TENSILE ELONGATION
GRADE DENSITY g/cm3 TENSILE MODULUS GPa TENSILE STRENGTH GPa
%
29 1.44 83 3.6 4.0
49 1.44 131 3.6 – 4.1 2.8
149 1.47 186 3.4 2.0
The tensile modulus and strength of Kevlar 29 is roughly comparable to that of glass (S or E), yet its density is almost half that of glass. Thus,
to a first approximation, Kevlar can be substituted for glass where lighter weight is desired. Kevlar 49 or 149 can cut the weight even further
if the higher strength is accounted for.
Airframe Powerplant
42
Kevlar has other advantages besides weight and strength. Like graphite, it has a slightly negative axial coefficient of thermal expansion,
which means Kevlar laminates can be made thermally stable. Unlike graphite, Kevlar is very resistant to impact and abrasion damage. It can
be used as a protective layer on graphite laminates. Kevlar can also be mixed with graphite in hybrid fabrics to provide damage resistance,
increased ultimate strains, and to prevent catastrophic failure modes.
Like all good things, Kevlar also has a few disadvantages. The fibres themselves absorb moisture, so Kevlar composites are more sensitive to
the environment than glass or graphite composites. Although tensile strength and modulus are high, compressive properties are relatively
poor. Finally, Kevlar is also very difficult to cut. You will need special scissors for cutting dry fabric or pre-preg, and special drill bits for
drilling cured laminates. Cutting of cured laminates without fraying is very difficult.
Nomex®
The inherently flame-resistant properties provided by NOMEX® mean that those who rely on it are safe and protected from the hazards they
face on the job every day. It is that knowledge and sense of security that enables them to concentrate on the task at hand, and to make a
substantial contribution to things that are important in our everyday lives.
Advanced thermal technology was born more than 30 years ago when DuPont scientists created a fiber with an extraordinary combination
of high-performance heat- and flame-resistant properties, as well as superior textile characteristics.
In both fibre and sheet forms, NOMEX® helps people and materials to perform, even in highly aggressive environments.
DuPont's family of NOMEX® fiber products provides outstanding heat and flame resistance and offers excellent textile properties.
Applications include filters, industrial coated fabrics, etc., etc.
NOMEX® is also used for electrical insulation in both paper and pressboard forms, where its inherent dielectric strength, mechanical
toughness and thermal stability provide high reliability in the most demanding applications.
Aviation Applications for Core Structures of NOMEX®- NOMEX® offers not only thermal protection, but exceptional light weight,
Airframe Powerplant
43
necessities for the aviation industry. Honeycombs of NOMEX® substantially improve the performance of most current commercial aircraft. A
structure with a NOMEX® core can increase strength by 37 times while increasing weight by only 6%. Found in flaps, wing-to-body fairings,
nacelles, radomes, doors, floors, ceilings, stow bins and walls, NOMEX® helps aircraft manufacturers save weight and helps keep passengers
safe.
Electrical Applications - Wherever there is a need for electrical insulation, there are usually NOMEX® brand products to fill it. In its various
forms - primarily papers and pressboards - NOMEX® has the right balance of properties for use in transformers, motors, generators and
other electrical equipment. This unique balance of properties has been providing reliability to manufacturers for over 35 years.
NOMEX® is a synthetic aromatic polyamide polymer that provides high levels of electrical, chemical and mechanical integrity when
converted into its various sheet forms. Used properly, NOMEX® paper products can extend the life of electrical equipment, reduce
premature failures and repairs, and act as a safeguard in unforeseen electrical stress situations.
NOMEX® paper products have characteristics which make them ideally suited for electrical insulation applications. These characteristics may
vary slightly in the different forms and types of NOMEX. The following pages provide a comprehensive look at NOMEX® and explain the
advantages of specifying it in a broad range of electrical applications.
Within the family of NOMEX® products-papers, pressboards, non-wovens, fabricated parts and specialized forms - there is a solution to meet
your particularrequirements.
Elastomers
From the Greek word elastos - elastic, elastomers may be natural or, synthetic materials (polymers) which have considerable elastic
properties. "Elastomer" is a term often used for rubber andpolymers that have properties similar to those ofrubber.
Elastomers are polymers with a particular type of molecular structure.Specifically they are linear, amorphous (i.e., non-crystalline), high
molecular weight polymers inwhich the chains of the molecular structure areflexible and cross-linked (e.g., Hearle 1982). Theflexibility and
cross-linking of the polymer chainsallow elastomers to behave elastically, as the nameimplies, such that they are capable of recoveringfrom
Airframe Powerplant
44
large deformations.
Because they may also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be included in the category of plastics. Elastomers will
tolerate repeated elongation and return to their original size and shape, in a similar way to natural rubber
Some of the more common elastomers, to be found in the aerospace industry include:
Buna `N' - also known as Nitrile. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany) by the polymerisation of butadeine and sodium
(hence BuNa), it has excellent resistance to fuels and oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals. This material also has
low 'stiction' properties, when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly suited to `moving-seal' applications.
Buna `S' relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural rubber. It is often used for tyres and tubes, but its poor
resistance to fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable for seals.
Fluoro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and can be used at 250°C. They are also solvent-resistant
and are mainly used for high-temperature seals. A common name for these materials is Viton. These materials are expensive.
Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery qualities. It is also solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a
wide range of applications as fuel and hydraulic seals and gaskets. However, because of its special elastic recovery properties, it is
also ideally suited to diaphragms and hydraulic seals.
Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical properties, it has exceptionally high resistance to fuels and
oils and is widely used for lining or sealing fuel tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals and hoses, which come into contact with
fuels or oils. This compound is commonly known under the trade names of PRC or Thiokol.
Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (-80°C to + 200°C). It is often used for seals, but is also used
for the potting of electrical circuits, because of its ability to retain its rubbery state, even at low temperatures.
Airframe Powerplant
45
Plastic Manufacturing Processes
The most common manufacturing methods are:
Casting - the molten material is simply poured into a mould and allowed to set.
Moulding - powder, liquid or paste is forced into a set of shaped dies.
Extrusion - plastic is forced through a suitably shaped die. Rod, sheet, tube, angle sections etc. are produced this way.
Lay-up - load-carrying plastic fibres and an adhesive are layered in a mould or around a former.
Sandwich-Construction - plastic facings have, sandwiched between them, a honeycomb or foam core. Very stiff, but light,
structures are achieved by this method.
Compression Moulding - the material is put into a heated, hardened, polished steel container (the die) and forced into shape, by a
plunger.
Note: Vacuum Forming uses a similar tooling but, in this instance, the plastic is sucked into contact with the shaped die (a method often
used to manufacture aircraft interior trim).
Non-Metallic Components
In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft structure, non-metallic materials are used in many aircraft components and
systems. Many of these materials require specialist knowledge and understanding, during aircraft maintenance.
Seals
Seals or packing rings (figure 3.18) serve to retain fluids and gases, within their respective systems, as well as to exclude air, moisture and
Airframe Powerplant
46
contaminants. They also have to withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and, because of this, they have to be manufactured
in a variety of shapes and materials.The most common materials, from which seals are manufactured, are natural rubber, synthetic rubber
and Teflon (trade name for polytetrafluoroethane or PTFE). O-ring seals effectively seal in both directions of movement. They are used to
prevent both internal and external leakage, and are the most commonly used seals in aviation.
Figure 3.18. Seal and Packings rings
Where installations operate at pressures above 10.34 x 103 kN/m2 (1500 PSI), additional back-up rings can be used to prevent the O-ring
from being forced out or extruded. These back-up rings are usually made from Teflon, which does not deteriorate with age, is unaffected by
system fluids and vapours and tolerates temperatures well in excess of those found in high- pressure hydraulic systems.
O-rings are available in many different materials and sizes (both diameter and thickness). They are supplied in individual, hermetically-
sealed, envelopes with all the necessary information marked on the packaging. This system has generally replaced the previously used,
colour-coding of seals, which had severe limitations.
Airframe Powerplant
47
For applications (such as in actuators) that subject a seal to pressure from two sides, two backup rings can be used but, when the pressure is
from one side only, a single back-up ring is adequate.
Other seals, commonly found are V-ring and U-ring seals. The V-ring has an open 'V' facing the pressure and is located by the use of a male
and female adapter. The U-ring seals will, usually, be found in brake unit assemblies and master cylinders, where pressures below 89 x 103
kN/m2 (1000 PSI) are encountered. As they only seal in one direction, the concave surface must face towards the pressure.
Adhesives and Sealants
Adhesive bonding has been used on an ever-increasing scale and particularly in the aerospace industry. Adhesives are used for
constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages, flight control surfaces, to propellers and helicopter rotor blades.
The Mechanics of Bonding
The actual adhesive bond may be achieved in two ways:
Mechanical: - here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a mechanical lock, by keying into the surface. It also forms re-
entrants, where the adhesive penetrates behind parts of the structure, and becomes an integral part of the component to be joined.
Chemical (Specific): - in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the surfaces to be joined and forms a chemical bond
with the surface
In practice, most adhesives use both ways of bonding to form a joint.
Stresses on a Bonded Joint
Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress
Airframe Powerplant
48
Joint stress is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear (figure 3.19). Adhesives should not be used if significant stresses will be carried in
tension or peel. Lap joints are the types more, generally favoured, as the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the area bonded,):
Tensile
Where the two surfaces are pulled directly apart
Shear
Where the two surfaces tend to slide across each other
Cleavage
Where two edges are pulled apart
Figure 3.19. Stresses on Bonded Joints
Airframe Powerplant
49
Advantages of Adhesives
The major reasons for the widespread use of adhesives are as follows:
• No weakening of the component due to the presence of holes. Also providing a smooth finish due to lack of rivet heads.
• No local stress raisers, which are present with widely-pitched conventional fasteners (Bolts, rivets etc.).
• Can be used to join dissimilar materials and materials of awkward shapes and of different thickness, as riveting and welding are not
always possible on very thin (or very thick) materials.
• Although the strength per unit area, may be inferior to a mechanical or welded joint, adhesive bonding takes place over a greater
continuous area and, therefore, gives comparable or increased strength, coupled with improved stiffness.
• Adhesive and sealants provide electrical insulation and prevent dissimilar- metal corrosion between different materials.
• Leak-proof (fuel and gas) joints can be achieved.
• The elastic properties of some adhesives, gives flexibility to the joint and may help to damp out vibrations.
• Heat-sensitive materials can be joined.
Disadvantages of Adhesives
The major disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding are:-
• Limited heat resistance. This restricts the process to applications where environmental temperatures will not, generally, be above
200°C.
• Poor electrical and thermal conductivity.
• High thermal expansion.
• Limited resistance to certain chemicals (i.e. some paint strippers).
Airframe Powerplant
50
• Integrity difficult to check with non-destructive testing procedures.
Strength of Adhesives
The three most important considerations are:
• Fail Stress: - fail load within the glued area
• Creep behaviour
• Durability: - its long-life capability without serious deterioration.
Groups and Forms of Adhesives
There exists, an enormous range of adhesives, and the correct type, for a particular application will be specified in the relevant repair
procedure.
Great care must be taken that only the correct type is used as, otherwise, a catastrophic failure may well occur, should an unsuitable
adhesive be used on a critical structure.
The two major groups of adhesives are-
• Flexible
• Structural
SEALING COMPOUNDS
Certain areas of all aircraft are sealed to withstand pressurization, prevent fuel or fume leakage and to delay the onset of corrosion, by
Airframe Powerplant
51
sealing against the weather.
Most sealant compounds, consist of two or more ingredients, that are compounded to produce a desired combination of strength, flexibility
and adherence. Some materials are ready-for-use, straight from their packaging, whilst others require mixing before application.
One-Part Sealants
One-part sealants are prepared by the manufacturer and are ready for application straight from their packaging. The consistency of some of
these compounds can be altered to satisfy a particular application method. If, for example, thinning is required, then a thinner
(recommended by the sealant manufacturer), is mixed with the sealant.
Two-Part Sealants
Two-part sealants are compounds requiring separate packaging, to prevent curing prior to application. The two parts are identified as the
base sealing compound and the accelerator. Two-part sealants are generally mixed, by combining equal portions (by weight), of the base
and accelerator compounds and any deviation from the prescribed ratios will result in inferior sealing or adhesion.
Many common sealants/adhesives are produced in pre-measured kits, that simply require the mixing together of the whole quantities of
the materials supplied. These eliminate the need for balances and other weighing equipment.
The instructions must be followed but, in general, require the addition of the accelerator to the base compound, followed by thorough
mixing before application.
A working life is usually quoted, which applies after mixing, so the work must be thoroughly prepared prior to mixing.
Some materials may be kept, after mixing, for a limited time, by the use of refrigeration. The instructions will give details if this is possible.
Airframe Powerplant
52
Sealant Curing
The curing rate, of mixed sealants, varies with temperature and humidity. For example, at temperatures below 15°C, curing is extremely
slow. At temperatures above 21°C, curing times are usually faster. For best results, a temperature of around 25°C, with a relative humidity of
50%, is ideal for curing most sealants.
If the temperature of curing is increased to accelerate the curing time, it must not exceed 50°C at any time during the curing cycle. The heat
can be applied, by using infrared lamps, or heated air, providing the air is dry and filtered.
A practical test, to see if curing has been completed, can be done by laying a sheet of cellophane on the work, and checking whether the
sheet adheres to it (lack of adhesion indicates full curing).
Flexible Adhesives
Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of the
joint, is essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount.
In general, flexible adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers, whereas

structural adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being epoxy or
polyester).
Structural Adhesives
Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must be carried without excessive creep. They are, therefore,
relatively rigid, but without being excessively hard or brittle.
Note: Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer, which results in a
flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive.
Airframe Powerplant
53
Adhesive Forms
Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid, paste or film. Others, available, are those such as the special
foaming types, which are used to splice honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for curing, whilst others can be cured by the
addition of a catalyst or hardener.
GLOSSARY OF ADHESIVES TERMS
Adhesion
The state in which two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces which may consist of valence forces or interlocking action
Adhesion, Mechanical
Adhesion between surfaces in which the adhesive holds the parts together by interlocking action
Adhesive, Specific
Adhesion between surfaces which are held together by valence forces or molecular bonding
Adhesive
A substance capable of holding material together by surface attachment
Adhesive Failure
Failure resulting from in sufficient bond between the adhesive and one or both substrates. Adhesive strips away from substrates.
Adhesive Tensile
An adhesive is in tensile loading when the acting forces are applied at right angles to the plane of the adhesive. The tensile strength of
a bond is the maximum tensile load per unit area, required to break the bond expressed in pounds per square inch.
Airframe Powerplant
54
Amorphous Phase
Non-crystalline. Most plastics are amorphous at processing temperature. Many retain this strength under normal temps.
Antioxidants
Compounds that retard the rate of oxidation of a polymer.
Cohesive Failure
Occurs when internal strength of the adhesive is not as great as the forces applied to it. Adhesive remains bonded to both substrates.
Crystalline
A state of molecular structure in some polymers denoting uniformity and compactness of the molecular chains.
Degradation
Deleterious change in the chemical structure of a plastic reflected in its appearance or physical properties.
Dielectric Constant
That property of a dielectric which determines the electrostatic energy per unit volume for unit potential grade.
Dielectric Strength
The voltage at which an insulating material can withstand before breaking down occurs, usually expressed as volts per mil.
Dissipation Factor
The tangent of the loss angle of the insulating material.
Elongation
The fractional increase in length of a material stressed in tension.
Airframe Powerplant
55
Encapsulating/Potting
Enclosing an article in an envelope of adhesive.
EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Resins)
Co-polymers of the polyolefins family derived from random co-polymerisation of acetate and ethylene.
Exudation
Migration of adhesives from the interior to the surface of plastic.
Film Tension
The greatest longitudinal stress a cast film (125 mils thickness) can bear without tearing apart.
Heat Resistance
The temperature at which a bond subjected to a PSI load fails.
Hot Tack
A characteristic of hot melts in that they have holding power even while in the liquid hot state.
Hydrolysis
Decomposition of a substrate by reaction with water.
Hygroscopic
Capable of absorbing and retaining environmental moisture.
Mechanical Adhesion
Adhesion between surfaces in which the adhesive holds the parts together by interlockingaction.
Airframe Powerplant
56
Migration
Migration of adhesives from the interior to the surface of a plastic.
Molecular Weight
The sum of the atomic weight of all atoms in a molecule.
Penetration
The entering of an adhesive into a substrate.
Polyamide Resin
A polymer in which the structural units are linked by amide grouping.
Polyester Resin
A polymer in which the structural units are linked by ester grouping.
Polymer
A chemical compound or mixture of compounds formed by polymerisation.
Polymerisation
A chemical reaction in which two or more small molecules continue to form larger molecules that contain repeating structural units of
the original molecules.[Reproduction of parts].
Potting
Enclosing an article in an envelope of adhesive.
Resistivity
The ability of a material to resist passage of electrical current either through its bulk or surface.
Airframe Powerplant
57
Shear tensile
An adhesive is in tensile loading when the acting forces are applied parallel to the plane of the adhesive. The tensile strength of an
adhesive bond is the maximum tensile load per unit area required to break the bond. Expressed in pounds per square inch.
Specific Gravity
The density (mass per unit volume) of any material divided by that of water at a standard temperature; specific gravity of water= 1:00.
Thermal Conductivity
Ability of a material to conduct heat.
Thermoplastic
A material capable of being repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling.
Thermoset
A material which will undergo a chemical reaction by action of heat, catalysts etc.Leading to a relatively infusible state.
Viscosity
The measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow usually expressed in poise (or centipoise). A higher reading indicates thicker material.
COMPOSITE INSPECTION
Upon completion of this lecturer, you will have a working knowledge of the basic repair techniques associated with aircraft nonmetallic structures.
You will also have a working knowledge of advanced composite materials, their unique characteristics with composite repair materials.
A bonded structure is one consisting of two or more components adhesively bonded together. The structure can be allmetallic or
nonmetallic, or it can consist of both types of material. A bonded structure can contain honeycomb or other type of lightweight core. Sheets
Airframe Powerplant
58
of metal or nonmetal can be bonded together to provide the appropriate thickness. Carbon/epoxy composites are bonded structures
although the individual layers are only a few thousands of an inch thickand essentially lose their individual identity in the curing process.
However, separations (delaminations) do occur between layers as a result of external impacts with foreign objects.
Because of the many configurations and types of bonded structures, there are many variables to consider when performing NDI
a. Probe-side skin material and thickness.
b. Adhesive type and thickness.
c. Under lying structure – core material, thickness of core, cell size and thickness of cell wall; far-side skin material and thickness; quantity,
thickness and material of doublers; attachments of closure members; foam adhesive; steps in skins; internal ribs; and makeup of
nonmetallic composite laminates (material, number of layers and layer thickness).
d. Accessibility–one skin or both skins.
All of these variations complicate the application of ultrasonic inspection methods. A method, which works well on one part or in one area
of the part, may not be applicable for different parts or different areas of the same part.
Composite Inspection
The task of repair begins when you determined that the structure has been damaged and that the damage is sufficient to require the
structure to be repaired. The existence of damage may be obvious, such as a skin penetration, a gouge, or a dent. Conversely, the proper
identification and classification of the damage may be difficult. Because of the brittle, elastic nature of composite laminate materials, for
example, the fibers may break upon impact, but then spring back, leaving little visible indication of damage.
There are three distinct steps involved in damage assessment. The first step is to locate the damage. The second step is to evaluate the defect
to determine such information as the defect type, depth, and size. This information is important because the method of repair will vary,
depending on this information. The third step is to re-evaluate, after defect removal (as applicable), the area being repaired.
Airframe Powerplant
59
DAMAGE INSPECTION METHODS
There are many methods available for locating and evaluating the damage. Ideally, the fastest method that will reliably find the appropriate
type and size of defect should be employed since recurring costs will probably out weigh non recurring equipment procurement costs.
Some of the inspection methods to be discussed are visual inspection, tap test, X-ray, and ultrasonic inspection methods.
The specific inspection method used for a composite structure varies with the composite material used and the using organization's
experience with inspection methods.
A coustic emission, holography, ultrasonics, X rays, thermography, and ring tests are some of the non-destructive inspection (NDI)
techniques currently in use. The information presented here is a summary of the methods commonly used. However, the aviation
maintenance technician should always consult the manufacturer's maintenance manual for specific testing and repair procedures as they
apply to a particular aircraft.
Visual Inspections
Visual inspections are a methodical search for defects, checking for obvious damages. Be suspicious of any nick, dent, or paint chip because
there may be underlying damage. Many types of defects, such as impact damage, corrosion, and delamination, cannot be detected by visual
inspections alone.
Tap/Ring Testing
A tap/ring test (figure 3.20) is used in conjunction with a visual inspection, and is an elementary approach to locating delaminations,
disbonds, core damage, water, or corrosion. Tapping should be done with a small hammer about the weight of a US 50-cent coin. A dull or
dead sound indicates that some delamination or disbond exists. A clear, sharp sound indicates a solid structure. Tap testing is limited to
finding defects close to the surface, and is in effective in areas of sharp contours and changes in shape.
A ring test can be used to detect voids (no matrix between the fibres and delaminations (separations) between the layers. A 1oz hammer, a
coin, or other light weight metal-tapping device is used to tap on the bonded areas. If the bonding is intact, the tapping gives a solid "ring."
If there is a void or delamination under the surface, the tapping results in a dull sound. if a separation is located, the extent of the separation
Airframe Powerplant
60
has to be evaluated by other inspection methods to be assured that there really is a problem.
When performing the ring test, the sound may change due to a transition to a different internal structure, the technician striking the part at
a slightly different angle, and/or pressure. Variations in the sound during the ring test may be caused by factors other than internal damage.
This test is quite quick but "unscientific" and is more a cause for continued inspection using other techniques than a true indication of
component failure. An example of a change in internal configuration that would change tones would be where a laminate changes to a
sandwich area. The honeycomb will give a different sound than the solid sheet.
Ultrasonic Inspections
Ultrasonic inspections (figure 3.21) use sound wave frequencies higher than the human hearing level, above 20,000 Hz, to penetrate the
part. It measures the time the transmitted sound waves take to pass through the object and return to the receiver. The signals are changed
into a display on a cathode-ray tube that provides a means of interpreting defects. Accurate results are dependent on an experienced
operator, clean surface, known standards of part construction, and repeatability of indications.
Figure 3.20. Tap Test with tap hammer
Airframe Powerplant
61
An ultrasonic tester can be used to transmit a sound wave signal into a solid laminate panel. The sensors of the analyzer send and receive
the sound signal and evaluate the speed at which it moves through the structure. The analyzer then displays the signal time on a cathode-
ray tube. A trained operator can evaluate the display and determine the location, depthand extent of voids, delaminations, occlusions
(debris), resin richness or starvation, and other damage as the sending/receiving probe is positioned on different parts of the structure. A
couplant or thin coating of petroleum jelly, oil, or water is used between the sending unit and the material surface as a sound-transmission
medium. The couplant provides an airtight bond between the material being tested and the signal pickup device.
Figure 3.21. Ultrasonic Testing
X-ray Inspections
X-ray inspections use the same basic process as a dentist uses to X-ray teeth. The penetrating power of the radiation is used to reveal the
interior of objects and to record it on film. Defects in material essentially change the thickness of the material, thus changing the degree of
absorption of radiation. More radiation passes through the thinner area of a part, and shows up as a darkened area on the developed film.
Radiology can be accomplished using X-ray signals. These can be used to locate moisture and corrosion in honeycomb, delaminations, and
separations of the core from the skin. The use of radiology is a complex operation that requires the services of specially trained.
Airframe Powerplant
62
Figure 3.22. Negligible damage on composite material
Acoustic emission monitoring is used to detect corrosion and disbonding of the adhesive bond. This system also relies on the transmission
of sound waves through a material. This inspection method employs a very sensitive microphone and amplifier.
Airframe Powerplant
63
If active corrosion is present the noise associated with the bubbles generated by the corrosion activity can be detected as a hissing sound. If
the panel being inspected is heated to about 150°F (82°C) disbonding of the adhesive will be indicated by a crackling sound.
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATIONS
All damage must be classified to determine what repair action should be taken (figure 3.22) ultimately, all discrepancies will be placed into
one of three categories—negligible damage, non-repairable damage, or repairable damage. The decision concerning disposition must be
made considering the requirements of the aircraft, the particular parts involved, the limitations that can be placed on the repaired aircraft,
the degree of urgency, and any other circumstances impacting the situation.
Negligible Damage
Negligible damage is damage that can be permitted to exist “as is,” or corrected by a single cosmetic refinishing procedure with no
restrictions on flight operations. This damage may also include some delamination, disbonds, and voids. See figure 3.22.
Non-repairable Damage
Non-repairable damage exceeds published criteriaor limits. Non-repairable damage may be reclassified as repairable, if cognizant
engineering authority prescribes a repair on an individual basis. Normally, non-repairable damage requires the changing of components.
Repairable Damage
Repairable damage is any damage to the skin, bond, or core that cannot be allowed to exist “as is” without placing performance restrictions
on the aircraft. All repairs must be structural, restore load-carrying capabilities, aerodynamic smoothness requirements, and meet the
environmental durability requirements of the aircraft. See figure 3.23. Repairable damage is divided into several classifications. The aircraft’s
structural repair manual (SRM) provides the approved repair procedures for all levels of maintenance contained in the SRM includes damage
classifications, inspection procedures, typical repair procedures, and tool and material lists. Damage exceeding any of these classifications
require engineering disposition. The examples listed below may vary some what, depending upon the type of aircraft and the specific
Airframe Powerplant
64
location of the damage on the aircraft.
Class I Cuts, scratches, pits, erosion or abrasions not exceeding 0.005 inch in depth and 5 inches in length.
Class II Damage with dents in the skin up to 3 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch in depth, with no delamination between skin plies, no
cracks or graphite fiber breakage, or skin to honeycomb core separation.
Class III Delamination between plies, including the skin land area, opened up to external edge and up to 1 ½ inches in diameter.
Class IV Skin damage including delamination, cracks, cuts, scratches or skin erosion exceeding 0.015 inch in depth, but less than full
penetration, with no damage to honeycomb core.
Class V Damage is single skin damage, including full penetration, accompanied with honeycomb core damage.
Class VI Damage to both skins, including full penetration, accompanied with honeycomb core damage.
Class VII Damage is water trapped in honey-comb area.
Airframe Powerplant
65
Figure 3.23. Repairable damage on composite material
Airframe Powerplant
66
REPAIR CRITERIA
Repair criteria differ in the same way that initial design requirements for aircraft differ. Criteria for a repair can be less demanding if the
repair is considered to be temporary. Temporary repairs are performed for such requirements as a one time flight to a repair facility or one
more mission under combat conditions. However, most repairs are intended to be permanent, and, except for special conditions, criteria are
applied so that the repair will remain acceptable for the life of the aircraft.
One of the major factors that influences the repair quality is the environment where the repairs are to made. For example, the presence of
moisture is critical to bonded repairs. Epoxy resins can absorb 1.5 to 2 times their weight in moisture, there by reducing the ability of the
resins to support the fibers. Dirt and dust can seriously affect bonded repairs. Oils, vapors, and solvents prevent good adhesion in bonded
surfaces and can lead to voids or delamination. To perform quality repairs, personnel must have a knowledge of the composite system to be
repaired, type of damage, damage limitations/classifications, repair publications, materials, tools and equipment, and repair procedures.
The repair facilities where the work is to be performed will be clean and climate controlled if possible. The relative humidity should be 25 %
to 60 % and temperatures stable at 65° to 75°F. If repairs are to be made in an uncontrolled environment (hangar/flight deck), patches and
adhesives will be prepared in a controlled environment and sealed in an airtight bag before being brought to the repair site.
Strength Restoration
Full strength repairs are desirable and should be made unless the cost is prohibitive or the facilities are inadequate. Less than full strength
repairs are sometimes allowed on secondary structures that are lightly loaded, stiffness-critical structures designed for limited deflections
rather than for carrying large loads (doors), or structures designed to a minimum thickness requirement for general resistance to handling
damage (fuselage skins). Repair manuals for specific aircraft frequently “zone” the structure to show the amount of strength restoration
needed or the kinds of standard repairs that are acceptable. Repair zones help to identify and classfy damage by limiting repairs to the load-
carrying requirements. Repair zone borders indicate changes in load-carrying requirements due to changes in the structure, skin thickness,
ply drop-offs, location of supporting members (ribs and spars), ply orientation, core density, size and type of materials. Damage in one zone
may be repairable, where as the same type of damage in an adjacent zone may not be repairable.
Airframe Powerplant
67
Aerodynamic Smoothness High-performance aircraft depend on smooth external surfaces to minimize drag. During initial fabrication,
smoothness requirements are specified, usually by defining zones where different levels of aerodynamic smoothness are required. These
most critical zones include leading edges of wings andtails, forward nacelles and inlet areas, forwardfuselages, and over-wing areas of the
fuselage. Theleast critical zones include trailing edges and aftfuselage areas.
Repairing Composite Structures
The classification of damage and the repair methods for composite materials have not been standardized in the aviation industry. Each
manufacturer has developed a method of classifying damage and establishing an appropriate repair procedure. The specific repair data
should be consulted prior to repair attempts. The repair procedures presented here are intended to give the technician a general
understanding of some of the procedures.
Damage to one laminated skin surface with no damage to the core can be repaired by the installation of a surface patch. Prior to the
installation of the patch the surface is cleaned. Topcoat and undercoat paint materials are removed to expose the skin itself around the
damaged area. Note that cleaning and paint removal should be accomplished using abrasives.The use of chemicals for cleaning and paint
removal may lead to weakening of the composite structure.
The damaged area is either scarfed (sanded) or stepped (routed) using a small disk sander or a microstop settable air-powered grinder to
remove each layer. The damaged area is removed with ascending concentric circles of material in ½ in. increments (the area should look like
a shooting target with the bulls-eye in the centre of the damaged area). Circular patches of repair material are cut corresponding to the
diameters of the removed material. The repair material must be of the same type as the original or an approved substitute. If three layers of
the fabric have to be cut back, then four patches are cut, as shown in figure 3.24. The first patch is the size of the material removed from the
innermost portion of the tapered area (the bulls-eye). The next two patches are the size of the next two correspondingly enlarging layers
that were cut hack. The fourth patch is large enough to overlap the sanded area by I in. on all sides. If a liquid wet lay-up adhesive is to be
used, it is mixed and the time is noted so that the mixture pot lives will not he exceeded. A thin coat of adhesive is then applied over the
cleaned and prepared area. Each patch is saturated (impregnated) with adhesive. The patches are stacked sequentially, from smallest to
Airframe Powerplant
68
largest and placed (usually symmetrically) over the damaged area. The warp fibres of the repair patches must align with the warp direction
of the original parent material.
If pre-preg materials are used, patches are simply cut from specified materials and laid with the same warp direction as the original parent:
the repair is then cured. Pre-preg materials must be carefully handled to avoid contamination. After the lay-up has been accomplished, the
repair is sealed in a vacuum bag with thermocouples (temperature sensors) attached to a temperature controller. The repair can be cooked
with an oven, autoclave, or a portable hot bonder and the appropriate cure cycle. The temperature controller tells either the oven controller,
the autoclave controller, or the heat-blanket controller of the "hot bonder" how to control the temperature rise, soak, and drop-off during
the cure cycle.
When using a vacuum-bag process (which can be used with either the wet lay-up process or the pre-preg lay-up process) there are several
things to consider. After the repair patches have been put into place, a layer of peel ply is placed directly over the patch. This material is
normally porous films because excess resin needs to be bled from the lay-up and the solvents and volatiles need to be vented. This is peeled
from the repair patch after cure, leaving a rough surface so that the paint will adhere. If the painted surface is to be smooth, the area will
require "filling" before painting. When preparing the surface for filling and painting, care should be taken not to damage the fabric
filaments.
Airframe Powerplant
69
Figure 3.24. Layout of three-layer cut back composite repair
Next, a breather-bleeder material, such as felt, is placed on top of the release film. This material provides a path for the air, volatiles, and
solvents to flow through during the curing process. It also absorbs excess resin that has been worked to the edges. Once the release film
and breather-bleeder are in position, a vacuum port is placed on one corner of the lay-up area (it is not placed on the patch itself), with a
piece of breather-bleeder material under it (to protect it from the resins and aid in air flow from the lay-up). The patch area is then covered
with a heavy piece of high-temperature nylon plastic bagging film and sealed airtight. A vacuum is applied to the vacuum attachment. The
source should create a vacuum of at least 23 in Hg (at sea level) and the plastic over the patch should compress free of wrinkles. The
complete repair arrangement is shown in figure 3.25.
Airframe Powerplant
70
Figure 3.25. Vacuum bag repair arrangement
If the repair is a wet lay-up process, the excess resin matrix in the patch can now be worked out with a plastic squeegee. The squeegee
should be flexible and have rounded edges (to preclude tearing the plastic bagging film). All the air bubbles should be worked toward the
edge of the patch and into the breather-bleeder material. The squeegee is used until the excess resin can no longer be moved away from
the patch. Care must be taken not to remove too much matrix, as this will render the patch dry and "un airworthy." The time should be
monitored when working the wet-lay-up process in order that the pot life of the matrix is not exceeded. The matrix should not be worked
past its pot life.
If a pre-preg patch is used, the repair area is heated using the available heating equipment after the vacuum has been applied (cure cycle).
The amount of heat applied should be held constant by monitoring the surface temperature of the repair with the thermocouple. Special
heat- monitoring units are available that will automatically turn the heat source on and off to keep the temperature of the patch at the
desired value. Care should be taken not to apply too much heat initially as the initial out-gassing of the matrix may cause air bubbles to
appear in the patch. Pre-preg material manufacturers have developed specific cure cycles for their products, which must be followed.
Heat lamps and hand-held guns are not recommended because of the difficulty in maintaining a constant and controlled level of heat on
the patch for the required curing period. When it is necessary to apply heat to a limited area, heating blankets with the proper temperature-
controlling equipment may be used. The use of an oven is not recommended unless the complete part can be placed in the oven while
fixed in a bondform or fabrication fixture. The component could warp during the heating process.
Airframe Powerplant
71
In some aircraft repair manuals, there is a provision for an emergency, temporary surface patch (commonly called a scab patch) that can be
riveted in place using blind pull rivets. Still other aircraft manufacturers may allow the use of a microsphere impregnated potting compound
to repair small defects in a skin surface.
If damage penetrates the skin surface and the core material then all the damaged material must be removed. This can be done by the use of
a router and template, a hole saw, or a fly cutter. The router cuts out the damaged core using a template as a guide for the movement of the
router. The shape of the cleaned-out area can be circular, oval, or rectangular. The depth of the routing operation is determined by the
depth of the damage penetration. If the damage is on a sloping surface, bridges must be used under the router to allow it to cut parallel
with the undamaged surface.
If a syntactic foam is used to fill the core, the core material should be undercut beyond the edges of the surface opening to anchor the foam
within the structure. The routed-out area should be cleaned with a reagent solvent, a solvent that has been chemically purified. Therepair
area is then air dried thoroughly to assure that the core has not retained any liquid. If liquid is still present the adhesive could break down.
REPAIRE OF COMPOSITE
Upon completion of this lecturer, you will have a working knowledge of the basic repair techniques associated with aircraft nonmetallic structures.
You will also have a working knowledge of advanced composite materials, their unique characteristics with composite repair materials.
In the following text, we will discuss some of the procedures used in the repair or replacement of aircraft nonmetallic structures. Because no
one set of rules applies to all aircraft, you should refer to the Maintenance Instruction Manual (MIM) and Structural Repair Manual (SRM) for
the materials and procedures for a particular aircraft.
MAINTAINING TRANSPARENT PLASTIC MATERIALS
Because of the many uses of plastic materials in aircraft, optical quality is of great importance. These plastic materials are similar to plate
Airframe Powerplant
72
glass in many of their optical characteristics. Ability to locate and identify other aircraft in flight, to land safely at high speeds, to maintain
position in formation, and in some cases, to sight guns accurately through plastic enclosures all depend upon the surface cleanliness, clarity,
and freedom from distortion of the plastic material. These factors depend entirely upon the amount of care exercised in the handling,
fabrication, maintenance, and repair of the material.
Plastics have many advantages over glass for aircraft application, particularly the lightness in weight and ease of fabrication and repairs.
They lack the surface hardness of glass and are very easily scratched, with resulting impairment of vision. You must exercise care while
servicing all aircraft to avoid scratching or otherwise damaging the plastic surface.
Specific procedures are described later in this section for minor maintenance; however, the following general rules are emphasized:
1. Transparent plastic materials should be handled only with clean cotton gloves.
2. The use of harmful liquids, such as cleaning agents, should be avoided.
3. Fabrication, repair, installation, and maintenance instructions must be closely followed.
4. Operations that might tend to scratch or distort the plastic surface must be avoided. You must take care to avoid scratching plastic
surfaces with finger rings or other sharp objects.
Just as woods split and metals crack in areas of high, localized stress, plastic materials develop, under similar conditions, small surface
fissures called crazing. These tiny cracks are approximately perpendicular to the surface, very narrow in width, and usually not over 0.01 inch
in depth. These tiny fissures are not only an optical defect, but also a mechanical defect, as there is a separation or parting of material. If the
crazing is in a random pattern, it is usually caused by the action of solvent or solvent vapors.
If the crazing is approximately parallel, it is usually caused by directional stress, set up by cold forming, excessive loading, improper
installation, impropermachining, or a combination of these with the actionof solvents or solvent vapors.Crazing can be caused by improper
cleaning, improper installation, improper machining, or coldforming. Once a part has been crazed, neither theoptical nor the mechanical
defect can be removedpermanently; therefore, prevention of crazing is very important.
Airframe Powerplant
73
Cleaning Plastic Surfaces
Masking paper should be left on the plastic aslong as possible. When it is necessary to remove themasking paper from the plastic during
fabrication orinstallation, the surface should be re-masked as soonas possible. Either replace the original paper or applymasking tape.If the
masking paper adhesivedeteriorates, making removal of paper difficult,moisten the paper with aliphatic naphtha, FederalSpecification TT-
N-95, type II. Plastic so treatedshould be washed immediately with clear water.For exterior surfaces, flush with plenty of water, and use your
bare hand to gently feel and dislodge anydirt, sand, or mud. Then, wash the plastic with awetting agent, Specification MIL-D-16791, and
cleanwater.
NOTE:
Water containing dirt and abrasive materials may scratch the plastic surface. A clean, soft cloth, sponge, or chamois may be used to apply
the soap and water to the plastic. The cloth, sponge, or chamois should not be used for scrubbing; use the hand method as described for
removing dirt or other foreign particles.
Dry with a clean, damp chamois, a soft, clean cloth, or a soft tissue by blotting the surface until dry. Rubbing the surface of the plastic will
induce (build up) an electrostatic charge that attracts dust particles to the surface. If the surface does become charged, patting or gently
blotting with a damp, clean cloth will remove this charge as well as the dust. To clean interior plastic surfaces, dust the surface lightly with a
soft cloth. Do not wipe the surface with a dry cloth. Next, wipe carefully with a soft, damp cloth or sponge. Keep the cloth or sponge free
from grit by rinsing it frequently in clean water.
Cleaning and polishing compound, Specification P-P-560, may be used to remove grease and oil. Apply the compound with a soft cloth, rub
in a circular motion until clean,and polish with another soft cloth.
Removing Scratches From Plastic Surfaces
You may be required to remove and install canopies, escape hatches, and other aircraft structures that contain plastic sections. The finish of
the plastic must be protected. Plastic is very soft as compared toother aircraft structural materials. The surface is easily scratched or
Airframe Powerplant
74
damaged, and should be protected by the use of proper protective covers and storage racks, which are provided by the aircraft
manufacturer or manufactured locally. It is easier to avoid scratches than to remove them. It is possible,however, to restore even a badly
scratched surface toa good finish by buffing and sometimes sanding.
Aircraft MIMs and SRMs specify limits on the length, width, and depth of cracks, and in what areas they are allowed. These measurements
are normally made by the use of an optical micrometer. If a scratch exceeds the specified limitations, the surface must be replaced.
Before you sand or buff, be sure the plastic surface is clean. The buffing wheels and compounds should also be free of dirt and grit to avoid
seriously scratching the surface during the polishing operation. If the buffing wheels have been used before, remove any hardened tallow
by running the wheels against a metal edge.
It is important to remember that most plastic enclosures are thermoplastic

and soften when heated. The friction of sanding or buffing too long or too
vigorously in one spot can generate enough heat to soften or burn the
surface. Also, plastic that has been deep-drawn, or formed to compound
curvatures, has a tendency to return to its original thickness when excessive
heat is applied. The best procedure is to keep either the wheel or plastic
constantly in motion relative to one another. Keep the pressure against the
wheel to a minimum, and change the direction of buffing often.
The procedures for removing scratches are as follows: A single deep scratch
or imperfection is reduced by sanding to a number of small, shallow
scratches. These scratches, in turn, are reduced to a larger number of still
smaller scratches on a buffing wheel to which a fine abrasive is applied.
These finest scratches are further reduced or filled in with tallow or wax. A
Figure.3.26. Proper method of sanding plastic
final buffing or polishing brings the surface to a high gloss. The depth of
the scratch will determine how many of these operations are necessary. Each step in the process must be performed thoroughly, or
Airframe Powerplant
75
subsequent polishing will not remove scratches left by previous operations.
Sanding and buffing cause thickness variations inthe plastic around the scratch. If skillfully done, these operations will cause only minor
optical distortions,which will not be serious in most applications. Distortion may be reduced by gently polishing and feathering a fairly large
area around the scratch. Incritical optical sections, however, even minor distortions may cause serious deviations in sighting. Such sections,
even though scratched, should not be sanded or buffed. If necessary, these sections are replaced.
SANDING
Transparent plastics should neverbe sanded unless absolutely necessary, and then only when surface scratches, which may impair vision,
are too deep for buffing. When sanding is necessary, the finest, smallest grit abrasive paper that will remove the scratch or other defect
should be used first. Normally, you will never need abrasive paper coarser than No. 320A; however, abrasive paper as coarse asNo. 240A may
be used if the situation warrants. The abrasive paper is wrapped around a felt-covered, wooden or rubber block, and the defective area is
rubbed lightly, using plain water or water with a 2 % soap content as a lubricant.
Use circular strokes, as shown in figure 3.26. Never use a straight back-and-forth motion. Sand an area about two or three times the length
of the defect in order to minimize optical distortion and excessive thinning ofthe plastic. The initial sanding should then be followed by
similar treatments, using successively finer grades of sandpaper in the following sequence:
DO NOT SAND UNLESS ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY TO RE-MOVE DEEP SCRATCHES.HOLD SANDPAPER BY SMOOTH RUBBER OR WOODEN
BLOCK AND OVER A WIDE AREATO PREVENT OPTICAL DISTORTIONS.EXCESS PRESSUREIN SANDING OR BUFFING WILL BURN PLASTIC.
BUFFING
To remove the fine, hairline scratches caused by sanding, transparent plastic maybe buffed. It is often possible to remove scratches by
buffing alone, provided the scratches are not too deep. There are a number of standard commercial buffing compounds satisfactory for use
Airframe Powerplant
76
on transparent plastic enclosures. They are usually composed very fine alumina or similar abrasive in combination with wax, tallow, or
grease binders. They are available in the form of bars or tubes for convenience in applying to the buffing wheel.
Plain tallow is often applied to the buffing wheel.It may be

used in addition to buffing compound, or itmay be used
alone. In the latter case, tallow functions similar to wax as it
fills in hairline scratches and gives a high gloss to the surface.
Buffing wheels are made of cotton cloth or felt. For removing

scratches caused by sanding, an of “abrasive” wheel and a
“finish” wheel are needed (figure 3.27). The abrasive wheel,
which is relatively hard and to which buffing compound is
applied, isused for removing the deeper scratches. The finish
wheel, which is soft, is then used to bring the plastic to a high
polish. Both wheels are made up of numerous layers of cloth
discs, but the abrasive wheel is made hard by several rows of
stitches, as shown in the illustration. The finish wheel is
unstitched with spacers (washers) mounted between every
Figure 3.27. Buffing wheel
fourth or fifth cloth disc. Power for turning the buffing wheel
may be supplied by mounting it in a portable drill. At the start of each buffing operation, the plastic must be clean and dry. Some ofthe
buffing compounds now available will leave the surface clean so that washing is not necessary. Where necessary, however, washing should
follow each stepin buffing. If a panel has been sanded previously or is deeply scratched, the abrasive wheel should be used first. Apply fresh
compound to the wheel and buff lightly along and across all scratches. Keep the plastic or wheel in motion to prevent generating too much
heat, thus damaging the plastic. Complete the buffing operation by using the finish wheel, bringingthe plastic surface to a high gloss. After
all scratches have been removed with the finish wheel, a coat of wax should be applied by hand.
Airframe Powerplant
77
REPAIRING REINFORCED PLASTIC
This section deals with the materials and procedures to be used in repairing reinforced plastic and sandwich construction components. The
procedures discussed are general in nature. When actually repairing reinforced plastic and/or sandwich construction components, refer to
the applicable maintenance instruction manual or structural repair manual. The repair of any damaged component made of reinforced
plastic requires the use of identical materials, whenever they are available, or of approved substitutes for rebuilding the damaged portion.
Abrupt changes in cross-sectional areas must be avoided by tapering joints, by making small patches round or oval instead of rectangular,
and by rounding the corners of all large repairs. Uniformity of thickness of core and facings is exceedingly important in the repair of
radomes. Repairs of punctured facings and fractured cores necessitate removal of all the damaged material, followed by replacement with
the same type of material and in the same thickness as the original. All repairs to components housing radar or radio gear must be made in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. This information may be found in the aircraft structural repair manual or in
drawings and specifications.
Before a thorough inspection of the damage can be made, the area should be cleaned with a cloth saturated with methyl ethyl ketone
(MEK). After drying, the paint should be removed by sanding lightly with No. 280 grit sandpaper, and then clean the sanded area with MEK.
The extent of damage can then be determined by tapping the suspected areas with a blunt instrument. You could use a coin as a blunt
instrument, such as a quarter, to perform the tap test. This is referred to as the “coin tap” method. You should never use a hammer as a blunt
instrument. The damaged areas will have a dull or dead sound, while the undamaged areas will have a clear metallic sound.
Damages are divided into four general classes: surface damage, facing and core damage, puncture damage (both facings and core), and
damage requiring replacement.
Repairing Surface Damage
The most common types of damage to the surface are abrasions, scratches, scars, dents, cuts, and pits. Minor surface damages may be
repaired by applying one or more coats of room-temperature catalyzed resin to the damaged area. More severe damages may be repaired
Airframe Powerplant
78
by filling with a paste made from room-temperature resin and short glass fibers. Over this coated surface, apply a sheet of cellophane,
extending 2 or 3 inches beyond the repaired area.
After the cellophane is taped in place, start in the center of the repair and lightly brush out all the air bubbles and excessive resin with your
hand or a rubber squeegee towards the outer ridge of the repair. Allow the resin to cure at room temperature, or if necessary, the cure can
be hastened by the use of infrared lamps or hot sandbags. After the resin has been cured, remove the cellophane and sand off the excess
resin; then, lightly sand the entire repaired area to prepare it for refinishing.
PLY DAMAGE (SANDWICH LAMINATES)
When the damage has penetrated morethan one ply of the cloth in sandwich-type laminates, the repair may be made by using the scarfed
method, shown in figure 3.28. This repair is made in the following manner: Clean the area thoroughly, and then sand out the damaged
laminate plies, as shown in view B. The area should be sanded to a circular oroval shape, and then the area should be tapered uniformly
down to the deepest penetration of the damage.
Figure 3.28.Ply Repair (scarft method)
Airframe Powerplant
79
Figure 3.28.Ply Repair (scarft method)
The diameter of the scarfed (tapered) area should be at least 100 times the depth of the penetration. You should exercise care when using a
mechanical sander. Excess pressure on the sander can cause the sandpaper to grab, resulting in the delamination of undamaged plies.
CAUTION
The sanding of glass cloth reinforced laminates produces a fine dust that may cause skin irritation. In addition, if you breathe an excessive
amount of this dust, it may be injurious; precautions as to skin,eyes, and respiration protection must be observed.
Clean the area thoroughly, brush coat the sanded area with one coat of room-temperature catalized resin, and apply the contoured pieces
of resin-impregnated cloth, as shown in view C. Tape a sheet of cellophane over the built-up repair and work out the excess resin and air
bubbles. Cure the repair in accordance with the resin manufacturer’s instructions, and then sand the surface down (if necessary) to the
original surface of the facing.
PLY DAMAGE (SOLID LAMINATES)
Ply damage to solid laminates may be repaired by using the scarfed method described for sandwich-type laminates, shown in figure 3.28, or
the stepped method, shown in figure 3.29, view A, may be used.
Airframe Powerplant
80
When the wall is being prepared for the stepped repair, a cutting tool with a controlled depth will facilitate the cutout and should be used
to avoid possible damage to the layers underneath. If the layerof glass cloth underneath is scratched or cut, the strength of the repair will be
lessened. You should exercise care not to peel back or rupture the adhesion of the laminate layers beyond the cutout perimeter.You can
accomplish removal of the cutouts by peeling from the center and working carefully to the desired perimeter of the cutout. Scrape each
step, wipe clean with cloths moistened with MEK, and allow drying thoroughly. Cut the replacement glass fabric pieces toan exact fit, with
the weave directions of there placement plies running in the same direction as the existing plies. Failure to maintain the existing weave
direction will result in a repair that is greatly under strength. Replace each piece of fabric, being careful to butt the existing layers of fabric
plies together, but do not overlap them. The laminate layers should be kept to the proper matching thickness.
When the entire wall has been penetrated, as shown in figure 3.29, view B, one-half of the damaged plies should be removed from one side
and the replacement build up completed; then, repeat removal and build up procedure on the opposite side. If the damage occurs over a
relatively large or curved area, make up a plaster mold that conforms to the contour and extends 1 inch past the damage, and insert it in the
damaged area when repairing the first half of the plies. When the stepped method of repair is used, the dimensions should be maintained
as illustrated.
In areas that have become delaminated, or that contain voids or bubbles, clean with MEK and determine the extent of the delamination;
and then drill holes at each end or on the opposite sides of the void by using a No. 55 drill bit, extending through the delaminated plies.
Figure 3.30 shows the procedure for repair of delaminated plies.
Additional holes may be needed if air entrapment occurs when you inject the resin. Use a hypodermic needle or syringe and slowly inject
the appropriate amount of resin until the void is filled and the resin flows freely from the drilled holes. After the voidsare completely tilled,
bring the area down to proper thickness by working the excess resin out through the holes and then cure and refinish.
Airframe Powerplant
81
Figure 3.29. Repair of solid laminates (stepped method)
Airframe Powerplant
82
Figure 3.30. Delaminated ply repair
Repairing Facing and Core Damage
The repair of facings and cores requires more than one method of repair. Special attention must be given to the type of core used.
Airframe Powerplant
83
HONEYCOMB CORE
The repair of facing sand cores requires more than one method of repair. Special attention must be given to the type of core used. Damages
extending completely through one facing of the material and into the core require removal of the damaged core and replacement of the
damaged facings in such a manner that normal stresses can be carried over the area. The scarfed method, illustrated in figure 3.31, is the
preferred method for accomplishing small repairs of this type. Repairs of this type may be accomplished as follows:
Carefully trim out the damaged portion to acircular or oval shape and remove the core completely to the opposite facing. Be careful not to
damage the opposite facing. The damaged facing around the trimmed hole is then scarfed back carefully bysanding. The length of the scarf
should be at least 100 times the facing thickness, as shown in view B. This scarfing operation must be done very accurately to a uniform
taper.
Cut a piece of replacement core material (or asuitable substitute) to fit snugly in the trimmed hole. It should be equal in thickness to the
original core material. Brush coat the repair area and the replacement honeycomb, exercising care to prevent an excessive amount of resin
from entering the honeycomb cells.
Insert the honeycomb repair section and place the resin-impregnated cloth over the repair area, as shown in view C. Cover the repair area
with cellophane sheeting, and cure the repair in accordance with the resin manufacturer’s instructions. After the repair has been cured, sand
the surface to its original contour. The entire area should be lightly sanded before refinishing.
Figure 3.31. Honeycomb type core repair
Airframe Powerplant
84
The repair shown in figure 3.32, view A, is used when a puncture through one skin facing has caused only minor damage to the core
material. To repair this type of damage, proceed as follows:
Cover the component with a suitable protective covering (polyvinyl sheet or kraft paper). Cut out a section of the protective covering that
will extend approximately 2 inches beyond the damaged area. Use masking tape to hold the cutout in place. Stop-drill as necessary through
the skin facing only.
Strip the paint and protective coating 1 ½ inches beyond the stop drilled holes. Then, clean the stripped area with a special cleaning paste.
Fill the void with the specified filler material to within approximately 0.063 inch of the skin facing, and cure as directed.
Prepare a round or oval patch large enough to over lap the damaged area at least 1 inch. Apply sealant to the under surface of the patch
and to the filler and skin surface. Install the repair patch, maintaining correct overlap, and clamp to the assembly to assure contact with the
skin facing. Cure as directed. Remove the excess adhesive, and refinish as necessary.
The repair shown in figure view B, is used when a puncture through one skin facing has caused extensive damage to the honeycomb core.
When the core has been damaged extensively, the damaged material must be replaced.
Prepare the assembly as previous] y described. Cut out the damaged skin facing with a hole saw or aviation snips. File the edges of the hole
smoothly. Using a pocket knife, carefully cut out the damaged core.
CAUTION
Do not damage the opposite facing. Install a new core filler and complete the repair as previously described for view A of figure.
The repair shown in view C, is used when both skin facings and the core have been damaged. Use the same procedures as described above
for views A and B to make this repair.
Airframe Powerplant
85
Figure 3.32. Sandwhich construction puncture repair (honeycomb repair)
Airframe Powerplant
86
Figure 3.33. A riveted plug repair
Airframe Powerplant
87
Another method shown in figure 3.33 is sometimes called a temporary repair or riveted repair. In this illustration all the core material in the
original structure has been removed. The core plug is inserted and an external plate is blind pull riveted into place. If damage penetrates
both skins, the hole is routed out through the entire
panel. Plug and surface patches are prepared, and the
pieces are assembled as shown in figure 3.32. A similar
riveted repair is shown in figure 3.34. If you have a
choice, the surface patch should be of the same
material as the parent skin. If that material is not
available, aluminium face sheet should be used.
A rivet gun and bucking bar should not be used to

install solid rivets in composite structures because the
pounding will delaminate more of the skin areas.
Although some of the repairs illustrated in this chapter

show the trimmed surface openings without any
tapering or stepping, most manufacturers require that
the skin surface be tapered or stepped and the patch
be composed of materials similar to those of the
parent skin.
Remember, this chapter describes generic repairs.

Always consult the manufacturer's repair manual for
specific information.
Figure 3.34. A core replacement by riveting
Airframe Powerplant
88
Glossary of Composites Terms
Acceptance Test
A test, or series of tests, conducted by the procuring agency, or an agent thereof, upon receipt to determine whether an individual lot
of materials conforms to the purchase order or contract or to determine the degree of uniformity of the material supplied by the
vendor or both.
Accelerator
A substance designed to accelerate or enhance the adhesive's curing process.
Activator
A substance, which initiates or accelerates the cure of an adhesive.
Ambient temperature
The temperature in the surrounding area.
Anaerobic Adhesive
Anaerobic adhesives cure in the absence of air and the presence of active metals.
Assembly
A group of materials or parts, including adhesive, which has been placed together for bonding or which has been bonded together.
Assembly Time
The time interval between the spreading of the adhesive on the adherend and the application of pressure or heat, or both, to the
assembly.
Airframe Powerplant
89
Batch
The manufactured unit or a blend of two or more units of the same formulation and processing.
Binder
A component of an adhesive composition that is primarily responsible for the adhesive forces which hold two bodies together.
Blister
An elevation of the surface of an adherend, somewhat resembling in shape a blister on the human skin; its boundaries may be
indefinitely outlined and it may have burst and become flattened. A blister may be caused by insufficient adhesive; inadequate curing
time, temperature or pressure; or trapped air, water, or solvent vapour.
B-Stage
An intermediate stage in the reaction of certain thermosetting resins in which the material softens when heated and swells when in
contact with certain liquids, but may not entirely fuse or dissolve. The resin in an uncured thermosetting adhesive is usually in this
stage. Sometimes referred to as Resitol.
Cartridge (EDS)
A rigid container in which adhesives in pre-measured quantities are supplied. Cartridges can be either side-by-side (EDS) or a single
tube. A dispensing gun is required.
Catalyst
A substance that markedly speeds up the cure of an adhesive when added in minor quantity as compared to the amounts of the
primary reactants.
Centipoise (cP)
Viscosity measurement where water is 1 cP (also see mPas)
Airframe Powerplant
90
Coefficient of thermal Expansion
The measured expansion of a product under heat measured per 1°C rise or fall in temperature.
Cold Pressing
A bonding operation in which an assembly is subjected to pressure without the application of heat.
Cold Storage
Some adhesives and resins should be stored in refrigerators or freezers. This is normally, specified by the manufacturer.
Compression Strength
The resistance to rupture under inward pressure. Adhesives generally perform well under compression.
Condensation
A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine with the separation of water or some other simple substance. If a
polymer is formed, the process is called polycondensation.
Crazing
Fine cracks that may extend in a network on or under the surface of or through a layer of adhesive.
Creep
The dimensional change with time of a material under load, following the initial instantaneous elastic or rapid deformation. Creep at
room temperature is sometimes called Cold Flow.
Crosslinking
The chemical combining of monomers, oligomers and/or polymers to enhance their properties which also renders them insoluble.
Airframe Powerplant
91
Cure
To change the physical properties of an adhesive by chemical reaction, which may be condensation, polymerisation, or vulcanisation;
usually accomplished by the action of heat and catalyst, alone or in combination, with or without pressure.
Cure Temperature
The temperature to which an adhesive or an assembly is subjected to cure the adhesive.
Cure Time
The period of time during which an assembly is subjected to heat or pressure, or both, to cure the adhesive.
Delamination
The separation of layers in a laminate because of failure of the adhesive, either in the adhesive itself or at the interface between the
adhesive and the adherend.
Doped Lamps
The specific wavelengths emitted from an ultraviolet lamp are mainly dependent upon the fill. Using mercury as the norm, the spectral
output can be changed by the addition of dopants such as beryllium or iron.
Ductility
A material property that allows deformation (bending, stretching, twisting) without fracture.
Endothermic
A chemical reaction which absorbs heat.
Epoxy - I Part
Single part adhesive, which cures at elevated temperatures. Excellent durability but limited to whether the substrates can take the
Airframe Powerplant
92
heat necessary to cure the adhesive.
Epoxy - 2 Part
A two part adhesive, which cures at room temperature.Very versatile, used for many applications from fast repairs through to
structural bonding.
Exothermic
A chemical reaction which gives off heat.
Filled
An adhesive, which incorporates solid particles to change its properties - i.e. electrical conductivity or to increase the gap-filling
capability.
Filler
A relatively non-adhesive substance added to an adhesive to improve its working properties, permanence, strength, or other qualities.
Fillet
That portion of an adhesive, which fills the corner or angle formed where two adhered are joined.
Flash Point
The temperature in degrees °F (°C) at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapour to form a flammable or ignitable mixture with air.
Flow
Movement of an adhesive during the bonding process, before the adhesive is set.
FRP
Fibre Reinforced Plastic (see also GRP)
Airframe Powerplant
93
Full Cure
When the adhesive has reached its full strength - in contrast to its working strength.
Gel
A semisolid system consisting of a network of solid aggregates in which liquid is held.
Gel (cure):
A description of an adhesive as it hardens from liquid to solid.
Gel (viscosity)
Term to describe the viscosity of an adhesive which is gelling.
Gel Time
The amount of time it takes for an adhesive to reach a gel cure state.
Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)
The temperature where the material changes from a flexible condition to quite hard and brittle condition or vice versa.
GRP
Glass Reinforced Plastic (see also FRP)
Handling Time
The time after which a bonded unit may be moved to continue the assembly process, but no significant loads should be exerted on
the bond line.
Hardener
A substance or mixture of substances added to an adhesive to promote or control the curing reaction taking part in it. The term is also
Airframe Powerplant
94
used to designate a substance added to control the degree of hardness of the cured film.
Heat curing
To effect the change from liquid to solid for an adhesive which has to be heated - usually anywhere between 30 - 180°C.
Hygroscopic
Materials which have a tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Impregnating
The process of imbedding a liquid into a porous solid to change its physical properties.
Induction curing
Cures the adhesive by heating one of the ferrous metal substrates using induction. Very rapid setting times can be achieved.
Infrared Energy
Photon energy having wavelengths between 1 and 100 microns.
Inhibitor
A substance that slows down chemical reaction. Inhibitors are sometimes used in certain types of adhesives to prolong storage or
working life.
Initiator
A substance, which starts the cure process.
Laminate
A product made by bonding together two or more layers of material or materials. To unite layers of material with adhesive.
Airframe Powerplant
95
Mixing Order
The order in which the resin is mixed with the catalyst and accelerator. Always Resin - Catalyst – Accelerator
Modifier
Any chemically inert ingredient added to an adhesive formulation that changes its properties.
Monomer
A molecule of relative low molecular weight and simple structure capable of combining with itself or other similar molecules through
reactive sites to form polymers.
Nylon
The common name for a family of plastics, also known as polyamides.
Oxygen Inhibition
The effect of oxygen which terminates or retards the rate of polymerisation.
Paste
An adhesive composition having a characteristic plastic-type consistency, that is, a high order of yield value, such as that of a paste
prepared by heating a mixture of starch and water and subsequently cooling the hydrolysed product.
Plasticity
A property of adhesives that allows the material to be deformed continuously and permanently without rupture upon the application
of a force that exceeds the yield value of the material.
Plasticizer
A material incorporated in an adhesive to increase its flexibility, workability, or dispensability. The addition of the plasticizer may cause
Airframe Powerplant
96
a reduction in melt viscosity, lower the temperature of the second order transition, or lower the elastic modulus of the solidified
adhesive.
Polymer
A macromolecule consisting of a large number of monomer units. The molecular weights may range from about 20,000 into the
millions.
Polymerisation
A chemical reaction in which the molecules of a monomer are linked together to form large molecules whose molecular weight is a
multiple of that of the original substance. When two or more monomers are involved, the process is called copolymerisation or
heteropolymerization.
Porosity Sealing
Sealing of pin holes in welded or cast materials.
Post Cure
A treatment (normally involving heat) applied to an adhesive assembly following the initial cure, to modify specific properties. To
expose an adhesive assembly to an additional cure, following the initial cure, for the purpose of modifying specific properties.
Pot Life
The time in which an adhesive may be used before it starts to skin or film over.
Potting
The processes of filling or coating parts to protect them from shock, vibration or environmental hazards such as water.
Primer
A coating applied to a surface, prior to the application of an adhesive, to improve the performance of the bond.
Airframe Powerplant
97
Resin
A solid, semisolid, or psuedosolid organic material that has an indefinite and often high molecular weight, exhibits a tendency to flow
when subjected to stress, usually has a softening or melting range, and usually fractures conchoidally.
Room Temperature
Generally taken as being between 20°C and 30°C (68°F and 86°F).
Sag
Also known as slump relating to the flow of the adhesive.
Service Temperature
A range between which a cured adhesive may be used and considered to perform adequately.
Set (Setting)
To convert an adhesive into a fixed or hardened state by chemical or physical action, such as condensation, polymerisation, oxidation,
vulcanisation, gelation, hydration, or evaporation of volatile constituents.
Shelf Life
The amount of time a material may be stored under specified conditions with no significant changes in properties.
Solvent
A liquid., which is capable of dissolving uncured and cured adhesives. Also, may be used as a catalyst to initiate cure of some types of
adhesives.
Static Mixer
A nozzle, which is used in conjunction with a twin barrelled cartridge. The nozzle contains a mixing element to ensure that as the
Airframe Powerplant
98
adhesive is pushed down through the nozzle it mixes thoroughly. These nozzles allow fully mixed product to be applied direct to the
work piece, and remove the need to mix by hand and the risk of entrapping air within the adhesive.
Stress cracking
Certain adhesives may cause some plastics to "relax" or "crazy pave".
Substrate
A material upon the surface of which an adhesive-containing substance is spread for any purpose, such as bonding or coating.A
broader term than adherend.
Surface Preparation
A physical or chemical preparation, or both, of an adherend to render it suitable for adhesive joining.A method by which a substrate is
made suitable to be bonded.
Synthetic
A material produced by chemical means, which is not naturally occurring.
Tack
The property of an adhesive that enables it to form a bond of measurable strength immediately after adhesive and adherend are
brought into contact under low pressure.
Thermocouple
An electric device used to monitor temperature.
Thermoplastic
A material capable of being repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling.
Airframe Powerplant
99
Thermoset
A material that will undergo or has undergone a chemical reaction by the action of heat,catalysts, ultraviolet light, etc., leading to a
relatively infusible state. A plastic which, when heated, will not melt but will eventually char and burn.
Thixotropic
Non-drip characteristic - an adjective to describe a material, which will thin on shearing and then recover a gel like structure on
standing.
Toughening
A system designed to arrest crack propagation within an adhesive.
Ultraviolet Light (UV)
Radiant energy in the wavelength band of 180 to 400 nanometres.
UV Curable Adhesive
An adhesive whose cure is initiated by UV light.
Viscosity
A measurement of the thickness of a liquid - usually measured in cP (centipoise) or mPa (millipascal seconds). The ratio of the shear
stress existing between laminae of moving fluid and the rate of shear between these laminae. A fluid is said to exhibit Newtonian
behaviour when the rate of shear is proportional to the shear stress. A fluid is said to exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour when an
increase or decrease in the rate of shear is not accompanied by a proportional increase or decrease in the shear stress.
Vulcanisation
A chemical reaction in which the physical properties of a rubber are changed in the direction of decreased plastic flow, less surface
tackiness, and increased tensile strength by reacting it with sulphur or other suitable agents.
Airframe Powerplant
100
Warp
The longitudinal direction fibre, parallel to the manufactured edge.
Wetting
The coating of a substrate surface with an adhesive.
Wicking
The flow of a liquid along a surface into a narrow space, similar to capillary action.
Working Life
The period of time during which an adhesive, after mixing with catalyst, solvent, or other compounding ingredients, remains suitable
for use.
Airframe Powerplant
101
Module 6
6.4 Corrosion
Airframe Powerplant
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
Airframe Powerplant
2
Upon completion of this chapter, you will haveIdentify a metal corrosion can threaten the structural integrity of an aircraft. Identify the primary
reason for selecting materials in aircraft construction. Define the theory of corrosion and its process.
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements, in the ground, before they are mined and (compared to the actual metals
into which they are subsequently formed) they are relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of metals to revert to the thermodynamically
more stable, oxidized, state. This occurs when they react with dry air to form metal oxides, or with acids and alkalis to form metallic salts.
Some metals, such as gold and platinum, strongly resist corrosion.
Many aircraft structures are made of metal, and the most insidious form of damage to those structures is corrosion. From the moment the
metal is manufactured, it must be protected from the deleterious effects of the environment that surrounds it. This protection can be the
introduction of certain elements into the base metal, creating a corrosion resistant alloy, or the addition of a surface coating of a chemical
conversion coating, metal or paint. While in use, additional moisture barriers, such as viscous lubricants and protectants may be added to
the surface.
Metal corrosion is the deterioration of the metal by chemical or electrochemical attack. This type of damage can take place internally as well
as on the surface. As in the rotting of wood, this deterioration may change the smooth surface, weaken the interior, or damage or loosen
adjacent parts.
Water or water vapor containing salt combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce the main source of corrosion in aircraft. Aircraft
operating in a marine environment, or in areas where the atmosphere contains industrial fumes that are corrosive, are particularly
susceptible to corrosive attacks.
Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two (often simultaneous) ways:
Chemical (oxidation)
Airframe Powerplant
3
Electrochemical (galvanic)
In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates, hydroxides, oxides or sulphates.
The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is attacked, suffers an Anodic change while the corrosive agent
undergoes a Cathodic change. The result is that material is lost from the Anode and gained by the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.
The corrosion process always involves two simultaneous changes: The metal that is attacked or oxidized suffers what may be called anodic
change, and the corrosive agent is reduced and may be considered as undergoing cathodic change.
Chemical Corrosion (Oxidation)/Direct Chemical Attack
In a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is converted to its ions. An ion is a neutral atom that has gained or lost one or
more of its electrons. The term oxidation is, however, normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal with the oxygen of the
atmosphere. The phenomenon is essentially a `dry' one, although water vapour, in the air, does play a part in the oxidation of some metals.
With the exception of gold and platinum, all metals, in contact with air, form a very thin, visible oxide film.
Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to caustic liquids or gaseous agents such as:
Spilled battery acids or battery fumes. Spilled acids are less of a problem now that Nickel Cadmium batteries are in common use.
Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. Flux residues are hygroscopic (readily absorb moisture).
Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds. Caustic cleaning solutions should be kept capped when not in use. Many corrosion`removal
solutions are, in fact, corrosive agents and should be carefully removed after use.
The oxide film that forms on metals, generally tends to protect them from further corrosive attack. The oxidation rate normally falls sharply
as the film thickness increases so that, at some time, there is virtually no further increase in film thickness.
Metals that form this type of tenacious and impervious film include pure aluminium, titanium and chromium.
Airframe Powerplant
4
Occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may react chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film
that is porous to the passage of further oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or flake and expose the metal surface to further
oxidation.
Many types of fluxes used in brazing, soldering, and welding are corrosive, and they chemically attack the metals or alloys with which they
are used. Therefore, it is important to remove residual flux from the metal surface immediately after the joining operation. Flux residues are
hygroscopic in nature; that is, they absorb moisture, and unless carefully removed, tend to cause severe pitting.
Caustic cleaning solutions in concentrated form should be kept tightly capped and as far from aircraft as possible. Some cleaning solutions
used in corrosion removal are, in themselves, potentially corrosive agents; therefore, particular attention should be directed toward their
complete removal after use on aircraft. Where entrapment of the cleaning solution is likely to occur, use a noncorrosive cleaning agent,
even though it is less efficient.
Effect of Temperature
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an increase in the rate of oxidation of a metal.
Electrochemical (Galvanic) Corrosion
A more complicated form of corrosion, which can occur not only on the surface of a metal, but also within the granular structure of the
metal (especially in alloys).
An electrochemical attack may be likened chemically to the electrolytic reaction that takes place in electro-plating, anodizing, or in a dry cell
battery. The reaction in this corrosive attack requires a medium, usually water, which is capable of conducting a tiny current of electricity.
When a metal comes in contact with a corrosive agent and is also connected by a liquid or gaseous path through which electrons may flow,
corrosion begins as the metal decays by oxidation. [Figure 6.4.1.01] During the attack, the quantity of corrosive agent is reduced and, if not
Airframe Powerplant
5
renewed or removed, may completely react with the metal, becoming neutralized. Different areas of the same metal surface have varying
levels of electrical potential and, if connected by a conductor, such as salt water, will set up a series of corrosion cells and corrosion will
commence.
The constituents in an alloy also have specific electrical potentials that are generally different from each other. Exposure of the alloy surface
to a conductive, corrosive medium causes the more active metal to become anodic and the less active metal to become cathodic, thereby
establishing conditions for corrosion. These are called local cells. The greater the difference in electrical potential between the two metals,
the greater will be the severity of a corrosive attack, if the proper conditions are allowed to develop.
The conditions for these corrosion reactions are the presence of a conductive fluid and metals having a difference in potential. If, by regular
cleaning and surface refinishing, the medium is removed and the minute electrical circuit eliminated, corrosion cannot occur. This is the
basis for effective corrosion control. The electrochemical attack is responsible for most forms of corrosion on aircraft structure and
component parts.
The Galvanic Cell
The mechanism of electrochemical corrosion (on single metal and at bimetallic surfaces) is similar to that of a primary cell, which produces a
low-voltage direct current.
A galvanic cell requires three components to exist:
An anode (a metal from the 'anodic' end of the galvanic series)
A cathode (a metal which is cathodic, compared to the anode)
An electrolyte (a fluid that conducts electricity)
In its basic form, it consists of two dissimilar metals in the presence of an electrolyte, An electrolyte is a chemical (or its solution in water),
which is able to conduct an electric current, due to the process of ionization. This forms a simple electric cell in which the less `noble' metal
Airframe Powerplant
6
(the anode) is eaten away.
When, for example, iron and copper plates, are partially immersed in an electrolyte, of dilute sulphuric acid, and are connected electrically
(via a piece of external wire), the potential difference between the plates, causes a current to flow.
Figure 4.1 Electrochemical attack
The iron (Fe) forms the anode of the cell, and is oxidized into ions (Fe") that dissolve into the acid. At the surface of the copper plate (the
cathode), a balancing reaction occurs. The electrons, formed in the anode, are conducted around the circuit and meet with positively
charged hydrogen ions at the cathode, to give off hydrogen gas. The driving force of this cell is the difference in galvanic potential between
the two metals (iron and copper). The metal of lower potential (the anode) in such a cell is oxidized or corroded. The 'products' of that
corrosion is Iron Hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) more commonly known as 'rust'.
Similar electrochemical corrosion processes, with balancing anodic and cathodic reactions, occur in neutral (non-acidic) electrolytes such as
water. The anodic reaction will involve oxidation (corrosion) of the metal with the lower galvanic potential, but the cathodic reaction will,
usually, be the reduction of oxygen dissolved in the electrolyte. Modern high-speed aircraft depend on the structural soundness of the
metals that make up the largest percentage of their thousands of parts. Metal corrosion is the greatest threat to the soundness of metals
and to the structural integrity of an aircraft. The materials used to construct an aircraft are designed to carry certain loads, to withstand
Airframe Powerplant
7
given stresses, and to provide strength for safety. Corrosion reduces the strength and changes the mechanical characteristics of the
materials, thus endangering the aircraft and reducing the margin of safety. The corrosion that occurs on avionics equipment is similar to
that which occurs on the basic airframe structure. The main difference is the amount of corrosion that is detrimental. A small amount of
corrosion on avionics equipment can cause serious degradation or complete system failure. However, the same amount of corrosion on
aircraft exterior surfaces might go unnoticed.
You can detect corrosion on the exterior of aircraft or equipment visually. If you follow the scheduled inspection requirements on a day-to-
day basis, you will ensure adequate detection of external corrosion. It is harder to detect corrosion on the internal surfaces of an aircraft
because such surfaces are not easily accessible. Thus, internal surfaces require special attention.
Corrosion often progresses unnoticed by the untrained technician. Therefore, the responsibility for the detection and treatment of corrosion
on the aircraft is assigned to all work centers in each activity. This ensures that sufficient knowledge is available to perform all required
inspections. Formal training in corrosion control is a requirement for ALLMAINTENANCE PERSONNEL. Through this training, maintenance
personnel are qualified to perform inspections, corrosion damage repair, and corrosion prevention. The corrosion control program
established by the Aviation Maintenance Program (AMP) is an ALL HANDS participation concept. To have good preventive maintenance
practices and procedures, you must know and be able to apply the common types of corrosion prevention and moisture protecting
materials.
Metal corrosion is the decay of metals as they combine with oxygen to form metallic oxides. Corrosion is a chemical process that is the
reverse of the process of smelting the metals from their ores. Very few metals are found in their pure state in nature. Most are found as
metallic oxides. These oxides have other undesirable impurities in them. The refining process involves the extraction of the base metal from
the ore. The base metal is then mixed with other elements (either metallic or nonmetallic) to form alloys. Alloying elements are added to
base metals to develop a variety of useful properties. For instance in aircraft structural applications, high strength-to-weight ratios are the
most desirable properties of an alloy.
After the base metals are refined whether alloyed or not; they have a potential to return to their natural state. However, potential is not
sufficient in itself to begin and promote this reversion; a corrosive environment must also exist. The significant element of the corrosive
Airframe Powerplant
8
environment is oxygen. The process of oxidation (combining with oxygen) causes wood to rot or bum and metals to corrode.
Control of corrosion depends upon maintaining a separation between susceptible alloys and the corrosive environment. This separation is
accomplished in various ways. A good intact coat of paint provides most of the corrosion protection on aircraft. Sealants used at seams and
joints prevent entry of moisture into the metal. Preservatives are used on unpainted areas of working parts. Finally, shrouds, covers, caps,
and other mechanical equipment provide varying degrees of protection from corrosive mediums. However, none of these procedures will
provide 100% protection. Weathering causes paint to oxidize and decay. Sealants may be worked out by vibration or be eroded by rain and
windblast. Preservatives offer only temporary protection when used on operating aircraft. The mechanical coverings can be installed
improperly or negligently.
Control of corrosion begins with an understanding of the causes and the nature of corrosion. Corrosion is the process of electrochemical or
direct chemical attack on metals. The reaction is similar to that which occurs when acid is applied to bare metal. Corrosion in its most
familiar form is a reaction between metal and water, and is electrochemical in nature.
The electrochemical attack involves metals of different electrical potential. These metals do not have to be in direct contact. If one metal
contains positively charged ions and the other negatively charged ions, all that is needed is an electrical conductor. When the conductor is
present, current will flow between the two metals, as in the discharge of a dry-cell battery.
In electrochemical corrosion, the electrical conductor may be any foreign material, such as water, dirt, grease, or any debris that is capable of
acting as an electrolyte. The presence of salt in any of the foregoing mediums accelerates the current flow and increases the rate of
corrosive attack.
Once an electrical connection is made, the electron flow is established in the direction of the negatively charged metal (cathode). This
action eventually destroys the positively charged metal (anode). Preventive measures include avoiding the establishment of the electrical
circuit and removing corrosion as soon as possible to avoid serious damage. Figure 4.2 shows the electron flow in a corrosive environment
destroying the anodic area. Note that the surface of a metal may contain anodic and cathode care as because impurities or alloying
constituents may have different potentials than the base metal.
Airframe Powerplant
9
Figure 4.2 Simplified corrosion cell
Electrochemical attack is evident in several forms. The form you find depends upon the metal involved, its size and shape, its specific
functions, atmospheric conditions, and type of corrosion producing agent (electrolyte) present.
There are many factors that affect the type, speed, cause, and the seriousness of metal corrosion. Some of these factors you can control;
others you cannot. Preventive maintenance factors, such as inspections, cleaning, paintings, and preservation, are within the control of the
operating squadron. They offer positive means of preventing corrosion.
The electrochemical reaction, which causes metal to corrode, is more dangerous under wet, humid conditions than under dry conditions.
The salt in seawater and the salt in the air are the largest single cause of aircraft corrosion. Hot climates speed the corrosion process because
the electrochemical reaction develops fastest in a warm solution. The warm moisture in the air is usually enough to start corrosion of the
metals if they are uncoated. As expected, hot, dry climates usually provide relief from constant corrosion problems. Extremely cold climates
will produce corrosion problems when a salt-laden atmosphere is present. Melting snow or ice provides the necessary water to begin the
electrochemical reaction.
Corrosion on avionics equipment is a continuing process. The equipment does not have to be installed, operating, or exposed to a
particularly harsh environment to corrode. The rate of the corrosion process is determined by the temperature, humidity, and chemicals in
Airframe Powerplant
10
the environment. Moisture is the single largest contributor in avionics corrosion. It makes little difference whether the moisture is in the
form of vapor or liquid. Its affects are detrimental to metals.
A clean aircraft retains its aerodynamic efficiency and safety. Serious damage to the exterior and interior surfaces of aircraft can result from
the lack of correct information about cleaning materials and equipment and their use. Shipboard procedures are not necessarily the same as
procedures ashore, but the same materials are available to produce comparable results.
A problem you may face when fighting corrosion knows what materials to use, where to find them, and their limitations. You should use
only those materials that have military specifications. Corrosion control information can be found in many directives and instructions. This
information is constantly revised to give you up-to-date knowledge and procedures.
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION
Many factors affect the type, speed, cause, and seriousness of metal corrosion. Some of these factors can be controlled and some cannot.
Climate
The environmental conditions under which an aircraft is maintained and operated greatly affect corrosion characteristics. In a
predominately marine environment (with exposure to sea water and salt air), moisture-laden air is considerably more detrimental to an
aircraft than it would be if all operations were conducted in a dry climate. Temperature considerations are important because the speed of
electrochemical attack is increased in a hot, moist climate.
Foreign Material
Among the controllable factors which affect the onset and spread of corrosive attack is foreign material that adheres to the metal surfaces.
Such foreign material includes:
Soil and atmospheric dust.
Oil, grease, and engine exhaust residues.
Airframe Powerplant
11
Salt water and salt moisture condensation.
Spilled battery acids and caustic cleaning solutions.
Welding and brazing flux residues.
It is important that aircraft be kept clean. How often and to what extent an aircraft should be cleaned depends on several factors, including
geographic location, model of aircraft, and type of operation.
Preventive Maintenance
Much has been done to improve the corrosion resistance of aircraft: improvements in materials, surface treatments, insulation, and in
particular, modern protective finishes. All of these have been aimed at reducing the overall maintenance effort, as well as improving
reliability. In spite of these improvements, corrosion and its control is a very real problem that requires continuous preventive maintenance.
During any corrosion control maintenance, consult the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for information on any chemicals used in the
process.
Corrosion preventive maintenance includes the following specific functions:
1. Adequate cleaning
2. Thorough periodic lubrication
3. Detailed inspection for corrosion and failure of protective systems
4. Prompt treatment of corrosion and touchup of damaged paint areas
5. Keeping drain holes free of obstructions
6. Daily draining of fuel cell sumps
7. Daily wipe down of exposed critical areas
Airframe Powerplant
12
8. Sealing of aircraft against water during foul weather and proper ventilation on warm, sunny days
9. Maximum use of protective covers on parked aircraft
After any period during which regular corrosion preventive maintenance is interrupted, the amount of maintenance required to repair
accumulated corrosion damage and bring the aircraft back up to standard will usually be quite high.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Corrosion in a Galvanic Cell
The onset of corrosion (and its severity) will depend upon several factors:
Conductivity of the Solution: Should the resistance of the solution increase, and then the rate of current flow will decrease. This
explains why little corrosion occurs in pure water (which has a high resistance), whilst quite severe corrosion occurs in salt water
which conducts electricity quite well. Adding various chemicals to the electrolyte can change the resistance and, therefore, the
reaction of the galvanic cell. Adding sodium chloride (salt) to the solution lowers the resistance of the circuit and, hence, increases
the current. An acid, such as hydrochloric acid, added to the solution, will remove the oxide film from the plate, which will also lower
the resistance, and increase the current flow.
Potential Difference between the Metals: The galvanic potentials of metals and alloys can be measured and typical values found in
solutions of seawater, or water with 3.5% salt dissolved in it. In any combination of two metals, that one will be the anode, and one
the cathode. It will NOT, however, predict the severity of the corrosion, as this depends on the type of electrolyte present.
Electrical Resistance: As the corrosion products build up between two metals in contact, and with an electrolyte present, the
products can, in some instances, increase the resistance of the action. This will result in slowing or even halting the reaction.
Alternatively, the products can bridge any insulation, which has been placed between the metals, and start an electrolytic action.
Airframe Powerplant
13
Ratios of Areas: If the ratio of the anode to cathode area is not unity, then the rate of corrosion can be much faster (or slower), than
would be obtained if they were of equal areas. If the cathode area is small, relative to the anode area, then the rate of corrosion is
slow. If the cathode area is much larger than the anode area, then the corrosion can be quite severe.
Single Metal Cells: Corrosion can happen within alloys or metallic mixtures and can occur between metal grains and their grain
boundaries, as well as in several other places. It can also occur if small metallic impurities are present within a pure metal, even if the
amount of impurity is merely a fraction of one percent. The removal of impurities from metals, at the manufacturing stage, can
greatly improve their corrosion resistance.
Oxygen Concentration (Differential Aeration): Corrosion can occur when the composition of the electrolyte varies at different parts
of the contact area. For example, if the electrolyte is in contact with the air, the oxygen can be absorbed, giving a high 'dissolved
oxygen' level, whilst the electrolyte elsewhere (in a crevice perhaps), will be low in dissolved oxygen. The effect of this is to make the
metal, close to the highly oxygenated part, a cathode and that in contact with lower oxygenated part, an anode and it so
corrosion will begin and, consequently, the crevice (pitting) increases in depth.
Non-Uniform Temperature: Differences in temperature at varying points will also have the effect of producing different potentials
at these points. This can result in severe corrosion in components such as radiators and heat-exchangers.
TYPES/FORMS OF CORROSION
There are many forms of corrosion. The form may depend on the metals involved, their function, atmospheric conditions and corrosive
agents present. The following are the more common found on aircraft structures.
Dissimilar Metal
Extensive pitting damage may result from contact between dissimilar metal parts in the presence of a conductor. While surface corrosion
may or may not be taking place, a galvanic action, not unlike electro-plating, occurs at the points or areas of contact where the insulation
Airframe Powerplant
14
between the surfaces has broken down or been omitted. This electrochemical attack can be very serious because in many instances the
action is taking place out of sight, and the only way to detect it prior to structural failure is by disassembly and inspection.
Figure 4.3 Dissimiliar/Galvanic metal corrosion
The contamination of a metal’s surface by mechanical means can also induce dissimilar metal corrosion. The improper use of steel cleaning
products, such as steel wool or a steel wire brush on aluminum or magnesium, can force small pieces of steel into the metal being cleaned,
which will then further corrode and ruin the adjoining surface. Carefully monitor the use of nonwoven abrasive pads, so that pads used on
one type of metal are not used again on a different metal surface.
A generic form of corrosion which occurs whenever a galvanic cell (see above) is allowed to form, also known as dissimilar metal corrosion.
(figure 4.3)
Typical problem areas are rivets or bolts made form a different material to that of the sheet metal to which they are located. An electrolyte
Airframe Powerplant
15
presence in the form of water, especially with impurities such as salt or toilet products, is likely to set-up such a cell.
Symptoms : power-like white or grey deposits
Causes : two dissimilar metals in contact with each other
Prevention : detail design, protective treatment, special assembly techniques (sealing, electrical insulation of metals).
Surface Corrosion
Figure 4.4 Surface corrosion
General roughening, etching or pitting of the metal surface, frequently accompanied by a powdery deposit of corrosion products, may be
caused by direct chemical or electrochemical attack. Corrosion can spread under the surface coating unnoticed, until the paint or plating is
Airframe Powerplant
16
lifted off the surface by the corrosion products or forms blisters.
Surface corrosion (figure 4.4) may be caused by either direct chemical or electrochemical attack. Sometimes corrosion will spread under the
surface coating and cannot be recognized by either the roughening of the surface or the powdery deposit. Instead, closer inspection will
reveal the paint or plating is lifted off the surface in small blisters which result from the pressure of the underlying accumulation of corrosion
products.
Surface corrosion is a fairly uniform corrosion attack, which slowly reduces the cross-section of the metal. It is, possibly, the least damaging
form of corrosion. A mild attack may result in only general etching of an area, whilst a heavier attack may produce deposits which depend
on the type of metal that is being attacked.
`Pure' aluminium, stainless steel and copper have more resistance to surface corrosion than aluminium alloy, magnesium alloy and non-
stainless steels. This type of corrosion only becomes serious over a period of time and gives a warning of worse corrosion to follow.
Filiform corrosion gives the appearance of a series of small worms under the paint surface. It is often seen on surfaces that have been
improperly chemically treated prior to painting (figure 4.5)
Figure 4.5 Filliform corrosion
Airframe Powerplant
17
Filiform corrosion occurs beneath thin, protective coatings, on aluminium and steel alloys, with the paint or coating often bulging or
blistering. On aircraft structures, the attack often starts at fasteners and extends as thread-like lines of corrosion under the paint. It may not
be readily visible until it has become quite severe. The damage tends to be very shallow and is not, usually, structurally dangerous.
The thread-like bulges appearing under paint surfaces, usually originating at a fastener, are often referred to as `worm-casts'.
Symptoms : paint bulging and longitudinal propagation of blisters on surface.
Cause : paint damage.
Prevention : corrosion resistant primer, restoration of paint system.
Intergranular Corrosion
This type of corrosion is an attack along the grain boundaries of an alloy and commonly results from a lack of uniformity in the alloy
structure. Aluminum alloys and some stainless steels are particularly susceptible to this form of electrochemical attack. [Figure 4.6] The lack
of uniformity is caused by changes that occur in the alloy during heating and cooling during the material’s manufacturing process.
Intergranular corrosion may exist without visible surface evidence.
Symptoms : normally only perceived by cracking
Causes : chemical action along grain boundaries within the material. Differenceof electrical potential between grain and grain
boundaries.
Prevention : material selection and protective treatment
This corrosion is also known as Inter-crystalline corrosion, and results from micro-galvanic cells at the grain boundaries in the metal.
Very severe intergranular corrosion may sometimes cause the surface of a metal to “exfoliate”.
Airframe Powerplant
18
Figure 4.6 Intergranular corrosion of 7075-T6 aluminium to steel fastener
Figure 4.7 Exfoliation corrosion
Airframe Powerplant
19
[Figure 4.7] This is a lifting or flaking of the metal at the surface due to delamination of the grain boundaries caused by the pressure of
corrosion residual product buildup. This type of corrosion is difficult to detect in its initial stage. Extruded components such as spars can be
subject to this type of corrosion. Ultrasonic and eddy current inspection methods are being used with a great deal of success.
Corrosion progresses from the metal surface in narrow pathways along grain boundaries, often penetrating quite deeply and having a
serious, mechanical weakening effect. The amount of metal corroded is small, relative to the volume of metal affected.
Indications of the damage may NOT be visible to the naked eye. Intergranular corrosion may often be detected by ultrasonic, eddy current
or radiographic inspection procedures.
Poor or incorrect heat treatment is often a cause. This type of corrosion is one of the most insidious, and rectification is usually by
replacement of the part.
Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation (or layer) corrosion, of certain wrought aluminium alloys, is a form of intergranular corrosion in which the attack occurs in layers
parallel to the surface.
The wedging action, of the corrosion products, occupies a larger volume than the alloy, and will cause lifting of the metal surface, causing it
to 'exfoliate'. This occurs at an early stage, when the corrosion is on, or just below, the surface.
Exfoliation corrosion often attacks 7000 series aluminium alloys (those with an appreciable amount of Zinc). When the corrosion occurs well
below the surface, extensive damage can occur before the surface deformation is apparent. It is often a result of intergranular corrosion,
which has been allowed to progress.
The separation of layers of the metal is as a result of the corrosion products requiring more volume than the metal from which it originated.
Spars, stringers and other high-strength parts, which are extruded or hot rolled, are often (because the grains tend to form in layers)
susceptible to this kind of corrosion if they have been poorly heat-treated.
Airframe Powerplant
20
Symptoms : flaking and loss of metal thickness
Causes : swelling and flaking at grain ends exposed by machining
Prevention : pre-heat treatment and material selection
Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion (figure 4.8) occurs as the result of the combined effect of sustained tensile stresses and a corrosive environment. Stress
corrosion cracking is found in most metal systems; however, it is particularly characteristic of aluminum, copper, certain stainless steels, and
high strength alloy steels (over 240,000 psi). It usually occurs along lines of cold working and may be transgranular or intergranular in
nature. Aluminum alloy bellcranks with pressed in bushings, landing gear shock struts with pipe thread type grease fittings, clevis pin joints,
shrink fits, and overstressed tubing B-nuts are examples of parts which are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
Figure 4.8 Stress corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking is a cracking process, caused by the combined action of a sustained tensile stress and a corrosive environment.
Only certain combinations of alloys and environments result in stress corrosion cracking, although this type of failure may occur at stresses
Airframe Powerplant
21
well below the yield strength of the alloys. Many of the high-strength structural alloys, used in aircraft, are prone to stress corrosion cracking
in a wide range of environments and they are particularly susceptible in marine environments.
In aircraft alloys, the principal stresses, causing this stress corrosion cracking, are not the applied service loads, but the stresses developed
within the metal during manufacture and during assembly. For example, internal stresses can arise from quenching after heat-treatment,
from `force fits', from badly mating parts, or from welding procedures. Service stresses are only significant when they act in the same
direction as internal or assembly stresses.
Stress corrosion cracking has three distinct phases in that there is an initial 'Incubation' period,(when a stress corrosion crack starts from
pitting or film breakdown). The incubation is followed by a period of 'Slow Growth' of the stress concentrations and culminates in a short,
'Rapid Crack-Growth' rate.
In highly stressed parts (e.g. landing gear components), cracks may originate from a stress raiser such as a scratch or surface corrosion. This
problem is characteristic of aluminium, copper, stainless steels and high-strength alloy steels and may occur along lines of cold working.
Signs of stress corrosion are given by minute cracks radiating from areas of the greatest stress concentration. Likely areas for this type of
corrosion are shock absorbers, bell-cranks with pressedin bushes, or other areas where parts are a force fit, highly stressed or have residual
stresses induced during the forming process.
Symptoms : normally only perceived by cracking with fast crack propagation leaving bare metal subject to corrosion
Cause : residual stress from manufacturing process or stress concentrations due to design features
Prevention : material selection and handling care, detail design and assembly techniques, back ground surface protection
Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion (figure 4.9) is a particularly damaging form of corrosive attack that occurs when two mating surfaces, normally at rest with
respect to one another, are subject to slight relative motion. It is characterized by pitting of the surfaces and the generation of considerable
Airframe Powerplant
22
quantities of finely divided debris. Since the restricted movements of the two surfaces prevent the debris from escaping very easily, an
extremely localized abrasion occurs. The presence of water vapor greatly increases this type of deterioration. If the contact areas are small
and sharp, deep grooves resembling brinell markings or pressure indentations may be worn in the rubbing surface.
Figure 4.9 Fretting corrosion
As a result, this type of corrosion (on bearing surfaces) has also been called false brinelling.
Fretting corrosion is the result of rubbing movement between two heavily loaded surfaces, one, or both, of which are metallic. The rubbing
action destroys any natural protective film and also removes particles of metal from the surface. In its early stages, the debris of this
corrosion forms a black powder (sometimes called 'cocoa powder'). These particles form an abrasive compound, which aggravates the
effect of the rubbing action and the surface is continually removed to expose fresh metal to the corrosive attack. This form of attack can
eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure.
The most likely areas affected are gears, screw jacks, loose panels, splined hydraulic pump drives and rivets (when they become loose).It
may be serious enough to cause cracking and fatigue failure.
Airframe Powerplant
23
Symptoms : destruction of natural protective film over large surfaces and loss of metal from surface followed by dark coloured
oxidation.
Causes : abrasion of metal under load in humid environmental onditions
Prevention : detail design and protective treatment, material selection
Crevice Corrosion
Crevices (figure 4.10) are liable to preferential attack, usually by a differential aeration form of corrosion, intensified by the high ratio of
cathode to anode area involved. The attack is more severe where crevices collect dust and moisture.
Figure 4.10 Crevice corrosion
Severe localized corrosion occurs at narrow openings or gaps between metal components, often due to flexing. Corrosive agents are able to
penetrate into the joint. Localized corrosion of a metal or alloy surface at, or immediately adjacent to, an area that is shielded from full
exposure to the environment because of close proximity of the metal or alloy to the surface of another material or an adjacent surface of the
same metal or alloy.
Symptoms : severe local corrosion along laying surface
Airframe Powerplant
24
Cause : penetration of oxygen in corrosive agent into a joint, (due to flexing).
Prevention : efficient sealing of faying surfaces from corrosive substances.
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion (figure 4.11) can occur on aircraft materials when the protective film, whether applied or natural, breaks down locally and
this may also lead to intergranular corrosion. The corrosion often stems from the screening effect of silt, scale or corrosion deposits that
reduce the oxygen concentration at local points on the metal surface, which establishes differential concentration cells.
Figure 4.11 Pitting corrosion
Local rough spots, inclusions, contaminations and lack of homogeneity in the alloy or metal are also possible causes of pitting. In size and
depth, the pits are widely variable and a large number of pits can give a surface a `blotchy' appearance. Aluminium and magnesium alloys,
chromium plated and stainless steels (including nitrided surfaces), are all particularly susceptible to this form of corrosion. Pitting corrosion
Airframe Powerplant
25
of an aluminium alloy component can be detected by the appearance of white powder on the surface of the metal.
Symptoms : holes in metal surface
Cause : halogens ions presnet in attacking electrolyte, (corrosive agent), destroying surface treatment
Prevention : protective treatment
Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue (figure 4.12) is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the combined effect of corrosion and Li fatigue, which can cause
failure of a structural component far quicker than either of those components if they were working alone. It is the mechanical degradation
of a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some form of alternating
stress and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high
strength structural materials like steels, aluminium alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed to
meet the requirements of advancing technology. However, their usefulness depends to a large extent on the extent to which they resist
corrosion fatigue.
Figure 4.12 Corrosion fatique
Airframe Powerplant
26
In normal fatigue testing of smooth specimens, about 90% of the life is spent in crack nucleation and only the remaining 10 % in crack
propagation. However, in corrosion fatigue, crack nucleation is facilitated by corrosion and typically about 10 %of life is sufficient for this
stage. The rest, 90 % of life is spent in crack propagation. Thus it is much more informative to evaluate the crack propagation behavior
during corrosion fatigue.
Microbiological Contamination
This is caused, directly or indirectly (and in one or more ways), by micro-organisms which are not only able to produce corrosive substances
(such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and inorganic acids), but can also act as depolarizers or catalysts in corrosion reactions. Local
depletion of oxygen and water, held in contact with a metal surface, by matted fungi and microorganisms, all contribute towards
establishing corrosive environments.
The commonest form of microbiological corrosion (figure 4.13.) in aircraft is that, which is caused by contamination of fuel tanks (unless the
fuel has an additive to protect against it). The growth of the fungi depends on several conditions, but a high ambient temperature can
drastically increase the rate of growth, and especially so when the temperature is above 30°C with a high relative humidity. This
microbiological growth is sometimes called Cladosporium Resinae.
Where fungal growth has formed, there is a probability that corrosion of the tank will occur. The organisms, resembling a mucous, can cause
problems with filters and with the fuel contents gauge units. The roots of the fungus, penetrating the internal sealing and protective
coatings of fuel tanks can cause further problems.
In well-developed contaminations, a dense mat of fungus forms on the floor of the tank, retaining water and preventing free flow to the
water drain valve. In integral fuel tanks, this can result in serious corrosion of the aircraft structure such that penetration of the bottom wing
skin has been known to occur.
Spillage, of organic materials, from around galley and toilet areas, provides a further source of microbial contamination.
There is evidence that such spillage can be more corrosive than its chemical composition (acidity and chloride content) possibly due to
Airframe Powerplant
27
fermentation by yeast and bacteria.
Figure 4.13 Microbiological contamination
Symptoms : local surface attack or formation of deposits sucah as fungi
Cause : growth of micro-organism in moisture traps
Prevention : detail design, protective treatment and assembly techniques, use of inhibitors in primers, etc.
CORROSION PRONE AREAS
Discussed briefly in this section are most of the trouble areas common to all aircraft. However, this coverage is not necessarily complete and
may be amplified and expanded to cover the special characteristics of the particular aircraft model involved by referring to the applicable
maintenance manual.
Exhaust Trail Areas
Both jet and reciprocating engine exhaust deposits are very corrosive and give particular trouble where gaps, seams, hinges, and fairings are
located downstream from the exhaust pipes or nozzles.
Airframe Powerplant
28
Deposits may be trapped and not reached by normal cleaning methods. Pay special attention to areas around rivet heads and in skin lap
joints and other crevices. Remove and inspect fairings and access plates in the exhaust areas. Do not overlook exhaust deposit buildup in
remote areas, such as the empennage surfaces. Buildup in these areas will be slower and may not be noticed until corrosive damage has
begun.
Battery Compartments and Battery Vent Openings
Despite improvements in protective paint finishes and in methods of sealing and venting, battery compartments continue to be corrosion
prone areas. Fumes from overheated electrolyte are difficult to contain and will spread to adjacent cavities and cause a rapid corrosive
attack on all unprotected metal surfaces.
Battery vent openings on the aircraft skin should be included in the battery compartment inspection and maintenance procedure. Regular
cleaning and neutralization of acid deposits will minimize corrosion from this cause.
Bilge Areas
These are natural sumps for waste hydraulic fluids, water, dirt, and odds and ends of debris. Residual oil quite often masks small quantities
of water that settle to the bottom and set up a hidden chemical cell.
Instead of using chemical treatments for the bilge water, current float manufacturers recommend the diligent maintenance of the internal
coatings applied to the float’s interior during manufacture. In addition to chemical conversion coatings applied to the surface of the sheet
metal and other structural components, and to sealants installed in lap joints during construction, the interior compartments are painted to
protect the bilge areas. When seaplane structures are repaired or restored, this level of corrosion protection must be maintained.
Inspection procedures should include particular attention paid to areas located under galleys and lavatories and to human waste disposal
openings on the aircraft exteriors. Human waste products and the chemicals used in lavatories are very corrosive to common aircraft metals.
Airframe Powerplant
29
Clean these areas frequently and keep the paint touched up.
Wheel Well and Landing Gear
More than any other area on the aircraft, this area probably receives more punishment due to mud, water, salt, gravel, and other flying
debris. Because of the many complicated shapes, assemblies, and fittings, complete area paint film coverage is difficult to attain and
maintain. A partially applied pre-servative tends to mask corrosion rather than prevent it. Due to heat generated by braking action,
preservatives cannot be used on some main landing gear wheels. During inspection of this area, pay particular attention to the following
trouble spots:
1. Magnesium wheels, especially around bolt heads, lugs, and wheel web areas, particularly for the presence of entrapped water or its
effects
2. Exposed rigid tubing, especially at B-nuts and ferrules, under clamps and tubing identification tapes
3. Exposed position indicator switches and other electrical equipment
4. Crevices between stiffeners, ribs, and lower skin surfaces, which are typical water and debris traps
Water Entrapment Areas
Design specifications require that aircraft have drains installed in all areas where water may collect. Daily inspection of low point drains
should be a standard requirement. If this inspection is neglected, the drains may become ineffective because of accumulated debris, grease,
or sealants.
Airframe Powerplant
30
Engine Frontal Areas and Cooling Air Vents
These areas are being constantly abraded with air-borne dirt and dust, bits of gravel from runways, and rain erosion, which tends to remove
the protective finish. Inspection of these areas should include all sections in the cooling air path, with special attention to places where salt
deposits may be built up during marine operations. It is imperative that incipient corrosion be inhibited and that paint touchup and hard
film preservative coatings are maintained intact on seaplane and amphibian engine surfaces at all times.
Wing Flap and Spoiler Recesses
Dirt and water may collect in flap and spoiler recesses and go unnoticed because they are normally retracted. For this reason, these recesses
are potential corrosion problem areas. Inspect these areas with the spoilers and/or flaps in the fully deployed position.External Skin
AreasExternal aircraft surfaces are readily visible and accessible for inspection and maintenance. Even here, certain types of configurations
or combinations of materials become troublesome under certain operat-ing conditions and require special attention.
Airframe Powerplant
31
COMMON METALS AND CORROSION PRODUCTS
Conditions Contributing to General Corrosion
General corrosion is the process whereby the surface of a metal undergoes a slow, relatively uniform, removal of material. The two
conditions typically required for a metal to undergo general corrosion are:
1) Metal and water in the same environment, and
2) A chemical reaction between the metal and water that forms an oxide.
Figure 4.14 Magnesium corrosion
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosion products whenever they occur. The following brief
descriptions are of typical corrosion products, common to materials used in aircraft construction.
Airframe Powerplant
32
Iron and Steel
The most common, and easily recognizable, form of corrosion is red rust. The initial oxide film, formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin
and invisible. In the presence of water, or in a damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (industrial atmosphere) or salt (marine
environment) is present, thick layers of hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour from brown to black. Rust promotes further
corrosion by retaining salts and water. Mill scale (a type of oxide formed at high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an
electrolytic cell with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed only by abrasive blasting or by immersion in rust-removing
solutions.
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not adversely affect the operational integrity of the equipment. Its
appearance is an indication that adequate maintenance procedures have not been followed.
Corrosion is a galvanic process by which metals deteriorate through oxidation—usually but not always to their oxides. For example, when
exposed to air, iron rusts, silver tarnishes, and copper and brass acquire a bluish-green surface called a patina. Of the various metals subject
to corrosion, iron is by far the most important commercially.
An estimated $100 billion per year is spent in the United States alone to replace iron-containing objects destroyed by corrosion.
Consequently, the development of methods for protecting metal surfaces from corrosion constitutes a very active area of industrial
research. In this section, we describe some of the chemical and electrochemical processes responsible for corrosion. We also examine the
chemical basis for some common methods for preventing corrosion and treating corroded metals.
Under ambient conditions, the oxidation of most metals is thermodynamically spontaneous, with the notable exception of gold and
platinum. Hence it is actually somewhat surprising that any metals are useful at all in Earth’s moist, oxygen-rich atmosphere. Some metals,
however, are resistant to corrosion for kinetic reasons. For example, aluminum in soft-drink cans and airplanes is protected by a thin coating
of metal oxide that forms on the surface of the metal and acts as an impenetrable barrier that prevents further destruction. Aluminum cans
also have a thin plastic layer to prevent reaction of the oxide with acid in the soft drink. Chromium, magnesium, and nickel also form
protective oxide films. Stainless steels are remarkably resistant to corrosion because they usually contain a significant proportion of
chromium, nickel, or both.
Airframe Powerplant
33
In contrast to these metals, when iron corrodes, it forms a red-brown hydrated metal oxide (Fe2O3·xH2O), commonly known as rust, that
does not provide a tight protective film. Instead, the rust continually flakes off to expose a fresh metal surface vulnerable to reaction with
oxygen and water. Because both oxygen and water are required for rust to form, an iron nail immersed in deoxygenated water will not
rust—even over a period of several weeks. Similarly, a nail immersed in an organic solvent such as kerosene or mineral oil saturated with
oxygen will not rust because of the absence of water.
The iron (Fe) forms the anode of the cell, and is oxidized into ions (Fe") that dissolve into the acid. At the surface of the copper plate (the
cathode), a balancing reaction occurs. The electrons, formed in the anode, are conducted around the circuit and meet with positively
charged hydrogen ions at the cathode, to give off hydrogen gas. The driving force of this cell is the difference in galvanic potential between
the two metals (iron and copper). The metal of lower potential (the anode) in such a cell is oxidized or corroded. The 'products' of that
corrosion is Iron Hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) more commonly known as 'rust'.
Similar electrochemical corrosion processes, with balancing anodic and cathodic reactions, occur in neutral (non-acidic) electrolytes such as
Airframe Powerplant
34
water. The anodic reaction will involve oxidation (corrosion) of the metal with the lower galvanic potential, but the cathodic reaction will,
usually, be the reduction of oxygen dissolved in the electrolyte.
Aluminium Alloys
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It may vary from general etching of the surface, to the localized,
intergranular attack, characteristics of some strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion products are white to grey and
are powdery when dry. Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive blasting, or by chemical methods. In general, pure
aluminium sheet and Àlclad' surfaces have good corrosion resistance, except in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its
alloys need protection and high-strength aluminium alloys are always given a substantial protective treatment.
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are white and voluminous, compared to the base metal. When the failure of protective coatings on
magnesium alloys occurs, the corrosive attack tends to be severe in the exposed areas, and may penetrate totally through a magnesium
structure in a very short time. Any corrosion, on magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to high-strength
aluminium alloys, the strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not suffer intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces
of Magnesium Alloys.
Magnesium is the most chemically active of the metals used in aircraft construction and is the most difficult to protect. When a failure in the
protective coating does occur, the prompt and complete correction of the coating failure is imperative if serious structural damage is to be
avoided. Magnesium attack is prob-ably the easiest type of corrosion to detect in its early stages, since magnesium corrosion products
occupy several times the volume of the original magnesium metal destroyed. The beginning of attack shows as a lifting of the paint films
and white spots on the magnesium surface. These rapidly develop into snow-like mounds or even “white whiskers.” [Figure 4.14] Re-
protection involves the removal of corrosion products, the partial restoration of surface coatings by chemical treatment, and a reapplication
Airframe Powerplant
35
of protective coatings.
The corrosion products are removed from magnesium alloys by the use of chromic/sulphur acid solutions (not the phosphoric acid types),
brushed well into the affected areas. Clean, cold water is employed to flush the solution away and the dried area can, again, be protected,
by the use of Alocrom 1200 or a similar, approved, compound.
Titanium
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals to avoid dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material.
Titanium alloys can suffer stress corrosion at temperatures above 300°C when in the presence of salt and fatigue cracks can develop more
quickly in a saline atmosphere. Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all temperatures above ambient
(as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than approximately 120°C)). Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto the
titanium or if cadmium-plated steel parts (and cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with titanium. Great care must be taken to
ensure that these conditions never occur if at all possible.
Copper Alloys
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion. Tarnishing has no serious consequences in most applications (apart from electrical
resistance increase). Long-term exposure to industrial or marine atmospheres gives rise to the formation of the blue-green patina (aerugo or
verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can suffer selective removal of zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft construction, copper-based
alloys are frequently cadmium-plated, to prevent dissimilar metal corrosion.
Cadmium and Zinc
Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are applied. Both confer sacrificial protection on the underlying
Airframe Powerplant
36
metal. Cadmium is normally chosen for use in the aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe corrosive conditions such as in marine
and tropical environments. Both metals produce white corrosion products.
Nickel and Chromium
Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used for its wear-resistance. Both metals protect steel only by
excluding the corrosive atmosphere. The degree of protection is proportional to the thickness of the coating. Once the underlying steel is
exposed (through loss of the coating, due to abrasion or other damage), then the coatings actually accelerate the rusting, due to the fact
that the steel is more anodic than the protective coating.
Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in industrial and marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green
corrosion product.
Ferrous Metals
One of the most familiar types of corrosion is ferrous oxide (rust), generally resulting from atmospheric oxidation of steel surfaces. Some
metal oxides protect the underlying base metal, but rust is not a protective coating in any sense of the word.
Its presence actually promotes additional attack by attracting moisture from the air and acting as a catalyst for additional corrosion. If
complete control of the corrosive attack is to be realized, all rust must be removed from steel surfaces.
Rust first appears on bolt heads, hold-down nuts, or other unprotected aircraft hardware. [Figure 4.15] Its presence in these areas is
generally not dangerous and has no immediate effect on the structural strength of any major components. The residue from the rust may
also contaminate other ferrous components, promoting corrosion of those parts. The rust is indicative of a need for maintenance and of
possible corrosive attack in more critical areas. It is also a factor in the general appearance of the equipment. When paint failures occur or
mechanical damage exposes highly stressed steel surfaces to the atmosphere, even the smallest amount of rusting is potentially dangerous
Airframe Powerplant
37
in these areas and must be removed and controlled.
Figure 4.15 Rust
Atmospheric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous oxide rust to be deposited. Some metal oxides protect the underlying base
metal, but rust promotes additional attack by attracting moisture and must be removed.
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any un-protected hardware. Its presence is not immediately dangerous, but it will indicate a need for
maintenance and will suggest possible further corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most practical means of controlling the corrosion
of steel is the complete removal of corrosion products by mechanical means.
Abrasive papers, power buffers, wire brushes and steel wool are all acceptable methods of removing rust on lightly stressed areas. Residual
rust usually remains in pits and crevices. Some (dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be used to neutralize oxidation and to convertactive
rust to phosphates, but they are not particularly effective on installed components.
The most practicable means of controlling the corrosion of steel is the complete removal of corrosion products by mechanical means and
restoring corrosion preventive coatings. Except on highly stressed steel surfaces, the use of abrasive papers and compounds, small power
buffers and buffing compounds, hand wire brushing, or steel wool are all acceptable cleanup procedures.
However, it should be recognized that in any such use of abrasives, residual rust usually remains in the bottom of small pits and other
Airframe Powerplant
38
crevices. It is practically impossible to remove all corrosion products by abrasive or polishing methods alone. As a result, once a part cleaned
in such a manner has rusted, it usually corrodes again more easily than it did the first time
High-Stressed Steel Components
Corrosion on these components may be dangerous and should be removed carefully with mild abrasive papers or fine buffing compounds.
Care should be taken not to overheat parts during corrosion removal. Protective finishes should be re-applied immediately.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Corrosion attack, on aluminium surfaces, gives obvious indications, since the products are white and voluminous. Even in its early stages,
aluminium corrosion is evident as general etching, pitting or roughness.
Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which provides a hard shell that, in turn, may form a barrier to corrosive elements. This
must not be confused with the more serious forms of corrosion. Corrosion on aluminum surfaces is usually quite obvious, since the products
of corrosion are white and generally more voluminous than the original base metal. Even in its early stages, aluminum corrosion is evident
as general etching, pitting, or roughness of the aluminum surfaces.
NOTE:
Aluminum alloys commonly form a smooth surface oxidation that is from 0.001 to 0.0025 inch thick. This is not considered detrimental; the
coat-ing provides a hard shell barrier to the introduction of corrosive elements. Such oxidation is not to be confused with the severe
corrosion discussed in this paragraph.
General surface attack penetrates slowly, but is speeded up in the presence of dissolved salts. Considerable attack can take place before
serious loss of strength occurs. Three forms of attack, which are particularly serious, are:
Penetrating pit-type corrosion through the walls of tubing.
Airframe Powerplant
39
Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress.

Intergranular attack characteristic of certain improperly heat treated alloys.
In general, corrosion of aluminum can be more effectively treated in place compared to corrosion occurring on other structural materials
used in aircraft. Treatment includes the mechanical removal of as much of the corrosion products as practicable, and the inhibition of
residual materials by chemical means, followed by the restoration of permanent surface coatings.
Alclad
Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of the protective aluminium layer by mechanical methods, as the core alloy
metal may be exposed, therefore, where heavy corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it must be removed by chemical methods
wherever possible.
Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate remover (usually a phosphoric-acid based fluid) applied, normally with the use
of a stiff bristled brush, to the corroded surface, until all corrosion products have been removed.
Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be used to flood the area and remove all traces of the acid, and then the surface should be
dried thoroughly.
Note:
A method of checking that the protective aluminium coating remains intact is by the application of one drop of diluted caustic soda to the
cleaned area. If the Alclad has been removed, the aluminium alloy core will show as a black stain, whereas, if the cladding is intact, the
caustic soda will cause a white stain.
Since the caustic soda is corrosive, and will promote corrosion, it must be neutralized with a solution of water and chromic anhydride. The
surface must be protected by applying a chromate conversion coating (such as Alocrom 1200 or similar) to the surface.
Further surface protection may be given by a coat of suitable primer, followed by the approved top coat of paint.
Airframe Powerplant
40
Cladding
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad) has already been discussed, as has the problem associated with the
cladding becoming damaged, exposing the core, and the resulting corrosion of the core alloy.
Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will corrode most metals used in the construction of aircraft. They
will also destroy wood and most other fabrics. Correct Health and Safety procedures must be followed when working with such spillages.
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays should be well ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be
treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is required of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as early as possible) the signs of
acid spillage. The correct procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as follows:
Airframe Powerplant
41
Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to spread the acid.
If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care that electrical equipment is suitably protected from the
water.
If flooding is not practical, neutralize the area with a 10% (by weight) solution of bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with
water.
Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.
Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if acid has been cleaned up.
Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or plated finish and signs of corrosion, especially where
the paint may have been damaged.
Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as appropriate.
Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-Fe) type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of
Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate). The compartments of these batteries should also be painted with anti-corrosive paint and
adequate ventilation is as important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper Health and Safety procedures are, again, imperative.
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the same basic steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the
exception that the alkali is neutralized with a solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.
Airframe Powerplant
42
Mercury Spillage
WARNING:
Mercury (and its vapour) is extremely toxic. Instances of mercury poisoning must, by law, be reported to the health and
safety executive. All safety precautions relating to the safe handling of mercury must be strictly followed.
Mercury contamination is far more serious than any of the battery spillages and prompt action is required to ensure the integrity of the
aircraft structure.
While contamination from mercury is extremely rare on passenger aircraft, sources of mercury spillage result from the breakage of (or
leakage from) containers, instruments, switches and certain test equipment. The spilled mercury can, quickly, separate into small globules,
which have the capability of flowing (hence its name 'Quick Silver') into the tiniest of crevices, to create damage.
Mercury can rapidly attack bare light alloys (it forms an amalgam with metals), causing intergranular penetration and embrittlement which
can start cracks and accelerate powder propagation, resulting in a potentially catastrophic weakening of the aircraft structure.
Signs of mercury attack on aluminium alloys are grayish powder, whiskery growths, or fuzzy deposits. If mercury corrosion is found, or
suspected, then it must be assumed that intergranular penetration has occurred and the structural strength is impaired. The metal in that
area should be removed and the area repaired in accordance with manufacturer's instructions.
Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the following operation:
Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:
Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up
Airframe Powerplant
43
Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).
Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
Calcium polysulphide paste.
Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
Neutralise the spillage area, using 'Flowers of Sulphur'.
Try to remove evidence of corrosion.
The area should be further checked, using radiography, to establish that all globules have been removed and to check extent of
corrosion damage.
Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts found contaminated should be removed and replaced.
Note:
Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted panels, in an attempt to clean contaminated surfaces) must be discarded after use.
Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be necessary on any airframe that has suffered mercury contamination.
These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the component, as distinct from coatings, which may be renewed as a routine
servicing operation. They give better adhesion for paint and most resist corrosive attack better than the metal to which they are applied.
Airframe Powerplant
44
LOCATIONS OF CORROSION IN AIRCRAFT
Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than others. The rate of deterioration varies widely with aircraft design, build,
operational use and environment. External surfaces are open to inspection and are usually protected by paint. Magnesium and aluminium
alloy surfaces are particularly susceptible to corrosion along rivet lines, lap joints, fasteners, faying surfaces and where protective coatings
have been damaged or neglected.
Corrosion prone areas
Discussed briefly in this section are most of the trouble areas common to all aircraft. However, this coverage is not necessarily complete and
may be amplified and expanded to cover the special characteristics of the particular aircraft model involved by referring to the applicable
maintenance manual.
Exhaust Trail Areas
Fairings, located in the path of the exhaust gases of gas turbine and piston engines, are subject to highly corrosive influences. This is
particularly so where exhaust deposits may be trapped in fissures, crevices, seams or hinges. Such deposits are difficult to remove by
ordinary cleaning methods.
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be removed for cleaning and examination. All fairings, in other exhaust areas,
should also be thoroughly cleaned and inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be applied to critical areas, to facilitate easier
removal of deposits at a later date, and to reduce the corrosive effects of these deposits. Both jet and reciprocating engine exhaust deposits
are very corrosive and give particular trouble where gaps, seams, hinges, and fairings are located downstream from the exhaust pipes or
nozzles.
Deposits may be trapped and not reached by normal cleaning methods. Pay special attention to areas around rivet heads and in skin lap
Airframe Powerplant
45
joints and other crevices. Remove and inspect fairings and access plates in the exhaust areas. Do not overlook exhaust deposit buildup in
remote areas, such as the empennage surfaces. Buildup in these areas will be slower and may not be noticed until corrosive damage has
begun.
Battery Compartments and Battery Vent Openings
Despite improvements in protective paint finishes and in methods of sealing and venting, battery compartments continue to be corrosion
prone areas. Fumes from overheated electrolyte are difficult to contain and will spread to adjacent cavities and cause a rapid corrosive
attack on all unprotected metal surfaces. Battery vent openings on the aircraft skin should be included in the battery compartment
inspection and maintenance procedure. Regular cleaning and neutralization of acid deposits will minimize corrosion from this cause.
Electrical Equipment
Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the corrosion in battery compartments. Spray, from electrolyte, spreads to
adjacent cavities and causes rapid attack on unprotected surfaces. Inspection should also be extended to all vent systems associated with
battery bays.
Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive to the effects of corrosion and need close inspection.
Bilge Areas
These are natural sumps for waste hydraulic fluids, water, dirt, and odds and ends of debris. Residual oil quite often masks small quantities
of water that settle to the bottom and set up a hidden chemical cell.
Although specifications call for drains wherever water is likely to collect, these drains can become blocked by debris, such as sealant or
grease. Inspection of these drains must be frequent. Any areas beneath galleys and toilet/wash-rooms must be very carefully inspected for
Airframe Powerplant
46
corrosion, as these are usually the worst places in the whole airframe for severe corrosion. The protection in these areas must also be
carefully inspected and renewed if necessary. Instead of using chemical treatments for the bilge water, current float manufacturers
recommend the diligent maintenance of the internal coatings applied to the float’s interior during manufacture. In addition to chemical
conversion coatings applied to the surface of the sheet metal and other structural components, and to sealants installed in lap joints during
construction, the interior compartments are painted to protect the bilge areas. When seaplane structures are repaired or restored, this level
of corrosion protection must be maintained.
Inspection procedures should include particular attention paid to areas located under galleys and lavatories and to human waste disposal
openings on the aircraft exteriors. Human waste products and the chemicals used in lavatories are very corrosive to common aircraft metals.
Clean these areas frequently and keep the paint touched up.
Wheel Well and Landing Gear
Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water and gravel, and require frequent cleaning and touching-up. Careful inspection
should be given to crevices, ribs and lower-skin surfaces, where debris can lodge. Landing gear assemblies should be examined, paying
particular attention to magnesium alloy wheels, paintwork, bearings, exposed switches and electrical equipment.
Frequent cleaning, water-dispersing treatment and re-lubrication will be required, whilst ensuring that bearings are not contaminated,
either with the cleaning water or with the water-dispersing fluids, used when re-lubricating.
More than any other area on the aircraft, this area probably receives more punishment due to mud, water, salt, gravel, and other flying
debris. Because of the many complicated shapes, assemblies, and fittings, complete area paint film coverage is difficult to attain and
maintain. A partially applied pre-servative tends to mask corrosion rather than prevent it. Due to heat generated by braking action,
preservatives cannot be used on some main landing gear wheels. During inspection of this area, pay particular attention to the following
trouble spots:
Airframe Powerplant
47
1. Magnesium wheels, especially around bolt heads, lugs, and wheel web areas, particularly for the presence of entrapped water or its
effects
2. Exposed rigid tubing, especially at B-nuts and ferrules, under clamps and tubing identification tapes
3. Exposed position indicator switches and other electrical equipment
4. Crevices between stiffeners, ribs, and lower skin surfaces, which are typical water and debris traps
Water Entrapment Areas
Design specifications require that aircraft have drains installed in all areas where water may collect. Daily inspection of low point drains
should be a standard requirement. If this inspection is neglected, the drains may become ineffective because of accumulated debris, grease,
or sealants.
Engine Frontal Areas and Cooling Air Vents
These areas are being constantly abraded with air-borne dirt and dust, bits of gravel from runways, and rain erosion, which tends to remove
the protective finish. Inspection of these areas should include all sections in the cooling air path, with special attention to places where salt
deposits may be built up during marine operations. It is imperative that incipient corrosion be inhibited and that paint touchup and hard
film preservative coatings are maintained intact on seaplane and amphibian engine surfaces at all times.
The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by dust and eroded by rain. Heat-exchanger cores and cooling fins may also be
vulnerable to corrosion. Special attention should be given, particularly in a corrosive environment, to obstructions and crevices in the path
of cooling air. These must be treated as soon as is practical.
Airframe Powerplant
48
Wing Flap and Spoiler Recesses
Dirt and water may collect in flap and spoiler recesses and go unnoticed because they are normally retracted. For this reason, these recesses
are potential corrosion problem areas. Inspect these areas with the spoilers and/or flaps in the fully deployed position.
Potential corrosion areas are found at flap and speed-brake recesses, where water and dirt may collect and go unnoticed, because the
moveable parts are normally in the `closed' position. If these items are left òpen', when the aircraft is parked, they may collect salt, from the
atmosphere, or debris, which may be blowing about on the airfield. Thorough inspection of the components and their associated stowage
bays, is required at regular intervals.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar metal corrosion, between the steel pins and the aluminium tangs. Seizure can
also occur, at the hinges of access doors and panels that are seldom used.
External Skin Areas
External aircraft surfaces are readily visible and accessible for inspection and maintenance. Even here, certain types of configurations or
combinations of materials become troublesome under certain operating conditions and require special attention.
Magnesium Alloy Skins
These give little trouble, providing the protective surface finishes are undamaged and well maintained. Following maintenance work, such
as riveting and drilling, it is impossible to completely protect the skin to the original specification. All magnesium alloy skin areas must be
thoroughly and regularly inspected, with special emphasis on edge locations, fasteners and paint finishes.
Relatively little corrosion trouble is experienced with magnesium skins if the original surface finish and insulation are adequately
maintained. Trimming, drilling, and riveting destroy some of the original surface treatment, which is never completely restored by touchup
procedures.
Airframe Powerplant
49
Figure 4.16 Piano hinge
Any inspection for corrosion should include all magnesium skin surfaces with special attention to edges, areas around fasteners, and
cracked, chipped, or missing paint.
Piano-type hinges (figure 4.16) are prime spots for corrosion due to the dissimilar metal contact between the steel pin and aluminum hinge.
They are also natural traps for dirt, salt, and moisture. Inspection of hinges should include lubrication and actuation through several cycles
to ensure complete lubricant penetration. Use water-displacing lubricants when servicing piano hinges.
Aluminium Alloy Skins
The most vulnerable skins are those which have been integrally machined, usually in main-plane structures. Due to the alloys and to the
manufacturing processes used, they can be susceptible to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion. Small bumps or raised areas under the
paint sometimes indicate exfoliation of the actual metal. Treatment requires removal of all exfoliated metal followed by blending and
restoration of the finish.
Corrosion of metal skins joined by spot welding is the result of the entrance and entrapment of corrosive agents between the layers of
metal. This type of corrosion is evidenced by corrosion products appearing at the crevices through which the corrosive agents enter. More
advanced corrosive attack causes skin buckling and eventual spot weld fracture. Skin buckling in its early stages may be detected by
Airframe Powerplant
50
sighting along spot welded seams or by using a straightedge. The only technique for preventing this condition is to keep potential moisture
entry points, including seams and holes created by broken spot welds, filled with a seal-ant or a suitable preservative compound.
Spot-Welded Skins and Sandwich Constructions
Corrosive agents may become trapped between the metal layers of spot-welded skins and moisture, entering the seams, may set up
electrolytic corrosion that eventually corrodes the spot-welds, or causes the skin to bulge. Generally, spot-welding is not considered good
practice on aircraft structures.
Cavities, gaps, punctures or damaged places in honeycomb sandwich panels should be sealed to exclude water or dirt. Water should not be
permitted to accumulate in the structure adjacent to sandwich panels. Inspection of honeycomb sandwich panels and box structures is
difficult and generally requires that the structure be dismantled.
Miscellaneous Trouble Areas
Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can, over a period of time, lead to mechanical problems and system failure.
Corrosion-resistant cables can also be affected by corrosive, marine environments.
Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should result in a thorough inspection of the internal strands and, if any damage is
found, the cable should be rejected.
Cables should be carefully inspected, in the vicinity of bell-cranks, sheaves and in other places where the cables flex, as there is more chance
of corrosion getting inside the cables when the strands are moving around (or being moved by) these items
Helicopter rotor heads and gearboxes, in addition to being constantly exposed to the elements, contain bare steel surfaces, many external
working parts, and dissimilar metal contacts. Inspect these areas frequently for evidence of corrosion. The proper maintenance, lubrication,
and the use of preservative coatings can prevent corrosion in these areas.
Airframe Powerplant
51
All control cables, whether plain carbon steel or corrosion resistant steel, should be inspected to determine their condition at each
inspection period. In this pro-cess, inspect cables for corrosion by random cleaning of short sections with solvent soaked cloths. If external
corrosion is evident, relieve tension and check the cable for internal corrosion. Replace cables that have internal corrosion. Remove light
external corrosion with a nonwoven abrasive pad lightly soaked in oil or, alternatively, a steel wire brush. When corrosion products have
been removed, recoat the cable with preservative.
Airframe Powerplant
52
Module 6
6.5 Fasteners
Airframe Powerplant
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
Airframe Powerplant
2
INTRODUCTION
The importance of aircraft hardware is often overlooked because of the small size of most items. However, the safe and efficient operation
of any aircraft depends upon the correct selection and use of aircraft hardware. This chapter discusses the various types of threaded
fasteners, quick-release fasteners, rivets, electrical hardware, and other miscellaneous hardware. You must make sure that items of aircraft
hardware remain tightly secured in the aircraft. Therefore, we will discuss proper safe tying methods in this chapter.
Aircraft hardware is identified for use by its specification number or trade name. Threaded fasteners and rivets are identified by Air Force
Navy (AN),National Aircraft Standard (NAS), and Military Standard (MS) numbers. Quick-release fasteners are identified by factory trade
names and size designations. When aircraft hardware is ordered from supply, the specification numbers and the factory part numbers are
changed into stock numbers (SN). This change is identified by using a part number cross-reference index.
Aircraft hardware is the term used to describe the various types of fasteners and miscellaneous small items used in the manufacture and
repair of aircraft. The importance of aircraft hardware is often overlooked because of its small size; however, the safe and effcient operation
of any aircraft is greatly dependent upon the correct selection and use of aircraft hardware.
An aircraft, even though made of the best materials and strongest parts, would be of doubtful value unless those parts were frmly held
together. Several methods are used to hold metal parts together; they include riveting, bolting, brazing, and welding. The process used
must produce a union that will be as strong as the parts that are joined.
THREADED FASTENERS
In modern aircraft construction, thousands of rivets are used, but many parts require frequent dismantling or replacement. It is more
practical for you to use some form of threaded fastener. Some joints require greater strength and rigidity than can be provided by riveting.
We use various types of bolts, screws, and nuts to solve this problem.
Bolts and screws are similar in that both have ahead at one end and a screw thread at the other. However, there are several differences
Airframe Powerplant
3
between them. The threaded end of a bolt is always relatively blunt. A screw may be either blunt or pointed. The threaded end of a bolt
must be screwed into a nut. The threaded end of the screw may fit into a nut or directly into the material being secured. A bolt has a fairly
short threaded section and a comparatively long grip length (the unthreaded part). A screw may have a longer threaded section and no
clearly defined grip length. A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning a nut. The bolt head may or may not be designed to be turned.
A screw is always designed to be turned by its head. Another minor difference between a screw and a bolt is that a screw is usually made of
lower strength materials. Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened together with all of the strength that unthreaded fasteners provide.
However, unlike rivets and pins, threaded fasteners may be disassembled and reassembled an almost infinite number of times.
Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling or replacement of aircraft parts that must be taken apart and put back together
at frequent intervals. Riveting or welding these parts each time they are serviced would soon weaken or ruin the joint. Further more, some
joints require greater tensile strength and stiffness than rivets can provide. Bolts and screws are two types of fastening devices which give
the required security of attachment and rigidity. Generally, bolts are used where great strength is required, and screws are used where
strength is not the deciding factor.
Due to the large range of different availlable fasteners, great care must be always be taken to select the correct fastener for particullar
installation. Aircraft bolts, nuts, screws and studs are manufactured to the many different International Standards and in a variety of
different thread forms (table).
Common Common
International Standard International Standard
Abbreviation Abbreviation
American National Coarse ANC British Association BA
American National Fine ANF British Standard Fine BSF
Unified National Coarse UNC ISO Metric M
Unified National Fine UNF
Airframe Powerplant
4
Principle of Inclined Plane and Helix
The value of the inclined plane as a means of transmitting motion is well known, a weight is on a slope inclined by torward the horizontal
plane to lift this weight up along the slope, a force more necessary, assuming no friction on the slope.
Incidentally, a screw thread can be defined as an inclined plane winding around the column (figure 5.1) and is equivalent to the inclined
plane. On the contrary, the development of a screw thread is an inclined plane.
Force a constant effort applied in driving a wedge, a smaller angle of inclination between the planes will cause a greater force to be exerted
through a shorter distance. Conversely, a larger angle will cause less force to be exerted through a greater distance.
Figure 5.1 Principle of inclined plane formed a helix
Whilst the inclined plane is generally used as a means of transmitting motion, it must be remembered that the action may be reversed and
the inclined plane can be caused to move when a force is applied to the inclined surface.
This is readily appreciated when the angle is large (and the larger the angle of inclination becomes, then the more readily is the motion
reversed), but no matter how small the angle may be, the resultant of forces applied will still tend to produce movement. Friction between
the surface, may however prevent movement from actually occuring.
Airframe Powerplant
5
When a contiuous inclined plane is cut around the outside (or the inside) of a cylinder, then a spiral, (known as a “HELIX”) is produced. The
helix angle is important in screw threads, because it dictates the number of threads, which can be cut, per axial linear increment (millimeters
or inches) on, or in the cylinder. In a similar manner to the previously mentioned wedges, a thread with a samll helix angle (a fine thread),
will exert greater force than one with a larger helix angle (a coarse thread) for a given cylinder diameter.
Fine threads are normally associated with small and delicate instruments or in equipment, where secore holding power is often required of
miniature sized fasteners. The greater ‘wedging action’ of fine threads also makes them much more dependable in situations where
vibration (or a change of temperature) has the tendency to loosen threaded joints.
Screw thread is often disputed as to the difference between a bolt and a screw, but generally screws differ from bolts in being made from a
lower strength material, having a looser fit and having a slotted or a cruciform recessed head, for rotation by a suitably shaped screwdriver.
The thread is usually continued up to the head, but the shank of ‘structural’ screws has a plain portion and may be used in locations where
shear loading is present. Screw threads are usually formed with a ‘clockwise’ turning groove and are referred to as ‘right-hand’ threads, but
there are occasions where the thread is formed with the groove spiralling in an ‘anti-clockwise’ direction and in this instance, they are
desigmated as ‘left-hand’ threads.
Frequently, it is necessary to identify threaded parts in the field in order to properly select
replacement parts. This can be difficult for those inexperienced with threads. The large
variety of standard and special thread forms in use along with the increasing use of metric
forms makes the identification task even more complicated. After the screw thread is
properly identified, users can easily select a matching screw and nut from gauge’s
inventory. If the thread size is uncommon, gauges’ can help users determine which standard
size would best replace it.
A thread shape can be used to illustrated the terminologies associated with screw threads
(figure 5.2), the actual profile of any thread will be determined by the Standard or Specification to which it is manufactured.
The following terms are used to define the characteristics of a threaded:
Airframe Powerplant
6
Figure 5.2 Screw Thread Terminology
Screw Thread – a ridge or uniform section in the form of a helix on the external or internal surface of a cylinder, or in the form of a
conical spiral on the external or internal surface of a cone.
External thread - A thread formed on the outside member of a work-piece is called external thread e.g., on bolts or studs etc.
Internal thread - A thread formed on the inside of a work-piece is called internal thread e.g. on a nut or female screw gauge.
Major diameter- In case of a straight thread, this is the diameter of the major cylinder (imaginary cylinder, co-axial with the screw,
which just touches the crests of an external thread or the root of an internal thread). It is often referred to as the outside diameter, crest
Airframe Powerplant
7
diameter or full diameter of external threads. Major diameter is the largest diameter of the thread of the screw or nut. Tern ‘major
diameter’ replaces the term ‘outside diameter’ as applied to the thread of a screw and also the term ‘full diamter’ as applied to the
thread of a nut.
Minor diameter - In case of straight thread, this is the diameter of the minor cylinder (an imaginary cylinder, coaxial with the screw
which just touches the roots of an external thread or the crest of an internal thread). It is often referred to as root diameter or cone
diameter of external threads. Minor diameter is the smallest of the thread, measured at right angles of the axis.
Pitch - The pitch of a thread is the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the thread, between corresponding points on adjacent
thread forms in the same axial plane and on the same side of axis.
The basic pitch is equal to the lead divided by the number of thread starts. On drawings of thread sections, the pitch is shown as the
distance from the center of one thread crest to the center of the next, and this representation is correct for single start as well as multi-
start threads.
The pitch is the distance from the center of one crest the center of the next, measured parallel to the axis.
Depth of Thread – The distance between the root and crest, measured at right angles to the axis.
Half Angle of Thread – The angle included between a side of the thread and the normal to the axis, measured in an axial plane.
Angle of thread (Included angle)- This is the angle between the flanks or slope of the thread measured in an axial plane.
The angle included between the sides of the thread measured in an axial plane.
Helix Angle – On straight thread, the helix angle is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the axis. The angle is
measured in an axial plane. The angle made by the helix, or conical spiral, of the thread at a pitch diameter with a plane perpendicular
to the axis.
Airframe Powerplant
8
Crest of thread - This is denned as the prominent part of thread, whether it be external or internal. The surface of the thread
corresponding to the major diameter of the screw and the minor diameter of the nut.
Root of thread- This is defined as the bottom of the groove between the two flanks of the thread, whether it be external or internal.
The surface of the thread corresponding to the minor diameter of the screw and the major diameter of the nut.
Lead- Lead is the axial distance moved by the threaded part, when it is given one complete revolution about its axis with respect to a
fixed mating thread. It is necessary to distinguish between measurements of lead from measurement of pitch, as uniformity of pitch
measurement does not assure uniformity of lead. Variations in either lead or pitch cause the functional or virtual diameter of thread to
differ from the pitch diameter. The distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn. On a single threaded screw the lead and pitch
are identical; on a double threaded screw the lead is two times the pitch; on a tripel headed screw the lead is three times the pitch, etc.
Side or Flank – The surface of the thread which connects the crest with the root. Flanks of thread. These are straight edges which
connect the crest with the root.
Axis of a thread - This is imaginary line running longitudinally through the center of the screw. Axis of the screw, the longitudinal
central line through the screw.
Base of thread – The bottom section of the thread; the greatest section between the two adjacent roots.
Depth of thread - This is the distance from the crest or tip of the thread to the root of the thread measured perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis or this could be defined as the distance measured radially between the major and minor cylinders. The distance
between the crest and the base of the thread measured normal to the axis.
Number of Threads – The number of threads in one inch of length. Thread per inch. This is the reciprocal of the pitch in inches.
Length of Engagement – The length of contact between two mated threaded parts measured axially.
Depth Engagement – The depth of thread conatct of two mated parts, measured radially.
Airframe Powerplant
9
Lead - Lead is the axial distance moved by the threaded part, when it is given one complete revolution about its axis with respect to a
fixed mating thread. It is necessary to distinguish between measurements of lead from measurement of pitch, as uniformity of pitch
measurement does not assure uniformity of lead. Variations in either lead or pitch cause the functional or virtual diameter of thread to
differ from the pitch diameter. Lead, the distance a screw moves axially in one complete turn. In the case of multi-start threads, the lead
is equal to the pitch multiplied by the number of starts.
Single Start Thread – Term used when there is only one screw thread cut in material.
Multiple-Start Screw Thread - This is produced by forming two or more helical grooves, equally spaced and similarly formed in an axial
section on a cylinder. This gives a ‘quick traverse’ without sacrificing core strength. Consists of two or more separate, parallel threads cut
into the material carrying the thread. This method is used in order to achieve a quick-acting motion between two threaded items.
Airframe Powerplant
10
THE LEAD (L) = PITCH (P) X STARTS
Lead and pitch are closely related concepts. They can be confused because they are the same for most screws. Lead is the distance along
the screw's axis that is covered by one complete rotation of the screw (360°). Pitch is the distance from the crest of one thread to the
next. Because the vast majority of screw thread forms are single-start thread forms, their lead and pitch are the same. Single-start means
that there is only one "ridge" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°),
it has advanced axially by the width of one ridge. "Double-start" means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the
screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of two ridges. Another way to
express this is that lead and pitch are parametrically related, and the parameter that relates them, the number of starts, very often has a
value of 1, in which case their relationship becomes equality. In general, lead is equal to S time’s pitch, in which S is the number of starts.
Whereas metric threads are usually defined by their pitch, that is, how much distance per thread, inch-based standards usually use the
reverse logic, that is, how many threads occur per a given distance. Thus inch-based threads are defined in terms of threads per inch
(TPI). Pitch and TPI describe the same underlying physical property merely in different terms. When the inch is used as the unit of
measurement for pitch, TPI is the reciprocal of pitch and vice versa
Run-Out – The part of the thread where the minor diameter increase until it equals the major diameter and merges with the plain
portion of the shank. The run-out cannot be used and any nut. Rotated onto the run-out, would become ‘thread-bound’.
Screw Thread Forms
The form of screw thread will depend upon the function for which it is to be used. Where the thread is used to join components (nuts, bolts,
screws and studs) the the conventional, truncated ‘V’ shaped threads, similar to the ISO Metric thread, will be found.
There are many different thread forms in use today. The forms most widely used for power transmission screw threads are illustrated in
figure 5.3. An optical comparator is the easiest method of determining thread form. Profile gages, if available and visual methods can also
be used. Great care must be taken as many forms are almost identical. The Acme form (29 degree included angle) is only 1 degree different
Airframe Powerplant
11
from the ISO Metric Trapezoidal form (30 degree included angle). Many thread forms such as Unified, Metric ISO and Acme are subject to
published standards while others, including Ball screw and Worm threads, are not defined in detail by any standards organizations.
Figure 5.3 Screw thread forms
Turnbuckles and similar devices which are employed as adjusters of either the tension or of the distance between components, may also
use ‘V’ shaped threads, while the Acme, Buttress and Square threads are utilised to transmit movement or power (as may be seen in lathes,
vices and flap actuators).
A screw thread is defined as a ridge of uniform section in the form of a helix on either the external or internal surface of a cylinder. Internal
threads refer to those on nuts and tapped holes, while external threads are those on bolts, studs, or screws.
The thread form is the configuration of the thread in an axial plane; or more simply, it is the profile of the thread, composed of the crest,
root, and flanks. At the top of the threads are the crests, at the bottom the roots, and joining them are the flanks. The triangle formed
when the thread profile is extended to a point at both crests and roots, is the fundamental triangle. The height of the fundamental triangle
is the distance, radially measured, between sharp crest and sharp root diameters.
The distance measured parallel to the thread axis, between corresponding points on adjacent threads, is the thread pitch. Unified screw
threads are designated in threads per inch. This is the number of complete threads occurring in one inch of threaded length. Metric thread
pitch is designated as the distance between threads (pitch) in millimeters.
Airframe Powerplant
12
On an internal thread, the minor diameter occurs at the crests and the major diameter occurs at the roots. On an external thread, the
major diameter is at the thread crests, and the minor diameter is at the thread roots.
The flank angle is the angle between a flank and the perpendicular thread axis. Flank angles are sometimes termed “half-angle” of the
thread, but this is only true when neighboring flanks have identical angles; that is, the threads are symmetrical. Unified screw threads have a
30º flank angle and are symmetrical. This is why they are commonly referred to as 60º degree threads.
Pitch diameter is the diameter of a theoretical cylinder that passes through the threads in such a way that the distance between the thread
crests and thread roots is equal. In an ideal product, these widths would each equal one-half of the thread pitch.
An intentional clearance is created between mating threads when the nut and bolt are manufactured. This clearance is known as the
allowance. Having an allowance ensures that when the threads are manufactured there will be a positive space between them. For
fasteners, the allowance is generally applied to the external thread. Tolerances are specified amounts by which dimensions are permitted to
vary for convenience of manufacturing. The tolerance is the difference between the maximum and minimum permitted limits.
Airframe Powerplant
13
Airframe Powerplant
14
Threaded Fasteners
Most items of aircraft hardware are identified by their specifcation number or trade name. Threaded fasteners and rivets are usually
identifiedby AN (Air Force-Navy), NAS (National Aircraft Standard), or MS (Military Standard) numbers. Quick-release fasteners are usually
identified by factory trade names and size designations.
Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling or replacement of aircraft parts that must be taken apart and put back together
at frequent intervals. Riveting or welding these parts each time they are serviced would soon weaken or ruin the joint. Furthermore, some
joints require greater tensile strength and stiffness than rivets can provide. Bolts and screws are two types of fastening devices which give
the required security of attachment and rigidity. Generally, bolts are used where great strength is required, and screws are used where
strength is not the deciding factor. Bolts and screws are similar in many ways. They are both used for fastening or holding, and each has a
head on one end and screw threads on the other. Regardless of these similarities, there are several distinct differences between the two
Airframe Powerplant
15
types of fasteners. The threaded end of a bolt is always blunt while that of a screw may be either blunt or pointed.
The threaded end of a bolt usually has a nut screwed onto it to complete the assembly. The threaded end of a screw may fitinto a female
receptacle, or it may fitdirectly into the material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short threaded section and a comparatively long grip
length or unthreaded portion; whereas a screw has a longer threaded section and may have no clearly definedgrip length. A bolt assembly
is generally tightened by turning the nut on the bolt; the head of the bolt may or may not be designed for turning. A screw is always
tightened by turning its head.
When it becomes necessary to replace aircraft fasteners, a duplicate of the original fastener should be used if at all possible. If duplicate
fasteners are not available, extreme care and caution must be used in selecting substitutes.
The International Standard Organisation (ISO), later recommended that the Unified system be used internationally, in parallel with a system
using Metric units of measurement, but with a similar form of thread profile and standards of tolerances.
Classification of Threads
Threads on aircraft bolts and screws are of the American National Aircraft Standard type. This standard contains two series of threads
National Coarse (NC) and national fine (NF). Most aircraft threads are of the NF series.
Unified Coarse (UNC) and Unified Fine (UNF) threads may be found wherever their use is appropriate, but special threads, such as UNS (for
high-temperature applications) and UNJ (increased fatigue strength) have become more common.
Bolts and screws may have right- or left-hand threads. A right-hand thread advances into engagement when turned clockwise. A left-hand
thread advances into engagement when turned counterclockwise.
Several Unified thread types:
UNC : Unified National Coarse
UNF : Unified National Fine
UNEF : Unified Extra Fine
Airframe Powerplant
16
UN : Unified with constant pitch regardless of diameter
UNS : Unified with special pitch/diameter combination
UNJF : Unified Fatigue – Resistance Fine Thread.
Other thread form in the United States, a parallel but differing group of thread system is used. The four main systems are ANC, ANF (referred
as AF), UNC and UNF, with the NC and NF having a finer thread than the UNC and UNF.
Threads are sized by both the diameter and the number of threads per inch. The diameter is designated by screw gauge number for sizes up
to 1/4inch, and by nominal size for that 1/4 inch and larger. Screw gauge numbers range from 0 to 12,except that numbers 7, 9, and 11 are
omitted. Threads are designated by the diameter, number of threads per inch, thread series, and class in parts catalogs, on blueprints, and
on repair diagrams.
For example, No. 8-32NF-3 indicates a No. 8 size thread, 32 threads per inch, national fine series, and a class 3 thread. Also, 1/4-20NC-3
indicates a 1/4-inch thread, 20 threads per inch, national coarse series, and a class 3 thread. A left-hand thread is indicated by the letters LH
following the class of thread.
Bolts series that should be pointed out. In the 1 inch diameter size, the NF thread specifies 14 threads per inch (1-14 NF), while the UNF
thread specifies 12 threads per inch (1-12 UNF). Both types of threads are designated by the number of times the incline (threads) rotates
around a 1 inch length of a given diameter bolt or screw. For example, a 4-28 thread indicates that a 1⁄4-inch (4⁄16 inch) diameter bolt has
28 threads in 1 inch of its threaded length.
Some specialist threads are used whenever force needs to be transmitted (such as in a lathe lead-screw or a vice). These include the
following:
Airframe Powerplant
17
Airframe Powerplant
18
Screw threads may be formed, by such processes as tapping, dieing, and machine cutting or (where maximum fatigue resistance is required
of a bolt), by rolling.
Threads are also designated by Class of fit.The Class of a thread indicates the tolerance allowed in manufacturing. Class 1 is a loose fit, Class
2 is a free fit, Class 3 is a medium fit, Class 4 is a close, and Class 5 is a tight fit. Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in the Class 3,
medium fit.
A Class 4 fit requires a wrench to turn the nut onto a bolt, whereas a Class 1 fit can easily be turned with the fingers. Generally, aircraft
screws are manufactured with a Class 2 thread fit for ease of assembly.
A class 4 or 5 requires a spanner throughout the tightening operation, the class 3 fit is the type mostly employed on aircraft, and would be
typical of a thread which is designed for use in a high-temperature environment and may require the application of an anti-seize compound
before installation.
The different thread classes have differing amounts of tolerance and allowance. Classes 1A, 2A, 3A etc apply to external threads; Classes 1B,
2B, 3B etc apply to internal threads.
MEASURING SCREW THREADS
It is not considered a normal operation to measure a screw thread, as its identification can be found in the Illustrated Part Catalogue (IPC)
and supplied under a manufacture’s part number. Whilts this is true and the manuals should always be used, there are other ways of
identifying screw threads.
One method is to identify the screw by means of various marks, normally found on the head of the screw. These marks may give a clue as to
which type of thread the screw has (AF, BSF, or Metric etc.). A measurement across the thread crests, using a micrometer, would give the
diameter of the screw in question. Finally, the identifying head markings would also give the material from which the screw is made.
Two useful tools may be used for different stages of thread measurement. The Profile Gauge can be used to ensure that the tool, which is
Airframe Powerplant
19
cutting the thread, is of the correct type. The Pitch Gauge can be used to find the thread size by simplify fitting the various blades of the
gauge against the screw thread until a match is aachieved.
BOLTS
Many types of bolts are used on aircraft. However, before discussing some of these types, it might be helpful to list and explain some
commonly used bolt terms. You should know the names of bolt parts and be aware of the bolt dimensions that must be considered in
selecting a bolt. Figure 5.4 shows both types of information.
Figure 5.4 Bolt terms and dimensions
Airframe Powerplant
20
The three principal parts of a bolt are the head, thread, and grip. The head is the larger diameter of the bolt and may be one of many shapes
or designs. The head keeps the bolt in place in one direction, and the nut used on the threads keeps it in place in the other direction.
To choose the correct replacement, several bolt dimensions must be considered. One is the length of the bolt. Note in figure 5.4 that the
bolt length is the distance from the tip of the threaded end to the head of the bolt. Correct length selection is indicated when the chosen
bolt extends through the nut at least two full threads. In the case of flat end bolts or chamfered (rounded) end bolts, at least the full chamfer
plus one full thread should extend through the nut. If the bolt is too short, it may not extend out of the bolt hole far enough for the nut to
be securely fastened. If it is too long, it may extend so far that it interferes with the movement of nearby parts. Unnecessarily long bolts can
affect weight and balance and reduce the aircraft payload capacity.
In addition, if a bolt is too long or too short, its grip is usually the wrong length. As shown in figure 5.5, grip length should be approximately
the same as the thickness of the material to be fastened. If the grip is too short, the threads of the bolt will extend into the bolt hole and may
act like a reamer when the material is vibrating. To prevent this, make certain that no more than two threads extend into the bolt hole. Also
make certain that any threads that enter the bolt hole extend only into the thicker member that is being fastened. If the grip is too long, the
nut will run out of threads before it can be tightened. In this event, a bolt with a shorter grip should be used, or if the bolt grip extends only
a short distance through the hole, a washer maybe used.
A second bolt dimension that must be considered is diameter. Figure 5.4 shows that the diameter of the bolt is the thickness of its shaft. If
this thickness is 1/4 of an inch or more, the bolt diameter is usually given in fractions of an inch; for example, 1/4, 5/16, 7/16, and 1/2.
However, if the bolt is less than 1/4 of an inch thick, the diameter is usually expressed as a whole number. For instance, a bolt that is 0.190
inch in diameter is called a No. 10 bolt, while a bolt that is 0.164 inch in diameter is called a No. 8.
The results of using a bolt of the wrong diameter should be obvious. If the bolt is too big, it cannot enter the bolt hole. If the diameter is too
small, the bolt has too much play in the bolt hole, and the chances are that it is not as strong as the correct bolt.
The third and fourth bolt dimensions that should be considered when choosing a bolt replacement are head thickness and width. If the
head is too thin or too narrow, it may not be strong enough to bear the load imposed on it. If the head is too thick or too wide, it may
extend so far that it interferes with the movement of adjacent parts.
Airframe Powerplant
21
Figure 5.5 Correct and incorrect Grip Lengths
Aircraft bolts are fabricated from cadmium or zinc plated corrosion resistant steel, unplated corrosion resistant steel, or anodized aluminum
alloys. Most bolts used in aircraft structures are either general purpose, AN bolts, or NAS internal wrenching or close tolerance bolts, or MS
bolts. In certain cases, aircraft manufacturers make bolts of different dimensions or greater strength than the standard types. Such bolts are
made for a particular application, and it is of extreme importance to use like bolts in replacement. Special bolts are usually identifiedby the
letter “S” stamped on the head.
An extensive range of bolts and screw is provide for in the specification by the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC), some of in
common use:
AGS Aircraft General Standard

AS Aircraft Standard
Al Al : Aluminium Alloy
BA : British Association
BSF : British Standard Fine
Airframe Powerplant
22
HTS : High Tensile Steel

HTSS : High Tensile Stainless Steel
LTS : Low Tensile Steel
SS : Stainless Steel
UNC : Unified National Coarse
UNF : Unified National Fine
British Standard Unified (BS Unified) bolts are identified by the use of an Alpha-Numeric code, which provides information relating to the
type, material, surface finish, length, diameter and any other important characteristics of the threaded device (example, see table standard
bolts and screws British bolt types).
STANDARD NO. DESCRIPTION MATERIAL
A 102 Hex. Headed Bolt HTS
A 104 Hex. Headed Bolt SS
A 111 Hex. Close Tolerance Bolt HTS
A112 Shear Bolt HTS
A 174 1000 Countersunk Head Bolt SS
A 175 1000 Countersunk Head Bolt Al Al
A 204 1000 Countersunk Head Screw HTS
A 205 Pan Head Screw HTS
British Bolt Types
Airframe Powerplant
23
Other methods of indicating that an item has a Unified thread are:
Three contiguous (touching) circles marked in convenient position (machine items)
NOTE: Due to difficulty in applying the identifying marks to individual items, it is planned to merely mark the packets inn which the
threaded devices are marked, so that some, or all of the identification marks will not be seen on the items (particularly screws). Great
care must, therefore, be taken to ensure that the items being used are correctly identified and to the approved standard.
A shallow recess in the head of a bolt, equal to the nominal diameter of the thread (cold forged items).
A ‘dog point’ (small protrusion) on the threaded shank end (usually applies to screws).
These (Hexagon-headed Steel Bolts) bolts of 1/4 in.

dia. and over are stamped with the part number, such
as 14G; the number equals the length of the plain
unthreaded portion of the shank in tenths of an inch,
that is 1·4 in. and the letter "G" indicates that the
thread diameter is 5/16 in. (see size code). Vie grooves
cut into the head at right-angles to the bolt axis
indicates that the bolt is made of high tensile steel. If
the bolt is corrosion resistant, that is high tensile
stainless steel, the part number is prefixed by the
letter "Z" (Z14G), and Bolts with left-hand threads have
an additional suffix letter "L" after the part number.
Further numbers and letters are added to the

identifying code, to provide information relating to the length (usually of the plain shank or gripping portion) and to the diameter of the
items. The length is given by a number, which signifies increments of tenths of an inch, so that a 5 would represent a bolt with a plain shank
Airframe Powerplant
24
of 0.5 in, while the number would signify the plain shank as being 1.2 in long.
Referred to table below, will show how the diameter of an item is designated by the addition of another letter to the system, so that a bolt,
with the code marking of A 102 9 E, would signify a Unified-threaded, hexagon-headed bolt, made from high-tensile steel, with a plain
shank length of 0.9 in, and a diameter of ¼ in.
CODE DIAMETER CODE DIAMETER
Y 0 – 80 UNF J 3/8” UNF (UNJF)
Z 2 – 64 UNF L 7/16” UNF (UNJF)
A 4 – 40 UNC N ½” UNF (UNJF)
B 6 – 32 UNC P 9/16” UNF (UNJF)
C 8 – 32 UNC Q 5/8” UNF (UNJF)
D 10 – 32 UNF (UNJF) S ¾” UNF (UNJF)
E ¼” UNF (UNJF) U 7/8” UNF (UNJF)
G 5/16” UNF (UNJF) W 1” UNF (UNJF)
British Bolt Letter Designations
In UK system (which may be encountered on older, or home-constructed, light aircraft), bolts more than ¼ inch diameter are normally BSF,
whilst bolts less than ¼ inch diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these items also use a number to represent their nominal length
and a letter code (as can be seen in table) to identify their diameter.
Airframe Powerplant
25
CODE SIZE CODE SIZE CODE SIZE
A 6 BA L 7/16” BSF W 1” BSF
B 4 BA N ½” BSF X 12 BA
C 2 BA P 9/16” BSF Y 10 BA
E ¼” BSF Q 5/8” BSF Z 8 BA
G 5/16” BSF S ¾” BSF
J 3/8” BSF U 7/8” BSF
BA and BSF Bolt and Screw Codes
B.S.F. or U.N. F. threads are used on all standard bolts of ¼ in. dia. and over; No. 2, 4 and 6 B.A. or U.N.F. are used for smaller sizes. The bolt
type is indicated by the shape of the head and each type is made in various lengths and diameters; the dimensions of the head and the
length of the thread are standardised for each diameter of bolt.
Information such as material, thread diameter, length of the plain unthreaded portion, whether the thread is left or right-hand and whether
the bolt is corrosion resistant is marked on the carton label and may be stamped on the bolt head. This information is abbreviated and in
the form of a part number consisting of two to five letters and figures which are related to a size code.
American Aircraft Bolts and Nuts are threaded in the NC (American National Coarse), the NF (American National Fine), the UNC (Unified
National Coarse), and the UNF (Unified National Fine) thread series. The item is often coded to give the diameter of the threaded portion
and the number of threads per inch (TPI).
AN bolts come in three head styles hex head, clevis, and eyebolt. [Figure 5.6] NAS bolts are available in hex head, internal wrenching, and
countersunk head styles. MS bolts come in hex head and internal wrenching styles.
Airframe Powerplant
26
Figure 5.6 Aircraft bolt identification
Airframe Powerplant
27
AN No. TYPE MATERIAL PROCESS THREAD SIZE THREAD TYPE

Steel Cadmium Plated
3 – 20 Bolt, Hex Head CRS Nil No. 10 to 1 ¼” UNF
Al Alloy Anodised
21 – 36 Bolt, Clevis Steel Cadmium Plated No. 6 to 1” UNF
42 – 36 Bolt, Eye Steel Cadmium Plated No. 10 to 9/16” UNF
73 – 81 Bolt, Hex Drilled Steel Cadmium Plated No. 10 to ¾” UNF or UNC
Head
Steel Cadmium Plated
thread and head
Bolt, Close-
173 – 186 No. 10 to 1” UNF
tolreance CRS Nil
Al Alloy Anodised
AN Standard Bolts
CRS = Corrosion Resistance Steel, NOTE: the later series a different number system
Airframe Powerplant
28
General Purpose Bolts
The hex head aircraft bolt (AN-3 through AN-20) is an all-purpose structural bolt used for general applications involving tension or shear
loads where a light drive fitis permissible (0.006 inch clearance for a 5⁄8 inch hole, and other sizes in proportion).
Alloy steel bolts smaller than No. 10-32 and aluminum alloy bolts smaller than 1⁄4 inch in diameter are not used in primary structures.
Aluminum alloy bolts and nuts are not used where they will be repeatedly removed for purposes of maintenance and inspection. Aluminum
alloy nuts may be used with cadmium-plated steel bolts loaded in shear on land airplanes, but are not used on seaplanes due to the
increased possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion.
The AN-73 drilled head bolt is similar to the standard hex bolt, but has a deeper head which is drilled to receive wire for safetying. The AN-3
and the AN-73 series bolts are interchangeable, for all practical purposes, from the standpoint of tension and shear strengths.
Identification and Coding
Bolts are manufactured in many shapes and varieties. A clear cut method of classifcation is diffcult. Bolts can be identifed by the shape of
the head, method of securing, material used in fabrication, or the expected usage.
AN type aircraft bolts can be identifiedby the code markings on the bolt heads. The markings generally denote the bolt manufacturer, the
material of which the bolt is made, and whether the bolt is a standard AN type or a special purpose bolt. AN standard steel bolts are marked
with either a raised dash or asterisk; corrosion resistant steel is indicated by a single raised dash and AN aluminum alloy bolts are marked
with two raised dashes. Additional information, such as bolt diameter, bolt length, and grip length may be obtained from the bolt part
number.
In addition code is used to indicate the material, length and presence of a split pin or locking wire hole as:
Diameter – The last figure, or the last two figures, of AN number indicates thread diameter, 1 = No.6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = ¼”
with subsequent numbers indicating the diameter in 1/16” increaments.
Airframe Powerplant
29
Thus an AN 4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼” diamater and an AN 4 is a hexagon headed bolt of 7/8” (14/16”) diameter.
Lengths – The length of a bolt in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt is measured from under the head to the first full thread and is
quoted in 1/8” increaments as a dash number.
The figure of the dash number represents eights and the first figure inches, so that an AN 4 – 12 is a ¼” diameter hexagon bolt 1 ½”
long.
Position of Drilled Hole - Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the threaded part of the shank, but different
arrangements may be obtained
Drilled shank = normal coding e.g. AN 24 – 15
Un-drilled shank = A added after dash No. e.g. AN 24 – 15 A
Drilled head only = H added before dash No. (replacing dash) A added after dash No. e.g. AN 25 H15 A
Drilled head and shank = H added before dash No. e.g. AN 25 H15
Material – The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-plated steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied is
supplied in other materials, letters are place after the AN number as
C = Corrosion Resistance Steel CRS e.g. AN 25 C 15
DD = Aluminium Alloy e.g. AN 25 DD 15
Thread – Where the bolt is suppplied as either UNF or UNC threads , a UNC thread is indicated by placing an A in place of the dash
AN 24A 15.
AN Part Number.-There are several classes of ‘AN’ bolts, and in some instances their part numbers reveal slightly different types of
information. However, most ‘AN’ numbers contain the same type of information (figure 5.7) shows a breakdown of a typical ‘AN’ bolt part
Airframe Powerplant
30
number. This number usually consists of two digits. The first digit (or absence of it) shows the class of the bolt. For instance, in figure 5.7, the
series number has only one digit, and the absence of one digit shows that this part number represents a general-purpose hex-head bolt.
However, the part numbers for some bolts of this class have two digits. In fact, general-purpose hex-head bolts include all part numbers
beginning with AN3, AN4, and so on, through AN20. Other series numbers and the classes of bolts that they represent are as follows:
AN21 through AN36—clevis bolts
AN42 through AN49—eyebolts
Figure 5.7 AN Bolt part number
The series number shows another type of information other than bolt class. With a few exceptions, it indicates bolt diameter in sixteenths of
an inch. For instance, in figure 5.7, the last digit of the series number is 4; therefore, this bolt is 4/16 of an inch (1/4 of an inch) in diameter. In
the case of a series number ending in 0, for instance AN30, the 0 stands for 10, and the bolt has a diameter of 10/16 of an inch (5/8 of an
inch).
Refer to figure 5.7, and observe that a dash follows the series number. When used in the part numbers for general-purpose AN bolts, clevis
bolts, and eyebolts, this dash indicates that the bolt is made of carbon steel. With these types of bolts, the letter D means 2017 aluminum
alloy. The letters DD stand for 2024 aluminum alloy. For some bolts of this type, a letter H is used with these letters or with the dash. If it is so
used, the letter H shows that the bolt has been drilled for safetying.
Next, observe the number 20 that follows the dash. This is called the dash number. It represents the bolt’s grip (as taken from special tables).
Airframe Powerplant
31
In this instance the number 20 stands for a bolt that is 2 ½ inches long.
The last character in the AN number shown in figure 5.7 is the letter A. This signifies that the bolt is not drilled for cotter pin safe tying. If no
letter were used after the dash number, the bolt shank would be drilled for safe tying.
For example, in the bolt part number AN3DD5A, the “AN” designates that it is an Air Force Navy Standard bolt, the “3” indicates the
diameter in sixteenths of an inch (3⁄16), the “DD” indicates the material is 2024 aluminum alloy. The letter “C” in place of the “DD” would
indicate corrosion resistant steel, and the absence of the letters would indicate cadmium plated steel. The “5” indicates the length in eighths
of an inch (5⁄8), and the “A” indicates that the shank is undrilled. If the letter “H” preceded the “5” in addition to the “A” following it, the
head would be drilled for safetying.
NAS Part Number Another series of bolts used in aircraft construction is the NAS. See figure 5.8. In considering the NAS 144-25 bolt (special
internal-wrenching type), observe that the bolt identification code starts with the letters next number (4) indicates the bolt diameter in
sixteenths of an inch. The dash number (25) indicates bolt grip in sixteenths of an inch.
Figure 5.8 NAS Bolt part number
Close tolerance NAS bolts are marked with either a raised or recessed triangle. The material markings for NAS bolts are the same as for AN
bolts, except that they may be either raised or recessed. Bolts inspected magnetically (Magnafux) or by fuorescent means (Zyglo) are
identifiedby means of colored lacquer, or a head marking of a distinctive type.
Airframe Powerplant
32
MS Part Number MS is another series of bolts used in aircraft construction. In the part number shown in figure 5.9, the MS indicates that the
bolt is a Military Standard bolt. The series number (20004) indicates the bolt class and diameter in sixteenths of an inch (internal-wrenching,
1/4-inch diameter). The letter H before the dash number indicates that the bolt has a drilled head for safe tying. The dash number (9)
indicates the bolt grip in sixteenths of an inch.
Figure 5.9 MS Bolt part number
SPECIAL BOLT
The hexagon headed bolt AN 3 – AN 20 (figure 5.10), is an all purpose structural bolt used for application involving tension or shear loads
where a light drive fit is permissible.
Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16” diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller than ¼” are not used on primary structure. Other bolts may
be used as:
Close Tolerance Bolts
This type of bolt is machined more accurately than the general purpose bolt. Close tolerance bolts may be hex headed (AN-173 through AN-
186) or have a 100° countersunk head (NAS-80 through NAS-86). They are used in applications where a tight drive fitis required. (The bolt
will move into position only when struck with a 12- to 14-ounce hammer.)
Airframe Powerplant
33
Internal Wrenching Bolts
These bolts, (MS-20004 through MS-20024 or NAS-495) are fabricated from high-strength steel and are suitable for use in both tension and
shear applications. When they are used in steel parts, the bolt hole must be slightly countersunk to seat the large corner radius of the shank
at the head. In Dural material, a special heat-treated washer must be used to provide an adequate bearing surface for the head. The head of
the internal wrenching bolt is recessed to allow the insertion of an internal wrench when installing or removing the bolt. Special high-
strength nuts are used on these bolts. Replace an internal wrenching bolt with another internal wrenching bolt. Standard AN hex head bolts
and washers cannot be substituted for them as they do not have the required strength.
Figure 5.10 Example Special bolts
Airframe Powerplant
34
Clevis Bolts
The head of a clevis bolt is round and is either slotted to receive a common screwdriver or recessed to receive a crosspoint screwdriver. This
type of bolt is used only where shear loads occur and never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a control system.
Eyebolt
This type of special purpose bolt is used where external tension loads are to be applied. The eyebolt is designed for the attachment of such
devices as the fork of a turnbuckle, a clevis, or a cable shackle. The threaded end may or may not be drilled for safetying.
Seven additional types of bolt heads are shown in figure 5.11. Notice that view A shows an eyebolt, often used in flight control systems.
View B shows a countersunk head, close tolerance bolt. View C shows an internal wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt and the
internal-wrenching bolt have hexagonal recesses (six-sided holes) in their heads. They are tightened and loosened by use of appropriate
sized Allen wrenches. View D shows a clevis bolt with its characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as shown, to receive a
common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-Prince or a Phillips screwdriver.
View E shows a torque set wrenching recess that has four driving wings, each one offset from the one opposite it. There is no taper in the
walls of the recess. This permits higher torque to be applied with less tendency for the driver to slip or cam out of the slots.
View F shows an external-wrenching head that has a washer face under the head to provide an increased bearing surface. The 12 point head
gives a greater wrench gripping surface.
View G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is narrower at the center than at the outer portions. This and the center dimple
provide the slot with a bow tie appearance. The recess is also undercut in a taper from the center to the outer ends, producing an inverted
keystone shape. These bolts must be installed with a special hi-torque driver adapter. They must also be driven with some type of torque-
limiting or torque-measuring device. Each diameter of bolt requires the proper size of driver for that particular bolt. The bolts are available
in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The reduced head requires a driver one size smaller than the standard head.
Airframe Powerplant
35
Figure 5.11 Bolts Head
METRIC BOLT
The identification of a metric bolt is by the use of the diameter in milimeters, immediately after the capital letter “M”. Iin this way, M6
reprsents a 6 mm diameter bolt. The length is also shown in milimeters, so the bolt M16 – 15 will be a 6 mm diameter bolt, which is 15 mm
long. The basic terminology, for identifying bolts of the Metric System, involves the nominal length, the grip length and diameter.
Airframe Powerplant
36
NUTS
Aircraft nuts differ in design and material, just as bolts do, because they are designed to do a specific job with the bolt. For instance, some of
the nuts are made of cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, or aluminum alloy. The type of metal used is not identified by
markings on the nuts themselves. Instead, the material must be recognized from the luster of the metal.
Standard nuts are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be made of cadmium-plated carbon stee, stainless steel or anodised 2024-
T aluminium alloy and can have right or left hand threads.
Nuts also differ greatly in size and shape. In spite of these many and varied differences, they all fall under one of two general groups: self-
locking and non-self-locking. Nuts are further divided into types such as plain nuts, castle nuts, check nuts, plate nuts, channel nuts, barrel
nuts, internal-wrenching nuts, external-wrenching nuts, shear nuts, sheet spring nuts, wing nuts, and Clincher locknuts.
NONSELF-LOCKING NUTS
Non self-locking nuts (figure 5.12) require the use of a separate locking device for security of installation. There are several types of these
locking devices mentioned in the following paragraphs in connection with the nuts on which they are used. Since no single locking device
can be used with all types of non-self-locking nuts, you must select one suitable for the type of nut being used.
Airframe Powerplant
37
Figure 5.12 Non Self-Locking Nuts
SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Self-locking nuts (figure 5.13) provide tight connections that will not loosen under vibrations. Self-locking nuts approved for use on aircraft
meet critical strength, corrosion-resistance and temperature specifications. The two major types of self-locking nuts are prevailing torque
and free spinning. The two general types of prevailing torque nuts are the all metal nuts and the nonmetallic insert nuts. New self-locking
nuts must be used each time components are installed in critical areas through out the entire aircraft, including all flight, engine, and fuel
control linkage and attachments. The flex loc nut is an example of the all-metal type. The elastic stop nut is an example of the nonmetallic
Airframe Powerplant
38
insert type. All-metal self-locking nuts are constructed with the threads in the load-carrying portion of the nut out of phase with the threads
in the locking portion, or with a saw cut top portion with a pinched-in thread. The locking action of these types depends upon the resiliency
of the metal when the locking section and load-carrying section are forced into alignment when engaged by the bolt or screw threads.
Figure 5.13 Self-Locking Nuts
Figure 5.14 Self-Locking or Non Self-Locking
Airframe Powerplant
39
Non-Self-Locking Nuts most of the familiar types of nuts, including the plain nut, the castle nut, the castellated shear nut, the plain hex nut,
the light hex nut, and the plain checknut are the non-self-locking type.
The castle nut, AN310, is used with drilled shank AN hex head bolts, clevis bolts, eyebolts, drilled head bolts, or studs. It is fairly rugged and
can withstand large tensional loads. Slots (called castellations) in the nut are designed to accommodate a cotter pin or lockwire for safety.
Slotted Nuts are similar in construction to the castle nuts and are used in similar applications, except that they are normally used for engine
use only.
The castellated shear nut, AN320, is designed for use with devices (such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper pins) which are normally
subjected to shearing stress only. Like the castle nut, it is castellated for safetying. Note, however, that the nut is not as deep or as strong as
the castle nut; also that the castellations are not as deep as those in the castle nut.
The plain hex nut, AN315 and AN335 (fineand coarse thread), is of rugged construction. This makes it suitable for carrying large tensional
loads. However, since it requires an auxiliary locking device, such as a checknut or lockwasher, its use on aircraft structures is somewhat
limited.
The light hex nut, AN340 and AN345 (fineand coarse thread), is a much lighter nut than the plain hex nut and must be locked by an auxiliary
device. It is used for miscellaneous light tension requirements.
The plain check (or lock) nut, AN316, is employed as a locking device for plain nuts, set screws, threaded rod ends, and other devices.
The wing nut, AN350, is intended for use where the desired tightness can be obtained with the fingersand where the assembly is frequently
removed.
Self-Locking Nuts, as their name implies, self-locking nuts need no auxiliary means of safetying but have a safetying feature included as an
integral part of their construction. Many types of self-locking nuts have been designed and their use has become quite widespread.
Common applications are:
(1) Attachment of antifriction bearings and control pulleys;
Airframe Powerplant
40
(2) Attachment of accessories, anchor nuts around inspection holes and small tank installation openings; and
(3) Attachment of rocker box covers and exhaust stacks. Self-locking nuts are acceptable for use on certificatedaircraft subject to the
restrictions of the manufacturer.
Self-locking nuts are used on aircraft to provide tight connections which will not shake loose under severe vibration. Do not use self-locking
nuts at joints which subject either the nut or bolt to rotation. They may be used with antifriction bearings and control pulleys, provided the
inner race of the bearing is clamped to the supporting structure by the nut and bolt. Plates must be attached to the structure in a positive
manner to eliminate rotation or misalignment when tightening the bolts or screws.The two general types of self-locking nuts currently in
use are the all-metal type and the fiberlock type. For the sake of simplicity, only three typical kinds of self-locking nuts are considered in this
handbook: the Boots self-locking and the stainless steel self-locking nuts, representing the all-metal types; and the elastic stop nut,
representing the fiber insert type.
Plate Nuts, these nuts are used for blind mounting in inaccessible locations and for easier maintenance. They are available in a wide range
of sizes and shapes. One-lug, two-lug, and right-angle shapes are available to accommodate the specific physical requirements of nut
locations. Floating nuts provide a controlled amount of nut movement to compensate for subassembly misalignment. They can be either
self-locking or non-self-locking. See figure 5.15.
Figure 5.15 Self Locking Nuts Assembly
Airframe Powerplant
41
Channel Nuts, these nuts are used in applications requiring anchored nuts equally spaced around openings such as access and inspection
doors and removable leading edges. Straight or curved channel nut strips offer a wide range of nut spacing and provide a multinut unit that
has all the advantages of floating nuts. They are usually self-locking.
Airframe Powerplant
42
Barrel Nuts, these nuts are installed in drilled holes. The round portion of the nut fits in the drilled hole and provides a self-wrenching effect.
They are usually self-locking.
Internal Wrenching Nuts, these nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile strength is required or where space is limited and
the use of external-wrenching nuts would not permit the use of conventional wrenches for installation and removal. This is usually where
the bearing surface is counter bored. These nuts have a nonmetallic insert that provides the locking action.
Shear Nuts, these nuts are designed for use with devices such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper pins that are normally subjected to
shearing stress only. They are usually self-locking.
Sheet Spring Nuts, these nuts are used with standard and sheet metal self-tapping screws to support line clamps, conduit clamps, electrical
equipment, and access doors. The most common types are the float, the two-lug anchor, and the one-lug anchor. The nuts have an arched
spring leek that prevents the screw from working loose. They should be used only where originally used in the fabrication of the aircraft. See
figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16 Sheet Spring Nuts
Airframe Powerplant
43
Klincher Lock Nuts, Klincher locknuts are used to ensure a permanent and vibration proof, bolted connection that holds solidly and resists
thread wear. It will withstand extremely high or low temperatures and exposure to lubricants, weather, and compounds without impairing
the effectiveness of the locking element. The nut is installed with the end that looks like a double washer toward the metal being fastened.
Notice in figure 5.17 that the end that looks like a double hexagon is away from the metal being fastened.
Figure 5.17 Klincher Locknut Installation
Stiffnuts and Anchor Nuts, an ordinary standard nut will depend upon friction between the engaging thread to ensure its tightness. The
enemy of this system is vibration, which can cause the nut to slacken off, and in extreme cases, unwind itself completely from the bolt or
screw.
In areas where this might occur, locking devices are used. These either increase the frictional resistance between the threads, or take the
from of positive securities that prevent any movement of the nut once they have been applied.
Stiffnuts and anchor nuts (figure 5.18) employ various means of increasing the friction forces betweenthe thread devices and common type
include:
A nyloc nut, also referred to as a nylon insert lock nut, polymer insert lock nut, or elastic stop nut, is a kind of locknut. It is a nut
with a nylon collar insert that resists turning. These nuts are also referred to as "nylok" or "nylock". The plastic insert is placed at the
end of the nut and its inner diameter (ID) is slightly smaller than the major diameter of the screw. The insert deforms elastically over
Airframe Powerplant
44
the threads of the screw, but threads are not cut into the nylon. The nylon insert locks the nut by applying a compressive force
against the screw. Nyloc nuts retain their locking ability up to 250 °F (121 °C).
Looks like standard hexagonal nut, but has a plastic insert in the counterbored end. This insert is initially unthreaded and has an
internal diameter slightly smaller than the nut thread, so that as the nut is screwed on the bolt, the plastic insert is displaced and a
high degree of friction is created. Another type of plastic ‘stop’ nut is named the ‘Capnut’.
Oddie, the top this nut has a slotted end, consistingof six tongues, which form a circle slightly smaller than the bolt or stud diameter.
The top of the nut is counter bored, slotted vertically in three places, and depressed inwards to form a circle of six tongues with a
diameter slightly smaller than the bolt core diameter. As the nut is screwed on to the bolt the threads of the bolt displace the
tongues upwards, and a load is applied to the contacting thread faces.
Figure 5.18 Stiffnuts and Anchor Nuts
Airframe Powerplant
45
Philidas This nut is made with a circular crown in which two slots are cut, one above the other, with arc of about 270 degrees. The
wings thus formed are de-pitched to provide locking tension. The thread on the slotted part is slightly ‘out of phase’ with the rest of
the thread, so that increased friction is achieved when the nut is turned.
Aerotight Similar to the Philidas in appearance, except that the slots are vertical. Its locking method is also similar. the Mk 1 nut- is
made with a circular crown which is slotted across the diameter and also on each side through about 150 degrees, The resultant
wings are de-pitched and forced inwards, thus causing a sideways as well as a downwards tension on the bolt threads. The Mk 2 nut
has a similar action, but it is slotted on one side only.
Lightweight The top of this nut is distorted to an oval or three-cornered shape. When the nut is screwed on to the bolt, the top of
the nut is forced to assume the round shape of the bolt and thus provide a locking device. When the nut is removed from the bolt, it
assumes its original shape. The locking section of this stiffnut is slightly oval in shape and so causes increased friction when the
thread passes through it.
Point Wrenching Nuts These nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile length is required. These nuts are installed with a small
socket wrench. They are usually self-locking.
Identification and Coding
Part numbers designate the type of nut. The common types and their respective part numbers are: Plain, AN315 and AN335; castle AN310;
Airframe Powerplant
46
plain check, AN316; light hex, AN340 and AN345; and castel-lated shear, AN320. The patented self-locking types are assigned part numbers
ranging from MS20363 through MS20367. The Boots, the Flexloc, the fiberlocknut, the elastic stop nut, and the self-locking nut belong to
this group. Part number AN350 is assigned to the wing nut.
Letters and digits following the part number indicate such items as material, size, threads per inch, and whether the thread is right or left
hand. The letter “B” following the part number indicates the nut material to be brass, a “D” indicates 2017-T aluminum alloy, a “DD” indicates
2024-T aluminum alloy, a “C” indicates stainless steel, and a dash in place of a letter indicates cadmium-plated carbon steel.
The digit (or two digits) following the dash or the material code letter is the dash number of the nut, and it indicates the size of the shank
and threads per inch of the bolt on which the nut will fit.The dash number corresponds to the frst fgure appearing in the part number
coding of general purpose bolts. A dash and the number 3, for example, indicates that the nut will ft an AN3 bolt (10-32); a dash and the
number 4 means it will fitan AN4 bolt (1/4-28); a dash and the number 5, an AN5 bolt (5/16-24); and so on.
The code numbers for self-locking nuts end in three or four digit numbers. The last two digits refer to threads per inch, and the one or two
preceding digits stand for the nut size in 16ths of an inch.
Some other common nuts and their code numbers are:
Code Number AN310 D 5R:
AN310 = aircraft castle nut

DD = 2024-T aluminum alloy
5 = 5⁄16 inch diameter
R = right-hand thread (usually 24 threads per inch)
Code Number AN320-10:
AN320 = aircraft castellated shear nut, cadmium-plated carbon steel
10 = 5⁄8 inch diameter, 18 threads per inch (this nut is usually right-hand thread)
Airframe Powerplant
47
Code Number AN350B1032:
AN350 = aircraft wing nut

B = brass
10 = number 10 bolt
32 = threads per inch
SCREWS
The most common threaded fastener used in aircraft construction is the screw. The three most used types are the machine screw, structural
screw, and the self-tapping screw, as shown in figure 5.19 also shows the three head slots—straight, Phillips, and Reed and Prince.
Figure 5.19 Screws
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft construction, they differ from bolts in that they are generally
made from lower-strength materials. They can be fastened by a variety of tools, including screwdrivers and Allen keys. Most screws are
threaded along their complete length, whilst some have a plain portion for part of their length.
There are number different type of screw which can be used for a wide range of tasks. Several types of structural screws differ from the
standard structural bolts only in head style. The material in them is the same, and a definitegrip length is pro-vided. The AN525 washer head
screw and the NAS220 through NAS227 series are such screws.
Commonly used screws are classifiedin three groups:
Airframe Powerplant
48
(1) Structural screws, which have the same strength as equal size bolts;
(2) Machine screws, which include the majority of types used for general repair; and
(3) Self-tapping screws, which are used for attaching lighter parts.
A fourth group, drive screws, are not actually screws but nails. They are driven into metal parts with a mallet or hammer and their heads are
not slotted or recessed.
Structural Screws, - Structural screws (figure 5.20) are made of alloy steel, are properly heat treated, and can be used as structural bolts.
These screws are found in the NAS204 through NAS235 and AN509 and AN525 series. They have a definite grip and the same shear strength
as a bolt of the same size. Shank tolerances are similar to AN hex head bolts, and the threads are National Fine. Structural screws are
available with round, brazier, or countersunk heads. The recessed head screws are driven by either a Phil-lips or a Reed & Prince screwdriver.
The AN509 (100°) flatheadscrew is used in counter-sunk holes where a flush surface is necessary.
The AN525 washer head structural screw is used where raised heads are not objectionable. The washer head screw provides a large contact
area.
Figure 5.20 Structural Screws
Machine Screws, - Machine screws are usually of the flathead(counter-sunk), roundhead, or washer head types. These are general purpose
screws and are available in low carbon steel, brass, corrosion-resistant steel, and aluminum alloy.
Airframe Powerplant
49
Flush Head - Countersunk machine screws are listed as AN505 and AN510 for 82°, and AN507 for 100°. The AN505 and AN510
correspond to the AN515 and AN520 round-head in material and usage, that have various types of recesses and slots for driving.
Roundhead screws, - AN515 and AN520, have either slotted or recessed heads. The AN515 screw has coarse threads, and the AN520
has fine threads. These screws are frequently used in assembling highly stressed aircraft components.
The fillisterhead screw, - AN500 through AN503, is a general purpose screw and is used as a capscrew in light mechanisms. This
could include attachments of cast aluminum parts such as gearbox cover plates.
The AN500 and AN501 screws are available in low carbon steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and brass. The AN500 has coarse threads,
while the AN501 has finethreads. They have no clearly defned grip length.
Screws larger than No. 6 have a hole drilled through the head for safetying purposes.
The AN502 and AN503 fillisterhead screws are made of heat-treated alloy steel, have a small grip, and are available in fineand coarse
threads. These screws are used as capscrews where great strength is required. The coarse threaded screws are commonly used as
capscrews in tapped aluminum alloy and magnesium castings because of the softness of the metal.
Socket –Head, - Socket head machine screws are designed to be screwed into tapped holes by internal wrenching. They are used in
applications that require high-strength precision products, compactness of the assembled parts, or sinking of the head into holes.
Pan and Truss – Head, - Pan head and truss head screws are general purpose screws used where head height is unimportant. These
screws are available with cross-recessed heads only.
Self-Tapping Screws, - Machine self-tapping screws are listed as AN504 and AN506. The AN504 screw has a roundhead, and the AN506 is
82° countersunk. These screws are used for attaching removable parts, such as nameplates, to castings and parts in which the screw cuts its
own threads.
Self-tapping screws (figure 5.21) have coarse threads and are used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic and plywood together.
Airframe Powerplant
50
Figure 5.21 Self-Tapping Screw Head Types
AN530 and AN531 self-tapping sheet metal screws, such as the Parker-Kalon Z-type (type “B”) sheet metal screw, are blunt on the end. They
are used in the temporary attachment of metal for riveting, and in the permanent assembly of nonstructural assemblies. Self-tapping screws
should not be used to replace standard screws, nuts, bolts, or rivets.
Airframe Powerplant
51
The type A screw has a gimlet (sharp) point, and the type B has a blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than the type A.
Drive Screws, - Drive screws, AN535, correspond to the Parker-Kalon U-type. They are plain head self-tapping screws used as capscrews for
attaching nameplates in castings and for sealing drain holes in corrosion proofng tubular structures. They are not intended to be removed
after installation.
Identification and Coding for Screws
The coding system used to identify screws is similar to that used for bolts. There are AN and NAS screws. NAS screws are structural screws.
Part numbers 510, 515, 550, and so on, catalog screws into classes, such as roundhead, fathead, washer head, and so forth. Letters and digits
indicate their material composition, length, and thickness. Examples of AN and NAS code numbers follow.
AN 501 B-416-7
AN = Air Force-Navy standard
501 = fillister head, fine thread
B = brass
416 = 4⁄16 -inch diameter
7 = 7⁄16 -inch length
The letter “D” in place of the “B” would indicate that the material is 2017-T aluminum alloy. The letter “C” would designate corrosion
resistant steel. An “A” placed before the material code letter would indicate that the head is drilled for safetying.
Airframe Powerplant
52
NAS 144 DH-22
NAS = National Aircraft Standard
144 = head style; diameter and thread ¼ -28 bolt, internal wrenching
DH = drilled head
22 = screw length in 16 ths of an inch 1 3/8 inches long
When access to the back of a screw or bolt installation is impractical, riveted or rivetless nutplates are used to secure the connection of
panels. One example in aircraft this technique is especially useful is to secure the floorboards to the stringers and to each other.
Nutplates
Nuts that are made to be riveted in place in aircraft are called nutplates. Their purpose is to allow bolts and screws to be inserted without
having to hold the nut. They are permanently mounted to enable inspection panels and access doors to be easily removed and installed.
When many screws are used on a panel, to make installation easier, normally floating anchor nuts are used. The floating anchor nut fits into
a small bracket which is riveted to the aircraft skin. The nut is free to move, which makes it much easier to align it with the screw. For
production ease, sometimes ganged anchor nuts are used for inspection panels. Ganged anchor nuts allow the nuts to foat in a channel,
making alignment with the screw easy.
Self-locking nutplates are made under several stan-dards and come in several shapes and sizes. Figure 5.22 shows an MS21078 two-lug
nutplate with a nonme-tallic insert, and an MS21047 lightweight, all-metal, 450 °F (232 °C) nutplate. Nutplates can also have three riveting
points if the added strength is required.
Airframe Powerplant
53
Figure 5.22 Various Nutplates
Rivnuts
This is the trade name of a hollow, blind rivet made of 6053 aluminum alloy, counterbored and threaded on the inside. Rivnuts can be
installed by one person using a special tool which heads the rivet on the blind side of the material. The Rivnut is threaded on the mandrel of
the heading tool and inserted in the rivet hole. The heading tool is held at right angles to the material, the handle is squeezed, and the
mandrel crank is turned clockwise after each stroke. Continue squeezing the handle and turning the mandrel crank of the heading tool until
a solid resistance is felt, which indicates that the rivet is set.
Airframe Powerplant
54
The Rivnut is used primarily as a nut plate and in the attachment of deicer boots to the leading edges of wings. It may be used as a rivet in
secondary structures or for the attachment of accessories such as brackets, fairings, instruments, or soundproofing materials.
Rivnuts are manufactured in two head types, each with two ends: the fathead with open or closed end, and the countersunk head with
open or closed end. All Rivnuts, except the thin head countersunk type, are available with or without small projections (keys) attached to
the head to keep the Rivnut from turning. Keyed Rivnuts are used as a nut plate, while those without keys are used for straight blind riveting
repairs where no torque loads are imposed. A keyway cutter is needed when installing Rivnuts which have keys.
The countersunk style Rivnut is made with two differ-ent head angles: the 100° with 0.048 and 0.063 inch head thickness, and the 115° with
0.063 inch head thickness. Each of these head styles is made in three sizes: 6-32, 8-32, and 10-32. These numbers represent the machine
screw size of the threads on the inside of the Rivnut. The actual outside diameters of the shanks are 3⁄16 inch for the 6-32 size, 7⁄32 inch for
the 8-32 size, and 1⁄4 inch for the 10-32 size.
Open end Rivnuts are the most widely used and are recommended in preference to the closed end type wherever possible. However, closed
end Rivnuts must be used in pressurized compartments.
Rivnuts are manufactured in six grip ranges. The minimum grip length is indicated by a plain head, and the next higher grip length by one
radial dash mark on the head. Each succeeding grip range is indicated by an additional radial dash mark until fivemarks indicate the
maximum range.
Dill Lok-Skrus and Dill Lok-Rivets
Dill “Lok-Skru” and “Lok-Rivet” (figure 5.23) are trade names for internally threaded rivets. They are used for blind attachment of such
accessories as fairings, fllets, access door covers, door and window frames, foor panels, and the like. Lok-Skrus and Lok-Rivets are similar to
the Rivnut in appearance and application; however, they come in two parts and require more clearance on the blind side than the Rivnut to
accommodate the barrel.
The Lok-Rivet and the Lok-Skru are alike in con-struction, except the Lok-Skru is tapped internally for fastening an accessory by using an
Airframe Powerplant
55
attaching screw, whereas the Lok-Rivet is not tapped and can be used only as a rivet. Since both Lok-Skrus and Lok-Rivets are installed in the
same manner, the following discus-sions for the Lok-Skru also applies to the Lok-Rivet.
Airframe Powerplant
56
Figure 5.23 Internally threaded rivet (Rivnut)
The main parts of a Lok-Skru are the barrel, the head, and an attachment screw. The barrel is made of aluminum alloy and comes in either
closed or open ends. The head is either aluminum alloy or steel, and the attachment screw is made of steel. All of the steel parts are
cadmium plated, and all of aluminum parts are anodized to resist corrosion. When installed, the barrel screws up over the head and grips
the metal on the blind side. The attaching screw is then inserted if needed. There are two head types: the flatheadand the countersunk
head. The Lok-Skru is tapped for 7-32, 8-32, 10-32, or 10-24 screws, and the diameters vary from 0.230 inch for 6-32 screws, to 0.292 inch for
10-32 screws. Grip ranges vary from 0.010 inch to 0.225 inch.
Deutsch Rivets
This rivet is a high strength blind rivet used on late model aircraft. It has a minimum shear strength of 75,000 psi, and can be installed by one
person. The Deutsch rivet consists of two parts: the stainless steel sleeve and the hardened steel drive pin. [Figure 5.24] The pin and sleeve
are coated with a lubricant and a corrosion inhibitor.
The Deutsch rivet is available in diameters of 3⁄16, 1⁄4, or 3⁄8 inch. Grip lengths for this rivet range from 3⁄16 to 1 inch. Some variation is
Airframe Powerplant
57
allowed in grip length when installing the rivet; for example, a rivet with a grip length of 3⁄16 inch can be used where the total thickness of
materials is between 0.198 and 0.228 inch.
When driving a Deutsch rivet, an ordinary hammer or a pneumatic rivet gun and a flatheadset are used. The rivet is seated in the previously
drilled hole and then the pin is driven into the sleeve. The driving action causes the pin to exert pressure against the sleeve and forces the
sides of the sleeve out. This stretching forms a shop head on the end of the rivet and provides positive fastening. The ridge on the top of the
rivet head locks the pin into the rivet as the last few blows are struck.
Figure 5.24 Deutsch rivet
WASHERS
Aircraft washers used in airframe repair are either plain, lock, or special type washers.
Plain Washers
Plain washers [Figure 5.25], both the AN960 and AN970, are used under hex nuts. They provide a smooth bearing surface and act as a shim
in obtaining correct grip length for a bolt and nut assembly. They are used to adjust the position of castellated nuts in respect to drilled
cotter pin holes in bolts. Use plain washers under lockwashers to prevent damage to the surface material.
Airframe Powerplant
58
Figure 5.25 Types of washers
Aluminum and aluminum alloy washers may be used under bolt heads or nuts on aluminum alloy or magnesium structures where corrosion
caused by dissimilar metals is a factor. When used in this manner, any electric current flowwill be between the washer and the steel bolt.
However, it is common practice to use a cadmium plated steel washer under a nut bearing directly against a structure as this washer will
resist the cutting action of a nut better than an aluminum alloy washer.
Airframe Powerplant
59
The AN970 steel washer provides a greater bearing area than the AN960 washer and is used on wooden structures under both the head and
the nut of a bolt to prevent crushing the surface.
Lockwashers
Lockwashers, both the AN935 and AN936, are used with machine screws or bolts where the self-locking or castellated-type nut is not
appropriate. The spring action of the washer (AN935) provides enough friction to prevent loosening of the nut from vibration. [Figure 5.25]
Lockwashers should never be used under the follow-ing conditions:
• With fasteners to primary or secondary structures
• With fasteners on any part of the aircraft where failure might result in damage or danger to the aircraft or personnel
• Where failure would permit the opening of a joint to the airflow
• Where the screw is subject to frequent removal
• Where the washers are exposed to the airflow
• Where the washers are subject to corrosive conditions
• Where the washer is against soft material without a plain washer underneath to prevent gouging the surface
Shakeproof Lockwashers
Shakeproof lockwashers are round washers designed with tabs or lips that are bent upward across the sides of a hex nut or bolt to lock the
nut in place. There are various methods of securing the lockwasher to prevent it from turning, such as an external tab bent downward 90°
into a small hole in the face of the unit, or an internal tab which fits a keyed bolt.
Airframe Powerplant
60
Shakeproof lockwashers can withstand higher heat than other methods of safetying and can be used under high vibration conditions safely.
They should be used only once because the tabs tend to break when bent a second time.
Special Washers
The ball socket and seat washers, AC950 and AC955, are special washers used where a bolt is installed at an angle to a surface, or where
perfect alignment with a surface is required. These washers are used together.
Washers such as ball socket and seat washers, taper in washers, and washers for internal-wrenching nuts and bolts have been designed for
special applications. Ball socket and seat washers are used where a bolt is installed at an angle to the surface, or where perfect alignment
with the surface is required at all times. These washers are used together. Taper pin washers are used in conjunction with threaded taper
pins. They are installed under the nut to effect adjustement where a plain washer would distort. Wahers for internal-wrenching nuts and
bolts are used in conjunction with NAS internal-wrenching bolts. The washer used under the head is countersunk to seat the bolt head or
shank radius. A plain washer is used under the nut.
The NAS143 and MS20002 washers are used for inter-nal wrenching bolts of the NAS144 through NAS158 series. This washer is either plain
or countersunk. The countersunk washer (designated as NAS143C and MS20002C) is used to seat the bolt head shank radius, and the plain
washer is used under the nut.
RIVETS
Sheets of metal must be fastened together to form the aircraft structure, and this is usually done with solid aluminum alloy rivets. A rivet is a
metal pin with a formed head on one end when the rivet is manufac-tured. The shank of the rivet is inserted into a drilled hole, and its shank
is then upset (deformed) by a hand or pneumatic tool. The second head, formed either by hand or by pneumatic equipment, is called a
“shop head.” The shop head functions in the same manner as a nut on a bolt. In addition to their use for joining aircraft skin sections, rivets
are also used for joining spar sections, for holding rib sections in place, for securing fittings to various parts of the aircraft, and for fastening
Airframe Powerplant
61
innumerable bracing members and other parts together. The rivet creates a bond that is at least as strong as the material being joined.
Two of the major types of rivets used in aircraft are the common solid shank type, which must be driven using a bucking bar, and the special
(blind) rivets, which may be installed where it is impossible to use a bucking bar.
Aircraft rivets are not hardware store rivets. Rivets purchased at a hardware store should never be used as a substitute for aircraft quality
rivets. The rivets may be made from very different materials, the strength of the rivets differs greatly, and their shear strength qualities are
very different. The countersunk heads on hardware store rivets are 78°, whereas countersunk aircraft rivets have 100° angle heads for more
surface contact to hold it in place.
The fact that there are thousands of rivets in an airframe is an indication of how important riveting is in the AM rating. A glance at any
aircraft will show the thousands of rivets in the outer skin alone. Besides the riveted skin, rivets are also used for joining spar sections, for
holding rib sections in place, for securing fittings to various parts of the aircraft, and for fastening bracing members and other parts
together. Rivets that are satisfactory for one part of the aircraft are often unsatisfactory for another part. Therefore, it is important that you
know the strength and driving properties of the various types of rivets and how to identify them, as well as how to drive or install them.
SOLID RIVETS
Solid rivets are classified by their head shape, by the material from which they are manufactured, and by their size. Rivet head shapes and
their identifying code numbers are shown in figure 5.26. The prefix MS identifies hardware that conforms to written military standards. The
prefix AN identifies specifications that are developed and issued under the joint authority of the Air Force and the Navy. The rivet codes
shown are sufficient to identify rivets only by head shape. To be meaningful and precisely identify a rivet, certain other information is
encoded and added to the basic code.
When a MS20426-AD4-6 rivet is required, the specifications have already been written for it in the Military Standard (MS) specifications. That
information is available to the aircraft manufacturers and to the rivet manufacturers as well as to the mechanic. The specifications designate
the material to be used as well as the head type, diameter, and length of the rivet. The use of standardized materials in the production of
Airframe Powerplant
62
aircraft makes each aircraft exactly the same as the previous one and makes them less expensive to build.
Figure 5.26 Rivet Head Types
Aircraft rivets are manufactured to much higher stan-dards and specificationsthan rivets manufactured for general use. When aircraft
manufacturers started build-ing all-metal aircraft in the 1930s, different manufac-turers had different rivet head designs. Brazier heads,
modifed brazier heads, button heads, mushroom heads, flatheads,and 78° countersunk heads were used. As aircraft standardized, four rivet
head designs almost completely replaced all of the others. Rivets exposed to the airflow over the top of the structure are usuallyeither
universal head MS20470 or 100° countersunk head MS20426 rivets. For rivets used in internal structures, the roundhead MS20430 and the
flat head MS20442 are generally used.
Solid shank rivets are generally used in repair work. They are identifiedby the kind of material of which they are made, their head type, size
of shank, and their temper condition. The designation of the solid shank rivet head type, such as universal head, roundhead,
flathead,countersunk head, and brazier head, depends on the cross-sectional shape of the head. [Figure 5.27] The temper designation and
strength are indicated by special markings on the head of the rivet.
Airframe Powerplant
63
Figure 5.27. Rivet Identification
Airframe Powerplant
64
The material used for the majority of aircraft solid shank rivets is aluminum alloy. The strength and temper conditions of aluminum alloy
rivets are identified by digits and letters similar to those adopted for the identifcation of strength and temper conditions of alu-minum and
aluminum alloy stock. The 1100, 2017-T, 2024-T, 2117-T, and 5056 rivets are the fivegrades usually available.
• Brazier head: has a head of larger diameter, making it suitable for riveting thin sheet. It offers only a slight resistance to airflow and
is often used on exterior skins, especially on aft sections of fuselage and empennage. A modified brazier head rivet is also produced
which has a reduced head diameter.
• Countersunk head: this rivet is flat topped and beveled towards the shank so that it can be installed into a countersunk or dimpled
hole and so be flush with the material's surface. The countersunk angle may vary from 78° to 120 o (the 100° rivet being the most
common type). Countersunk rivets are used to fasten metal sheets which overlap others. They are also used on exterior surfaces of
the aircraft, because they offer only a slight resistance to airflow and therefore minimize turbulence.
• Flathead: used on interior structures, where there is insufficient clearance to use a roundhead rivet.
• Roundhead: used in the interior of the aircraft and has a deep rounded top section. The head is large enough to strengthen the
sheet around the hole and to offer resistance to tension.
• Universal head: this rivet is a combination of brazier, flathead and roundhead. It is used in aircraft construction and repair in both
interior and exterior locations. It may be used as a replacement for all protruding head types of rivet.
Standards and Specifications
Standards for British Solid rivets are issued by the Society of British Aerospace SBAC (AS series) or the British Standards Institute (SP series).
The standards overlap to a certain extent, with obsolete rivets, in the AS range, being replaced by SP rivets. A standard number and a part
number are used to identify rivets. The standard number identifies the head shape, material and finish. This is followed by a three or four
figure code, the first one or two figures indicating the shank diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch and the last two, the length in sixteenths
of an inch.
Airframe Powerplant
65
Example:
A British rivet, with the identifying code AS 162-408, would be a 90° countersunk, aluminium alloy (5% magnesium) rivet, of 1/8 inch
diameter and 1/2 inch long. The AS 162 indicates the head type and material, while the `-4' indicates that it has a 4/32 inch (1/8 inch)
diameter and '08' indicates it has a length of 8/16 inch (1/2 inch).
On the tablebelow give details on materials and identification marks for the various types of AS rivets. Many of these rivets are obsolescent
and have been superseded by rivets conforming to SP standards. The tables give details of material and identification information for SP
rivets with the standard numbers shown in table. SP rivets are also available in metric sizes. Note: The colour coding (of both British systems)
of solid rivets is generally the same as that used for the similar material in the other system. For example (in both systems) pure aluminium
rivets are black, Hiduminium rivets are violet, Monel rivets are natural and 5% magnesium rivets are green. This way of coding allows
material types to be more easily identified.
MATERIAL SPEC MATERIAL TYPE IDENTIFICATION MARKS FINISH
L37 Dural 'D' on shank end Natural
L58 Al. Alloy (5% Mg.) 'X' on shank end Dyed or Anodized Green
L86 Hiduminium 'S' on shank end Dyed Violet
DTD 204 Monel 'M' on shank end Natural or Cadmium Plated
Table Material Identification of ÀS' Rivets
Airframe Powerplant
66
MATERIAL
SNAP MUSH 900 CSK 1000 CSK 1200 CSK 90° CLOSETOL.
SPEC.
L37 AS 156 AS158 AS 161 - AS 164 AS2918
L58 AS 157 AS159 AS 162 AS4716 AS 165 -
L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
DTD 204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
Table Typical Specification Numbers of 'AS' Rivets
Airframe Powerplant
67
IDENTIFICATION MARKS
MATERIAL. SPEC. MATERIAL TYPE FINISH
(ON SHANK END)
L36 Aluminium 'I' Black Anodic
L37 Dural '7' Natural
L58 Al. Alloy (5% Mg.) ‘8' Green Anodic
L86 Hiduminium '0' Violet
BS1109 Steel - Cadmium
DTD204 Monel 'M' Natural or Cadmium
Table Material Identification of 'SP' Rivets
MATERIAL.SPEC. SNAP HEAD MUSHROOM HEAD 100° CSK HEAD
L36 SP77 - SP68
L37 SP78 SP83 SP69
L58 SP79 SP84 SP70
L86 SP80 SP85 SP71
BS1109 SP76 - SP86
DTD204 SP81 - SP87
Table Typical Specification Numbers of 'SP' Rivets
Airframe Powerplant
68
The 1100 rivet, which is composed of 99.45 percent pure aluminum, is very soft. It is for riveting the softer aluminum alloys, such as 1100,
3003, and 5052, which are used for nonstructural parts (all parts where strength is not a factor). The riveting of map cases is a good example
of where a rivet of 1100 aluminum alloy may be used.
Alloy 1100 rivets are supplied as fabricated (F) temper, and are driven in this condition. No further treatment of the rivet is required before
use, and the rivet's properties do not change with prolonged periods of storage. They are relatively soft and easy to drive. The cold work
resulting from driving increases their strength slightly. The 1100-F rivets are used only for riveting non-structural parts.
The 2117-T rivet, known as the field rivet, is used more than any other for riveting aluminum alloy structures. The field rivet is in wide
demand because it is ready for use as received and needs no further heat treating or annealing. It also has a high resistance to corrosion.
Like the 1100-F rivets, these rivets need no further treatment before use and can be stored indefinitely. They are furnished in the solution-
heat-treated (T4) temper, but change to thesolution-heat-treated and cold-worked (T3) temper after driving. The 2117-T4 rivet is in general
use throughout aircraft structures, and is by far the most widely used rivet, especially in repair work. In most cases the 2117-T4 rivet may be
substituted for 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 rivets for repair work by using a rivet with the next larger diameter. This is desirable since both the
2017T4 and 2024-T4 rivets must be heat treated before they are used or kept in cold storage. The 2117-T4 rivets are identified by a dimple in
the head.
The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets are used in aluminum alloy structures where more strength is needed than is obtainable with the same size
2217-T rivet. These rivets are known as “ice box rivets,” are annealed, and must be kept refrigerated until they are to be driven. The 2017-T
rivet should be driven within approximately 1 hour and the 2024-T rivet within 10 to 20 minutes after removal from refrigeration.
As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, both these rivets are supplied in the T4 temper and must be heat treated. These rivets must be
driven within 20 minutes after quenching or refrigerated at or below 32°F to delay the aging time 24 hours. If either time is exceeded, reheat
treatment is required. These rivets may be reheated as many times as desired, provided the proper solution heat-treatment temperature is
not exceeded. The 2024-T4 rivets are stronger than the 2017-T4 and are therefore, harder to drive. The 2017-T4 rivet is identified by the
raised teat on the head, while the 2024-T4 has two raised dashes on the head.
Airframe Powerplant
69
The 5056 rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy structures because of its corrosion-resistant qualities in combination with magnesium.
These rivets are used primarily for joining magnesium alloy structures because of their corrosion-resistant qualities. They are supplied in the
H32 temper (strain hardened and then stabilized). These rivets are identified by a raised cross on the head. The 5056-H32 rivet may be
stored indefinitely with no change in its driving characteristics.
MATERIAL OR ALLOY CODE LETTERS HEAD MARKING ON RIVET
1100-F A Plain
2117-T4 AD Dimple
2017-T4 D Raised Teat
2024-T4 DD Raised Double Dash
5056 H32 B Raised Cross
CARBON STEEL Recessed Triangle
MATERIAL OR ALLOY CODE LETTERS HEAD MARKING ON RIVET
CORROSION RESISTANCE STEEL F PLAIN
MONEL, FEDERAL SPECIFICATION M RAISED DOUBLE TEATS
COPPER, FEDERAL SPECIFICATION C PLAIN
RIVET HEAD MARKINGS AND CODE LETTERS
Airframe Powerplant
70
Example:
An American AN system rivet with the identifying code AN470 AD 3-5, would be a Universal head, aluminium alloy (2117-T) rivet, of 3/32
inch diameter with a shank length of 5/16 inch.
Note: With countersunk rivets, the length is the overall length.
Head markings, using dimples and raised dots (or dashes and rings) are also used as an aid to indicate the material content of the rivets.
Protective surface coatings, used by the manufacturers, are shown by colour, where zinc chromate is usually yellow, an anodized rivet is
usually pearl grey and a metal sprayed rivet has a silvery grey colour.
Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts while Corrosion Resistant Steel rivets are used for riveting CRS components in fire-walls and
exhaust areas etc.
Note: The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet manufactured from mild steel.
Monel (M) rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys. They may also be used as a substitute for CRS rivets when specified.
Copper (C) rivets are also available, but their use is limited on aircraft. They may only be used on copper alloys or non-metallic materials,
such as leather.
Note: Most metals, including aircraft rivets, are subject to corrosion. This may be the result of local climatic conditions or the fabrication
process used. It can be reduced to a minimum by using the correct materials and by the use of protective coatings on the structure and the
rivets. The use of dissimilar metals should be avoided where possible and, as previously stated, the rivet manufacturers usually apply a
protective coating on the rivets, which may be either of a zinc chromate, a metal spray or an anodic film finish.
The use of copper rivets in aircraft repair is limited. Copper rivets can be used only on copper alloys or nonmetallic materials such as leather.
Metal temper is an important factor in the riveting process, especially with aluminum alloy rivets. Aluminum alloy rivets have the same heat-
treating characteristics as aluminum alloy stock. They can be hardened and annealed in the same manner as aluminum. The rivet must be
soft, or comparatively soft, before a good head can be formed. The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets are annealed before being driven. They harden
Airframe Powerplant
71
with age.
The process of heat treating (annealing) rivets is much the same as that for stock. Either an electric air furnace, a salt bath, or a hot oil bath is
needed. The heat-treat-ing range, depending on the alloy, is 625 °F to 950 °F. For convenient handling, rivets are heated in a tray or a wire
basket. They are quenched in cold water (70 °F) immediately after heat treating.
The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets, which are heat-treatable rivets, begin to age harden within a few minutes after being exposed to room
temperature. Therefore, they must be used immediately after quenching or else be placed in cold storage.
The most commonly used means for holding heat-treat-able rivets at low temperature (below 32 °F) is to keep them in a refrigerator. They
are referred to as “icebox” rivets. Under this storage condition, they will remain soft enough for driving for periods up to 2 weeks. Any rivets
not used within that time should be removed for reheat treating.
Icebox rivets attain about one-half their maximum strength in approximately 1 hour after driving and full strength in about 4 days. When
2017-T rivets are exposed to room temperature for 1 hour or longer, they must be subject to reheat treatment. This also applies to 2024-T
rivets exposed to room temperature for a period exceeding 10 minutes.
Once an icebox rivet has been taken from the refrigera-tor, it should not be mixed with the rivets still in cold storage. If more rivets are
removed from the refrig-erator than can be used in 15 minutes, they should be placed in a separate container and stored for reheat
treatment. Heat treatment of rivets may be repeated a number of times if done properly.
Most metals, and therefore aircraft rivet stock, are sub-ject to corrosion. Corrosion may be the result of local climatic conditions or the
fabrication process used. It is reduced to a minimum by using metals which are highly resistant to corrosion and possess the correct
strength-to-weight ratio.
Ferrous metals placed in contact with moist salt air will rust if not properly protected. Nonferrous metals, those without an iron base, do not
rust, but a similar process known as corrosion takes place. The salt in moist air (found in the coastal areas) attacks the aluminum alloys. It is a
common experience to inspect the rivets of an aircraft which has been operated near salt water and find them badly corroded.
If a copper rivet is inserted into an aluminum alloy structure, two dissimilar metals are brought in contact with each other. Remember, all
Airframe Powerplant
72
metals possess a small electrical potential. Dissimilar metals in contact with each other in the presence of moisture cause an electrical
current to flowbetween them and chemical byproducts to be formed. Principally, this results in the deterioration of one of the metals.
Certain aluminum alloys react to each other and, therefore, must be thought of as dissimilar metals. The commonly used aluminum alloys
may be divided into the two groups shown in tabel.
GROUP A GROUP B
1100 2117
3003 2017
5052 2124
6053 7075
Identification
Markings on the heads of rivets are used to classify their characteristics. These markings may be either a raised teat, two raised teats, a
dimple, a pair of raised dashes, a raised cross, a single triangle, or a raised dash; some other heads have no markings.
The different markings indicate the composition of the rivet stock. As explained previously, the rivets have different colors to identify the
manufacturers’ protec-tive surface coating.
Roundhead rivets are used in the interior of the air-craft, except where clearance is required for adjacent members. The roundhead rivet has
a deep, rounded top surface. The head is large enough to strengthen the sheet around the hole and, at the same time, offer resistance to
tension.
The flatheadrivet, like the roundhead rivet, is used on interior structures. It is used where maximum strength is needed and where there isn’t
sufficient clearance to use a roundhead rivet. It is seldom, if ever, used on external surfaces. The brazier head rivet has a head of large
Airframe Powerplant
73
diameter, which makes it particularly adaptable for riveting thin sheet stock (skin). The brazier head rivet offers only slight resistance to the
airflo, and because of this factor, it is frequently used for riveting skin on exterior surfaces, especially on aft sections of the fuselage and
empennage. It is used for riveting thin sheets exposed to the slipstream. A modified brazier head rivet is also manufactured; it is simply a
brazier head of reduced diameter.
The universal head rivet is a combination of the roundhead, fathead, and brazier head. It is used in aircraft construction and repair in both
interior and exterior locations. When replacement is necessary for protruding head rivets—roundhead, flathead,or brazier head—they can
be replaced by universal head rivets.
The countersunk head rivet is flattopped and beveled toward the shank so that it fitsinto a countersunk or dimpled hole and is flushwith the
material’s surface. The angle at which the head slopes may vary from 78° to 120°. The 100° rivet is the most commonly used type. These
rivets are used to fasten sheets over which other sheets must fit.They are also used on exterior surfaces of the aircraft because they offer
only slight resistance to the slipstream and help to minimize turbulent airflow.
The markings on the heads of rivets indicate the material of which they are made and, therefore, their strength. Although there are three
materials indicated by a plain head, it is possible to distinguish their difference by color. The 1100 is aluminum color; the mild steel is a typi-
cal steel color; and the copper rivet is a copper color. Any head marking can appear on any head style of the same material. Each type of
rivet is identifed by a part number so that the user can select the correct rivet for the job. The type of rivet head is identifiedby AN or MS
standard numbers.
The most common numbers and the types of heads they represent are:
AN426 or MS20426 - countersunk head rivets (100°)

AN430 or MS20430 - roundhead rivets
AN441 - flathead rivet
AN456 - brazier head rivets
AN470 or MS20470 - universal head rivets
Airframe Powerplant
74
There are also letters and numbers added to a part number. The letters designate alloy content; the numbers designate rivet diameter and
length. The letters in common use for alloy designation are:
A - aluminum alloy, 1100 or 3003 composition

AD - aluminum alloy, 2117-T composition
D - aluminum alloy, 2017-T composition
DD - aluminum alloy, 2024-T composition
B - aluminum alloy, 5056 composition
C - copper
M - monel
The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet manufactured from mild steel.The first number following the
material composition letters expresses the diameter of the rivet shank in 32nds of an inch (Examples: 3 indicates 3⁄32, 5 indicates 5⁄32, and
so forth).
The last number(s), separated by a dash from the preceding number, expresses the length of the rivet shank in 16ths of an inch (Examples: 3
indicates 3⁄16, 7 indicates 7⁄16, 11 indicates 11⁄16, and so forth).
An example of identif cation marking of a rivet is:
AN 470 AD 3-5
AN - Air Force-Navy standard number
470 - universal head rivet
AD - 2117-T aluminum alloy
3 - 3⁄32 in diameter
Airframe Powerplant
75
5 - 5⁄16 in length
MS20 426 AD 5 - 8
MS20 - Specification (Military Standard)
426 - Head Style (Countersunk)
AD - Material or Alloy (2117 T4)
5 - Diameter in thirty-seconds ( 5/32 of an inch)
8 - Length in sixteenths (8/16 of an inch)
BLIND RIVETS
There are many places on an aircraft where access to both sides of a riveted structure or structural part is impossible, or where limited space
will not permit the use of a bucking bar. Also, in the attachment of many nonstructural parts, such as aircraft interior furnishings, flooring,
deicing boots, and the like, the full strength of solid shank rivets is not necessary.
For use in such places, special rivets have been designed which can be bucked from the front. They are sometimes lighter than solid shank
rivets, yet amply strong for their intended use. These rivets are produced by several manufacturers and have unique characteristics that
require special installation tools, special installation procedures and special removal procedures. That is why they are called special rivets.
Because these rivets are often inserted in locations where one head (usually the shop head) cannot be seen, they are also called blind rivets.
These rivets are often lighter than solid rivets, yet amply strong enough for their intended use. The rivets are produced by several
manufacturers, and have unique characteristics requiring special installation tools and procedures. The same, general, basic information,
relating to their fabrication, composition, uses, and selection, installation, inspection and removal procedures applies to most of them.
Hollow rivets that can be closed by pulling a mandrel through them are often known as 'blind' rivets and these in turn can be described as
Airframe Powerplant
76
Mechanically Expanded Rivets. Two classes (can fall into one of three main types) of mechanically expanded rivets are discussed here:
(1) Nonstructural.
(a) Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets.
(b) Pull-thru rivets.
(2) Mechanical lock, flush fracturing, self-plugging rivets.
Where blind or hollow rivets are installed in place of solid rivets, (due, perhaps, to the lack of access to the both sides of the joint), they must,
in the absence of specific instructions, be of the same material as the original solid rivet, and be of equivalent shear strength. The shear
strength, of the rivet, may be increased, by using a form of 'plug' to fill the hollow shank of the rivet.
Self-Plugging Rivets (friction lock)
The self-plugging (friction lock) blind rivets are manufactured by several companies; the same general basic information about their
fabrication, composition, uses, selection, installation, inspection, and removal procedures apply to all of them.
Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets are fabricated in two parts: a rivet head with a hollow shank or sleeve, and a stem that extends through
the hollow shank. Figure 5.28 illustrates a protruding head and a countersunk head self-plugging rivet produced by one manufacturer.
Several events, in their proper sequence, occur when a pulling force is applied to the stem of the rivet:
(1) The stem is pulled into the rivet shank;
(2) The mandrel portion of the stem forces the rivet shank to expand; and
(3) When friction (or pulling action pressure) becomes great enough, it will cause the stem to snap at a breakoff groove on the stem. The
plug portion (bottom end of the stem) is retained in the shank of the rivet giving the rivet much greater shear strength than could be
obtained from a hollow rivet.
Airframe Powerplant
77
Figure 5.28 Self-Plugging (Friction lock Rivets
Note: With this type of rivet, the stem is often designed to break above the rivet head, necessitating a further action, which entails cutting
off the extra portion of the stem with snips (or a specialized pneumatic gun) and milling the exposed portion flush with the head. This type
of rivet is going out of style because of the extra work involved with setting it.
Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets are fabricated in two common head styles:
(1) A protruding head similar to the MS20470 or universal head, and
(2) A 100° countersunk head. Other head styles are available from some manufacturers.
The stem of the self-plugging (friction lock) rivet may have a knot or knob on the upper portion, or it may have a serrated portion. Self-
Airframe Powerplant
78
plugging (friction lock) rivets are fabricated from several materials. Rivets are available in the following material combinations: stem 2017
aluminum alloy and sleeve 2117 aluminum alloy; stem 2017 aluminum alloy and sleeve 5056 aluminum alloy; and stem steel and sleeve
steel.
Self-plugging (friction lock) rivets are designed so that installation requires only one person; it is not necessary to have the work accessible
from both sides. The pulling strength of the rivet stem is such that a uniform job can always be assured. Because it is not necessary to have
access to the opposite side of the work, self-plugging (friction lock) rivets can be used to attach assemblies to hollow tubes, corrugated
sheet, hollow boxes, and so forth. Because a hammering force is not necessary to install the rivet, it can be used to attach assemblies to
plywood or plastics.
Factors to consider in the selection of the correct rivet for installation are:
(1) installation location,
(2) Composition of the material being riveted,
(3) Thickness of the material being riveted, and
(4) Strength desired.
If the rivet is to be installed on an aerodynamically smooth surface, or if clearance for an assembly is needed, countersunk head rivets should
be selected. In other areas where clearance or smoothness is not a factor, the protruding head type rivet may be utilized.
Material composition of the rivet shank depends upon the type of material being riveted. Aluminum alloy 2117 shank rivets can be used on
most aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloy 5056 shank rivets should be used when the material being riveted is magnesium. Steel rivets should
always be selected for riveting assemblies fabricated from steel.
The thickness of the material being riveted determines the overall length of the shank of the rivet. As a general rule, the shank of the rivet
should extend beyond the material thickness approximately 3⁄64 inch to 1⁄8 inch before the stem is pulled. (figure 5.29)
Airframe Powerplant
79
Figure 5.29 Determining lenght of friction lock rivets
Pull-Thru Rivets
The pull-thru blind rivets are manufactured by several companies; the same general basic information about their fabrication, composition,
uses, selection, installation, inspection, and removal procedures apply to all of them.
Pull-thru rivets are fabricated in two parts: a rivet head with a hollow shank or sleeve and a stem that extends through the hollow shank.
Figure 5.27 illustrates a protruding head and a countersunk head pull-thru rivet.
Several events, in their proper sequence, occur when a pulling force is applied to the stem of the rivet:
(1) The stem is pulled through the rivet shank;
(2) The mandrel portion of the stem forces the shank to expand forming the blind head and filling the hole
Pull-thru rivets are fabricated in two common head styles: (1) protruding head similar to the MS20470 or universal head, and (2) a 100°
countersunk head. Other head styles are available from some manufacturers.
Airframe Powerplant
80
Pull-thru rivets are fabricated from several materials. Following are the most commonly used: 2117-T4 alu-minum alloy, 5056 aluminum
alloy, Monel.
Pull-thru rivets are designed so that installation requires only one person; it is not necessary to have the work accessible from both sides.
Figure 5.30 Determining lenght of pull-thru rivets
Factors to consider in the selection of the correct rivet for installation are:
(1) Installation location,
Airframe Powerplant
81
(2) Composition of the material being riveted,
(3) Thickness of the material being riveted, and
(4) Strength desired.
The thickness of the material being riveted determines the overall length of the shank of the rivet. As a general rule, the shank of the rivet
should extend beyond the material thickness approximately 3⁄64 inch to 1⁄8 inch before the stem is pulled. [Figure 5.30]
Each company that manufactures pull-thru rivets has a code number to help users obtain correct rivet for the grip range of a particular
installation. In addition, MS numbers are used for identifcation purposes. Numbers are similar to those shown on the preceding pages.
Self-Plugging Rivets (Mechanical Lock)
Self-plugging (mechanical lock) rivets are similar to self-plugging (friction lock) rivets, except for the manner in which the stem is retained in
the rivet sleeve. This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking collar to resist vibrations that cause the friction lock rivets to loosen and
possibly fall out. [Figure 5.31] Also, the mechanical locking type rivet stem breaks off fush with the head and usually does not require further
stem trimming when properly installed. Self-plugging (mechanical lock) rivets display all the strength characteristics of solid shank rivets
and in most cases can be substituted rivet for rivet.
Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets display all the strength of solid rivets and, in most cases, can be substituted rivet for rivet. Three
operations are performed when the rivet is installed (generally using a pneumatic gun):
• When pulling force is exerted on the stem, the stem is pulled in, forming the blind head and clamping the sheets of metal together.
• At a pre-determined point, the inner anvil, incorporated in the gun, forces the locking collar into position.
• The rivet stem snaps off approximately flush with the head of the rivet.
Airframe Powerplant
82
Figure 5.31 Self-Plugging (Mechanical lock) Rivets
Grip Range
Unlike a solid rivet, the part of a blind rivet, available to form a head cannot always be seen. It is, therefore, necessary to know the range of
total material thickness that a given rivet can fasten together.
This is known as the 'Grip Range' of the rivet and requires the use of a gauge to measure the material thickness (refer to figure 5.32), which is
used in conjunction with a rivet data table.
Airframe Powerplant
83
Figure 5.32 Grip Range Gauge (Rivet Dipper)
Different types of these rivets are supplied, either complete with individual mandrels or as individual rivets, used with a re-usable steel
mandrel, which is drawn completely through the rivets. In some cases, the rivets may be plugged with sealing pins which, as previously
stated, give them additional strength as well as sealing them.
Airframe Powerplant
84
Tucker ‘Pop’ Rivet
Tucker 'Pop' rivets (refer to figure 5.33) are supplied mounted on steel mandrels. The head of the mandrel is pulled into the rivet, expanding
it, before the mandrel fractures at the waisted portion. This waisted portion may either be near to the head of the rivet, or part way up the
stem. In the first case the rivet will be classified as `Break Head' (BH) and in the second case, 'Break Stem' (BS)
Figure 5.33 Tucker Pop Rivet
The rivets are set, using a pair of 'Pop' pliers or by the use of a hydro-pneumatic gun. 'Pop' rivets are less suitable for use on aircraft as they
tend to loosen with vibration and then become increasingly difficult to remove, because of the looseness and the presence of the steel
mandrel. (They also tend to spin when attempts are made to drill them out).
Break head rivets must not be used if the structure is not accessible to retrieve the mandrel heads. It is sometimes permitted for the
mandrels of Break Stem rivets to be dipped in an adhesive, so that they will not vibrate loose after installation. If Tucker 'Pop' rivets are to be
Airframe Powerplant
85
used externally on aircraft, the heads must be sealed to prevent the ingress of dirt and moisture. Cellulose Metallic Filler is often
recommended for this purpose.
The rivets are manufactured in either aluminium alloy or cadmium-plated Monel metal, with either dome heads or 100° and 120°
countersunk heads. The AGS reference number consists of the AGS number identifying the material and head type, a three figure size code
and letters specifying Break Head or Break Stem. In the size code the first figure represents the diameter, in increments of 1/32 inch while
the last two figures indicate the length in increments of 1/10 inch.
Example:
A rivet, with the designation code AGS2051/537/BS, would be a Tucker `Pop', made from Monel metal, with a 120° Csk. Head. The figure 537
indicates that its diameter is 5/32 inch and its length is 0.37 inch. BS shows that it is a Break Stem.
Note: Care must be taken to ensure all remaining stems and swarf, are totally removed from the aircraft, on completion of work, when using
these rivets. For this reason, tucker pop rivets are considered NOT to be fully 'blind rivets' since the broken stem cannot be retrieved if access
to the blind side is not available.
Avdel Rivets
Avdel rivets (refer to figure 5.34) are rarely used today, but may be found on older aircraft. To close the rivet, the stem is pulled through and,
at a predetermined load; the stem breaks proud of the manufactured head of the rivet, plugging the rivet body. Whilst the stems can be
milled off on alloy rivets, those manufactured of stainless steel or titanium break flush with the rivet head. A flush finish is required for
aerodynamic reasons.
Avdel rivets are pre-lubricated by the manufacturer, to facilitate forming the rivet. They should NEVER be de-greased in solvent before use.
Airframe Powerplant
86
Figure 5.34 Avdel Rivet Installation
Chobert Rivets
Chobert rivets (refer to figure 5.35) are also similar to Tucker 'Pop' rivets, but have a tapered bore. The head of the mandrel is re-usable, and
is pulled fully through the rivet on forming.
This gives an advantage of no loose articles after the riveting operation is completed. The mandrel is drawn through the rivet using a special
tool, which carries a number of rivets on the mandrel to allow repetitive and faster riveting. The tool simply feeds the next rivet into place
after the closure of the previous one.
Airframe Powerplant
87
Figure 5.35 Chobert Rivet
Where additional shear strength or water-tightness is required, sealing pins or plugs of the same material are driven into the bore of the
closed rivets.
Cherry Rivets
Cherry Rivets (refer to figure 5.36) consist of a range of fasteners including Cherry-Lok and Cherry-Max, which are manufactured in the USA.
The primary difference between these and the rivets mentioned previously is that the mandrel is locked in position, after closing, instead of
depending on friction alone.
During the final stages of closing, a locking collar, located in a recess in the rivet head, is forced L into a groove in the stem and prevents the
stem from any further movement. This method means that, when closed, the rivets have a shear and bearing strength high enough to allow
their use in place of solid-shank rivets.
Airframe Powerplant
88
CherryMAX® is a locked spindle blind rivet with a visibly inspectable mechanical locking device and its own installation washer, which
eliminates the problems resulting from worn tool anvils. It is called a "bulbed" fastener due to its large blind side bearing surface, developed
during the installation process. CherryMAX® rivets are used in thin sheet applications and for use in materials that may be damaged by
other types of blind rivets. The CherryMAX® rivet is the most reliable, high strength structural fastener with visual inspectability in the world
today. It features the "Safe-lock" locking collar for more reliable joint integrity, and meets the requirements
CherryMAX® tooling provides the simplest, most trouble-free installation tooling system. CherryMAX® fasteners are currently available in
1/8" through 1/4" diameters in both nominal and 1/64" oversize diameters. The tools use a single pulling head to install many diameters,
head configurations, and material combinations.CherryMAX® Rivets consist of four components, assembled as a single unit:
1. A fully-serrated stem with break notch, shear-ring and integral grip adjustment cone.
2. A driving anvil to ensure a visible mechanical lock with each fastener installation.
3. A separate, visible and inspectable locking collar that mechanically locks the stem to the rivet sleeve.
4. A rivet sleeve with recess in the head to receive the locking collar
Figure 5.36 Cherry Rivet Installation
Airframe Powerplant
89
Bulbed Cherrylock Rivets
The large blind head of this fastener introduced the word “bulb” to blind rivet terminology. In conjunction with the unique residual preload
developed by the high stem break load, its proven fatigue strength makes it the only blind rivet interchangeable structurally with solid
rivets.
These have the same characteristics as the standard rivets plus a shear ring and tapered spindle. As the spindle is pulled into the rivet shank,
the blind head immediately bulbs against the shear ring. When the hole is filled and the blind head is completely formed, the shear ring
shears from the spindle under maximum load then slides down the spindle taper.
Both shear ring and spindle taper join to push the bulbed head to its maximum width. The lock ring insertion and stem break are as for the
standard rivet.
The advantage of the Bulbed Cherry Lock rivet is that it does not exert any radial load on the hole in the material being joined. This has been
found, in some light alloys, to promote stress corrosion.
Huck Mechanical Locked Rivets
Self-plugging (mechanical lock) rivets are fabricated in two sections: a head and shank (including a conical recess and locking collar in the
head), and a serrated stem that extends through the shank. Unlike the friction lock rivet, the mechanical lock rivet has a locking collar that
forms a positive lock for retention of the stem in the shank of the rivet. This collar is seated in position during the installation of the rivet.
Huck rivets are very similar to Cherrylock rivets in that they have mandrels which are also mechanically locked in position with collars when
the rivets are broached.
The Huck rivet comprises three separate items, a sleeve having a pre-formed head, a mechanical lock collar and a spindle on which the
sleeve and lock collar are mounted. The sleeves are normally supplied in either 1000 countersunk or protruding (snap) head types. Annular
grooves on the spindle shank provide a secure grip for the puller tool during setting.
Airframe Powerplant
90
As the rivet is set the spindle is drawn into the sleeve forming the blind head of the rivet. During the final stages of setting, the mechanical
lock collar is pressed into the lock groove in the spindle, thereby securing the spindle in position. Continued tension on the spindle causes it
to fracture flush with the rivet head.
Figure 5.37 Huck Blind Rivet
The maximum grip length number is stamped on the head of each Huck rivet and its grip range extends to 1/16 in from the length
represented by that number. A typical part number is as follows:
Identification number:
MLS – P – M5 – 6C
ML - Mechanically locked mandrel

S - Self-plugging
P - Protruding (domed) head
M - Monel metal
Airframe Powerplant
91
5 - Rivet diameter in increments of 1/32 in. = 5/32 in

6 - Maximum grip length in increments of 1/16 in. = 3/8 in.
C - Cadmium plated finish
SPECIAL FASTENERS
These fasteners are, basically, close-tolerance, metal pins that combine the best features of a rivet and bolt. They usually require access to
both sides of the joint but are extremely strong in shear, with shear strength equal to a standard AN bolt of the same size. Three typical
types, considered here, are:
• Hi-Lock Fasteners
• Hi-Tigue Fasteners
• Hi-Shear Fasteners
Hi-Lock Fasteners
The Hi-Lock fastener (refer to figure 5.38) consists of a metal pin which has a thin, manufactured head at one end and a part-threaded shank
at the other. The threaded end of the Hi-Lock fastener contains a hexagon-shaped recess, for the insertion of an Allen Key.
After the pin is located in its prepared hole, a hexagon-headed collar is turned onto the threaded shank by a box wrench or an ordinary
spanner. An Allen Key engages in the recess in the shank end, to prevent rotation of the pin whilst the collar is being tightened and, when a
pre-determined load is reached, the hexagonal section of the collar shears off, leaving the pin securely fastened in the hole. Because the
collar breaks off at a designated pre-load, the use of torque wrenches is eliminated and three primary design advantages are:
• Accurate pre-load and torque to within 10%.

• Minimum size and weight.
• Rapid, quiet, single-handed operation.
Airframe Powerplant
92
Figure 5.38 Hi-Lock Fasteners
The pins are made of cadmium-plated alloy steel with protruding or 100-degree flush heads. Collars for the pins are made of anodized 2024-
T6 aluminium or stainless steel. The threaded end of the pin is recessed with a hexagon socket to allow installation from one side. The major
diameter of the threaded part of the pin has been truncated (cut undersize) to accommodate a 0.004-inch maximum interference-free fit.
One end of the collar is internally recessed with a 1116-inch, built-in variation that automatically provides for variable material thickness
without the use of washers and without fastener preload changes. The other end of the collar has a torque off wrenching device that
controls a predetermined residual tension of preload (10%) in the fastener
Hi-Tigue Fasteners
Hi-Tigue fasteners (refer to figure 5.39) are similar to Hi-Locks, excepting that they possess a bead at the bottom of the shank, adjacent to
the threaded portion of the fastener. The bead exerts a radial load to the side of the hole which serves to compress and strengthen the area
surrounding the fastener hole. This reduces the effect of cyclic loads on the fastener which, in turn, will reduce the effect of the cold working
of the joint and minimized the likelihood of subsequent failure. The process is known as 'broaching'.
Airframe Powerplant
93
Figure 5.39 Hi-Tigue special fasteners
Hi-Tigue fasteners are closed in exactly the same manner as the Hi-Lock types.
The Hi-Tigue special fastener has a bead that encircles the bottom of its shank. The bead preloads the hole it fills, resulting in increased joint
strength. At installation, the bead presses against the sidewall of the hole, exerting radial force that strengthens the surrounding area.
Because it is preloaded, the joint is not subjected to the constant cyclic action that normally causes a joint to become cold worked and
eventually fail.
Hi-Tigue fasteners are made of aluminum, titanium, and stainless steel alloys. The collars are composed of compatible metal alloys and
come in two types: sealing and non-sealing. Just like the Hi-Locks, they can be installed using an Allen wrench and a box-end wrench.
Hi-Shear Fasteners
Hi-shear (pin) rivets are essentially thread-less bolts. The pin is headed at one end and is grooved about the circumference at the other. A
metal collar is swaged onto the grooved end.
They are available in two head styles - the flat protruding head and the flush 100-degree countersunk head. Hi-shear rivets are made in a
Airframe Powerplant
94
variety of materials, and are used only in shear applications. Because the shear strength of the rivet is greater than either the shear or
bearing strength of sheet aluminium alloys, they are used primarily to rivet thick gauge sheets together.
They are never used where the grip length is less than the shank diameter. Hi-shear rivets are shown in figure 5.40.
A Hi-Shear fastener is a close-tolerance pin, which is an interference fit and must be tapped into its hole before the locking collar is swaged
on. There are two head styles; one being flat while the other is countersunk. The rivets are closed, either with a special pneumatic pulling
tool or by a conventional riveting gun and a special, conical, gun-set.
Figure 5.40 Pin (Hi-Shear) Rivet
Lock-Bolt Fasteners
Lock-bolt fasteners are designed to meet high-strength requirements. Used in many structural applications, their shear and tensile strengths
equal or exceed the requirements of AN and NAS bolts. The lock-bolt pin, shown in view A of figure 5.42, consists of a pin and collar. It is
available in two head styles: protruding and countersunk. Pin retention is accomplished by swaging the collar into the locking grooves on
the pin. The blind lock bolt, shown in view B, features a positive mechanical lock for pin retention.
Lockbolts are used to attach two materials permanently. They are lightweight and are equal in strength to standard bolts. Lockbolts are
Airframe Powerplant
95
manufactured by several companies and conform to Military Standards. Military Standards specify the size of a lockbolt’s head in relation to
the shank diameter, plus the alloy used in its construction. The only drawback to lockbolt installations is that they are not easily removable
compared to nuts and bolts.
The lockbolt combines the features of a high-strength bolt and rivet, but it has advantages over both. The lockbolt is generally used in wing
splice fittings,land-ing gear fittings,fuel cell fittings,longerons, beams, skin splice plates, and other major structural attach-ments. It is more
easily and quickly installed than the conventional rivet or bolt and eliminates the use of lockwashers, cotter pins, and special nuts. Like the
rivet, the lockbolt requires a pneumatic hammer or “pull gun” for installation; when installed, it is rigidly and permanently locked in place.
Three types of lock-bolts are commonly used: the pull type, the stump type, and the blind type.
Pull type.
Pull-type lockbolts are used mainly in aircraft primary and secondary structures. They are installed very rapidly and have approximately one-
half the weight of equivalent AN steel bolts and nuts. A special pneumatic “pull gun” is required to install this type of lockbolt. Installation
can be accomplished by one person since bucking is not required.
Stump type.
Stump-type lockbolts, although they do not have the extended stem with pull grooves, are companion fasteners to pull-type lockbolts.
They are used primarily where clearance will not permit instal-lation of the pull-type lockbolt. A standard pneumatic riveting hammer (with
a hammer set attached for swaging the collar into the pin locking grooves) and a bucking bar are tools necessary for the installation of
stump-type lockbolts.
Blind type.
Blind-type lockbolts come as complete units or assemblies. They have exceptional strength and sheet pull-together characteristics. Blind
lockbolts are used where only one side of the work is accessible and, generally, where it is difficultto drive a conventional rivet. This type of
lockbolt is installed in the same manner as the pull-type lockbolt.Common features of the three types of lockbolts are the annular locking
grooves on the pin and the locking collar which is swaged into the pin’s lock grooves to lock the pin in tension. The pins of the pull- and
Airframe Powerplant
96
blind-type lockbolts are extended for pull installation. The extension is provided with pulling grooves and a tension breakoff groove. The
pins of pull- and stump-type lock-bolts are made of heat-treated alloy steel or high strength aluminum alloy. Companion collars are made of
aluminum alloy or mild steel. The blind lockbolt consists of a heat-treated alloy steel pin, blind sleeve and fller sleeve, mild steel collar, and
carbon steel washer.
Figure 5.41 Types of lock bolts

Substitution.
Airframe Powerplant
97
Alloy steel lockbolts may be used to replace steel high-shear rivets, solid steel rivets, or AN bolts of the same diameter and head type.
Aluminum alloy lockbolts may be used to replace solid aluminum alloy rivets of the same diameter and head type. Steel and aluminum alloy
lockbolts may also be used to replace steel and 2024T aluminum alloy bolts, respec-tively, of the same diameter. Blind lockbolts may be
used to replace solid aluminum alloy rivets, stainless steel rivets, or all blind rivets of the same diameter.
Figure 5.42 Two Types of Lock-Bolt Fastener

The numbering systems for the various types of lockbolts are explained by :
Airframe Powerplant
98
Pull-type lockbolt
ALPP H T 8 8
ALPP Head type
ACT509 = close tolerance AN-509 C-sink head
ALPP = pan head
ALPB = brazier head
ALP509 = standard AN-509 C-sink head
ALP426 = standard AN-426 C-sink head
H Class fit
H = hole filling (interference fit)
N = non-hole filling (clearance fit)
T Pin Materials
E = 75S-T6 aluminum alloy
T = heat-treated alloy steel
8 Body diameter in 32nds of an inch
8 Grip length in 16ths of an inch
Blind-type lockbolt
BL 8 4
Airframe Powerplant
99
BL Blind Lockbolt
8 Diameter in 32nds of an inch
4 Grip length in 16ths of an inch, ±1⁄32 inch
Lockbolt collar
LC C C
LC Lockbolt collar
C Material
C = 24ST aluminum alloy (green color). Use with heat-treated alloy lockbolts only.
F = 61ST aluminum alloy (plain color). Use with 75ST aluminum alloy lockbolts only.
R = mild steel (cadmium plated). Use with heat-treated alloy steel lockbolts for high temperature applications
only.
C Diameter of a pin in 32nds of an inch
Stump-type lockbolt
ALSF E 8 8
ALSF Head type
ASCT509 = close tolerance AN-509 C-sink head
ALSF = flathead type.
Airframe Powerplant
100
ALS509 = standard AN-509 C-sink head
ALS426 = standard AN-426 C-sink head
E Pin materials
E = 75S-T6 aluminum alloy
T = heat-treated alloy steel
8 Body diameter in 32nds of an inch
8 Grip length in 16ths of an inch
Jo-Bolts
The jo-bolt, shown in figure 5.43, is a high-strength, blind structural fastener that is used on difficult riveting jobs when access to one side of
the work is impossible. The jo-bolt consists of three factory-assembled parts: an aluminium alloy or alloy steel nut, a threaded alloy steel
bolt, and a corrosion-resistant steel sleeve. The head styles available for jo-bolts are the 100-degree flush head, the hexagon protruding
head, and the 100-degree flush millable head.
The fastener is installed with either a pneumatic or a hand-operated tool, with which the bolt is rotated and the nut is held stationary. This
action expands the sleeve over the tapered end of the nut and draws the fastened items together. At a pre-determined torque, the bolt
breaks off at a notch-weakened point, flush with the head of the nut. A different tool is required for each of the two head forms and for each
particular diameter bolt.
Jo-bolt is a trade name for an internally threaded three-piece rivet. The Jo-bolt consists of three parts—a threaded steel alloy bolt, a
threaded steel nut, and an expandable stainless steel sleeve. The parts are fac-tory preassembled. As the Jo-bolt is installed, the bolt is
turned while the nut is held. This causes the sleeve to expand over the end of the nut, forming the blind head and clamping against the
work. When driving is complete, a portion of the bolt breaks off. The high shear and tensile strength of the Jo-bolt makes it suit-able for use
Airframe Powerplant
101
in cases of high stresses where some of the other blind fasteners would not be practical. Jo-bolts are often a part of the permanent structure
of late model aircraft. They are used in areas which are not often subjected to replacement or servicing. (Because it is a three-part fastener, it
should not be used where any part, in becoming loose, could be drawn into the engine air intake.) Other advantages of using Jo-bolts are
their excellent resistance to vibration, weight sav-ing, and fast installation by one person.
Figure 5.43 Jo-Bolt Installation
Presently, Jo-bolts are available in four diameters: The 200 series, approximately 3⁄16 inch in diameter; the 260 series, approximately 1⁄4
inch in diameter; the 312 series, approximately 5⁄16 inch in diameter; and the 375 series, approximately 3⁄8 inch in diameter. Jo-bolts are
available in three head styles which are: 100-degree/ F (flush), protruding head/P (hex head), and 100-degree/FA (flush millable).
Airframe Powerplant
102
THREADED ROD/STUDS
A threaded rod, also known as a stud, is a relatively long rod that is threaded on both ends; the thread may extend along the complete
length of the rod. They are designed to be used in tension. A fastener which is threaded at both ends with an unthreaded shank in between.
One end (which often has a thread tolerance which results in more thread interference) is secured into a tapped hole; the other is used with
a nut.
Studs are metal rods that are threaded at both ends. In generally they are used where it is not possible or desirable for a bolt to be used.
Most studs are produced in a standard form, with variants used for special purpose. It will appreciated that the security of a stud depends
upon the friction between its thread and that of the tapped hole (the ‘metal’ thread) into which it is inserted. If this friction fails to hold the
stud, it will work loose and all precautions to prevent the nut from slackening will be negated.
Standard Studs – most widely used stud is the standard (plain, or parallel) type, in which the diamater of the whole stud along its
length, is constant. Standard studs are classified by the thread type by diameter and overall length. The ‘metal’ thread is usually
finished very slightly oversize to give a tight fit into the tapped hole.
Other variant of standard stud are available for use in circumtances that require special consideration. To meet special requirements,
the various types of standard stud may also be supplied with non-standard lengths of plain portion and ‘metal’ end. A simple
method of fitting and removing a stud by running two plain nuts down the ‘nut’ end of the stud and locking (cincching) them
together using two spanners. The stud can then be screwed into or removed from the material. Breaking the cinch then separating
and removing the nuts completes the operation.
Airframe Powerplant
103
Waisted Studs – waisted studs are used wherw reduction of weight, without the loss of strength, is of paramount importance. The
diameter of the plain portion of the stud is reduced to the minor diameter of the end threads, thus lengthing the stud without
impairing its effective strength.
Stepped Studs – this stud affords a stronger anchorage than the standard type, if the ‘metal’ end of the stud has to be housed in
soft metal. The thread of the ‘metal’ end is one size larger than that of the ‘nut’ end.
Shouldered Studs – this type is used where maximum rigidity of assembly is of prime mportance. The stud is machined from
oversize bar and a projecting shoulder is left between the ‘metal’ and of the thread and the normal diamter plain portion.
This shoulder seats firmly on the surface of the ‘metal’ and gives additional resistance to sideways stresses. The clearance hole in the
second component, through which the ‘nut’ end and plain portion of the stud passes, must be machined at the inner end to give
clearance to the stud shoulder.
Airframe Powerplant
104
THREADED INSERT
A threaded insert, also known as a threaded bushing, is a fastener element that is inserted into an object to add a threaded hole. They
may be used to repair a stripped threaded hole, provide a durable threaded hole in a soft material, place a thread on a material too thin to
accept it, mold or cast threads into a work piece thereby eliminating a machining operation, or simplify changeover from unified to metric
threads or vice versa.
Thread inserts are means of providing a stronger anchorage, for bolts, screws or studs, in the comparatively softer metal alloys (aluminium,
magnesium, bronze), wood, plastics or composite materials. They may also be used when it is necessary to do a repair to a threaded hole
that has a suffered damage.
Two basic types of thread inserts (Wire and Thin Wall), (figure 5.44) but the designs of each type will vary according to the many
manufactures or to the environment in which the fastener must operate.
Airframe Powerplant
105
Wire Thread Inserts
There are two types of wire thread inserts. One is the plain insert, made with a tang that forms a portion of the bottom coil offset, and is used
to drive the insert. This tang is left on the insert after installation, except when its removal is necessary to provide clearance for the end of
the bolt. The tang is notched to break off from the body of the insert, thereby providing full penetration for the fastener.
Figure 5.44 Wire Thread inserts
The second type of insert used is the self-locking, mid-grip insert, which has a specially formed grip coil midway on the insert. This produces
a gripping effect on the engaging screw. For quick identification, the self-locking, mid-grip inserts are dyed red.
Thin Wall Inserts
Thin wall inserts appear in variety of designs, materials and surface finishes and consists of a thin tube, which is threaded internally and may,
Airframe Powerplant
106
or may not, be threaded externally. Similarly, special tools are required from the manufacturer to prepare the holes for the inserts and
various methods are adopted to secure each particular type of thin wall insert into its hole. Thin wall inserts include:
Key-Locked Inserts – Key-Locked inserts are threaded both Internally and Externally and after being screwed into the prepared
hole, are (as their name implies), locked into their holes by tiny wedges or keys. The keys are then pressed (or hammered) into place
between the insert and the wall of the hole.
Swaged Inserts – Swaged inserts are also threaded Internally and Externally and are again, screwed into holes before a tool is used
to deform (swage) the insert so that it is locked into the hole.
Ring- Lock Inserts-Ring-Locked inserts, with Internal and External threads, are screwed into holes which are counter bores, to allow
a special lock-ring to be installed, (after the insert) and yet another special tools is used to complete the locking action of the lock-
ring.
Airframe Powerplant
107
Bonded Inserts – bonded inserts are usually only Internally threaded (to hold the bolt, screw, stud, etc) and are secured in the
prepared hole by the use of adhesive.
Bond threaded rods or studs into the substrate (instead of bolts or screws) and attach the hardware with nuts. This variation is
appropriate for many engine, motor or machine installations. Coat the base with wax /mold release to make the hardware
removable. Although the hardware is not "bonded" to the substrate, the epoxy still provides a bearing surface that perfectly matches
and supports the base of the hardware.
DOWELS and PINS
A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod.
Dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous, diverse applications including as axles.
Airframe Powerplant
108
Dowel pins are often used as precise locating devices in machinery. Steel dowel pins are machined to tight tolerances, as are the
corresponding holes, which are typically reamed. A dowel pin may have a smaller diameter than its hole so that it freely slips in, or a larger
diameter so that it must be pressed into its hole (an interference fit).
When designing mechanical components, mechanical engineers typically use dowel holes as reference points to control positioning
variations and attain repeatable assembly quality. If no dowels are used for alignment (e.g., components are mated by bolts only), there can
be significant variation, or "play", in component alignment.
Typical drilling and milling operations, as well as manufacturing practices for bolt threads, introduce mechanical play proportional to the
size of the fasteners. Dowels and pins used in aircraft can include the Roll Pin, Clevis Pin, Split Pin (Cotter Pin), and Tapper Pin.
Dowels
While not usually used as fasteners, dowels are rods or pins of the appropriate material which are fixed (often permanently) in one of the
components of a joint such that the protruding shank of the dowel locates with a corresponding hole in the item being attached, thus
ensuring accurate assembly.
Airframe Powerplant
109
Roll Pins
Roll Pins are often used to secure a pulley to a shaft or to provide a pivot for a joint where the pin is unlikely to be removed. The spring
action of the pin allows it to compress as it assumes the diameter of the hole. The radial force exerted by the pin against the hole wall
retains it in the hole, therefore a spring pin is considered a self retaining fastener spring pin is design for use in double shear application.Roll
pin is normally made from flat spring ateel that is rolled into an incomplete cylindrical shape that allows the pin to compress when it is
pressed into the hole, and creates a spring action that holds the pin tight within the bore of the hole. To remove a roll pin it must be driven
from the hole with a correct-sized punch.
Clevis Pins
Clevis or Flat-Head pins are used for hinge pins in some aircraft control systems. They are made of cadmium-plated steel and have grip
length in 1/16 inch increaments. When a clevis pin is installed, a plain washer is usually placed over the end of the shank and a cotter (split)
pin is inserted, through the pre-drilled hole in the clevis pin, to lock it in place.
Airframe Powerplant
110
Taper Pins
Taper pins are used in joints that carry shear loads and where the absence of clearance is essential. The threaded taper pin is used with a
taper pin washer and a shear nut if the taper pin is drilled, or with a self-locking nut if undrilled. When a shear nut is used with the threaded
taper pin and washer, the nut is secured with a cotter pin.
Both the Plain and Threaded taper pins have a taper of 1 in 48 and are used in various locations during aircraft construction. Standard inch-
sized taper pins have a taper on diameter of 1:48 while metric ones have a taper of 1:50. A 1:48 taper means that one end of a 4-foot-long
bar (48 inches) will be 1 inch smaller in diameter than the other end, or a 1/4-inch taper over a 1-foot length.They are designed to carry
shear loads and are manufactured from high-tensile steel. The pins do not allow any loose motion or play and are used for joining tubes and
attaching collars to shafts.
The plain tapper pin is forced into the hole, which is reamed to the specified size with a Taper Pin Reamer, and is held in place by friction
alone. To ensure security, it can also be wire locked in place, by passing the lock wire through the pre-drilled hole in the pin then securing
the wire around the shaft.
Plain taper pins, which have no lock wire holes, may have their smaller ends peened, after being installed, to secure them in their holes. The
threaded pin is similar to the plain pin except that its small end is threaded to accept their a self-locking shear nut or a shear castle nut with
split pin.
Some taper pin can be found with a split small end , which can be spread much like a split pin, to prevent it loosening. These pins are
sometimes referred to as bifurcated taper pins. All taper pins are measured by the diamter of their small end and their overall length.
Airframe Powerplant
111
QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS
Special fasteners (Turnlock fasteners) have been designed to hold (secure) fairings, cowlings and inspection panels and doors in position
and to allow their rapid removal and replacement during servicing that require frequent removal for inspection and servicing.
These fasteners are available in several different styles and are usually referred to by the manufacturer's trade name. Some of the most
common are the Camloc, Airloc, Dzus, and Odie fasteners.
Camloc Fasteners
Camloc fasteners are made in a variety of styles and designs. Included among the most commonly used are the 2600, 2700, 40S51, and 4002
series in the regular line, and the stressed panel fastener in the heavy duty line. The latter is used in stressed panels which carry structural
Airframe Powerplant
112
loads.The Camloc fastener is used to secure aircraft cowlings and fairings.
It consists of a spring-loaded stud assembly and a receptacle. The stud assembly is fastened to the removable panel whilst the receptacle is
fastened to the airframeof three parts: a stud assembly, a grommet, and a receptacle. Two types of receptacles are available: rigid and
floating.
The stud and grommet are installed in the removable portion; the
receptacle is riveted to the structure of the aircraft. The stud and
grommet are installed in either a plain, dimpled, countersunk, or
counterbored hole, depending upon the location and thickness of
the material involved.
To lock the fastener, the stud is pushed against its spring with a
screwdriver and given a quarter of a turn clock-wise. As a result, the
cross-pin, on the stud, rides up a cam in the receptacle and draws
the two components together.
Finally the stud spring pulls the cross pin into a locking groove at
the end of the cam. The fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn anti-
clockwise when the stud spring causes the stud to snap outwards.
A quarter turn (clockwise) of the stud locks the fastener. The

fastener can be unlocked only by turning the stud counterclockwise.
Airloc Fasteners
The Airloc fastener consists of three parts: a stud, a cross pin, and a stud receptacle (stud with a cross-pin in the removable cowling or door,
and a sheet spring-steel receptacle in the structure). The studs are manufactured from steel and casehardened to prevent excessive wear.
Airframe Powerplant
113
The stud hole is reamed for a press fit of the cross pin.
The fastener is locked by turning the stud through a

quarter turn. The pin drops into an indentation in the
receptacle and holds the fastener locked. The total
amount of material thickness to be secured with the
Airloc fastener must be known before the correct
length of stud can be selected for installation.
The total thickness of material that each stud will sat-

isfactorily lock together is stamped on the head of the
stud in thousandths of an inch (0.040, 0.070, 0.190, and
so forth). Studs are manufactured in three head styles:
flush, oval, and wing.
The cross pin is manufactured from chrome-vanadium

steel and heat treated to provide maximum strength,
wear, and holding power. It should never be used the
second time; once removed from the stud, replace it with a new pin.
Receptacles for Airloc fasteners are manufactured in two types: rigid and floating.Sizes are classified by number—No. 2, No. 5, and No. 7.
They are also clas-sifed by the center-to-center distance between the rivet holes of the receptacle: No. 2 is 3⁄4 inch; No. 5 is 1 inch; and No. 7
is 13⁄8 inch. Receptacles are fabricated from
Dzus Fastener
The Dzus turnlock fastener consists of a stud, grommet, and receptacle.
Airframe Powerplant
114
The grommet is made of aluminum or aluminum alloy material. It acts as a holding device for the stud. Grom-mets can be fabricated from
1100 aluminum tubing, if none are available from normal sources.
The spring is made of steel, cadmium plated to prevent corrosion. The spring supplies the force that locks or secures the stud in place when
two assemblies are joined.
Dzus fasteners are available in two types. A light-duty type is used on box covers, access hole covers, and lightweight fairings. The heavy-
duty type is used on cowling and heavy fairings. The main difference between the two Dzus fasteners is a grommet, which is only used on
stud assembly. See figure 5.44. The receptacle is an aluminium alloy forging mounted in a stamped sheet metal base.
The receptacle assembly is riveted to the access door frame, which is attached to the structure of the aircraft. The grommet is a sheet metal
ring held in the access panel with the retaining ring. Grommets are furnished in two types: the flush type and the protruding type.
Besides serving as a grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also holds the stud assembly. The stud assembly consists of a stud, a cross
pin, a spring, and a spring cup. The assembly is designed so it can be quickly inserted into the grommet by compressing the spring. Once
installed in the grommet, the stud assembly cannot be removed unless the spring is again compressed.
The studs are fabricated from steel and are cadmium plated. They are available in three head styles: wing, flush,and oval. Body diameter,
length, and head type may be identifed or determined by the markings found on the head of the stud. The diameter is always measured in
sixteenths of an inch. Stud length is measured in hundredths of an inch and is the distance from the head of the stud to the bottom of the
spring hole.
A quarter of a turn of the stud (clockwise) locks the fastener. The fastener may be unlocked only by turning the stud counterclockwise. A
Dzus key or a specially ground screwdriver locks or unlocks the fastener.
Airframe Powerplant
115
Airframe Powerplant
116
Oddie Fasteners
Oddie fasteners have a central stud, which is held in position in the panel with a rubber washer or a coiled spring. A two-legged clip is
fastened to the fixed component (usually with rivets). The stud is bullet-shaped and has two recesses opposite each other at the joint end.
The fastener is locked by positioning the recess in line with the legs of the spring, and then pressing the stud home. This is achieved by
ensuring the screwdriver slot is in line with marks on the panel. There should be a definite click as the fastener engages. A quarter turn of
the stud will release it from the spring, and free the panel.
Airframe Powerplant
117
LOCKING DEVICES
Safe tying is a process of securing all aircraft bolts, nuts, cap screws, studs, and other fasteners. Safe tying prevents the fasteners from
working loose due to vibration. Loose bolts, nuts, or screws can ruin engines or cause parts of the aircraft to drop off. To carry out an
inspection on an aircraft, you must be familiar with the various methods of safe tying. Careless safe tying is a sure road to disaster. Always
use the proper method for safe tying. Always safety a part you have just un-safe tied before going on to the next item of inspection. You
should always inspect for proper safe tying throughout the area in which you are working. There are various methods of safe tying aircraft
parts. The most widely used methods are safety wire, cotter pins, lock washers, snap rings, and special nuts.
The problems associated with threaded devices and effects of vibration on their security, in addition to using methods which increase the
friction between threads, there are several other ways in which the integrity of a threaded joint can be assured.
Spring Washers
A split washer or a spring lock washer is a ring split at one point and bent into a helical shape. This causes the washer to exert a spring
force between the fastener's head and the substrate, which maintains the washer hard against the substrate and the bolt thread hard
against the nut or substrate thread, creating more friction and resistance to rotation. Applicable standards are ASME B18.21.1, DIN 127B, and
United States Military Standard NASM 35338 (formerly MS 35338 and AN-935).
Spring washers are disks of metal that form an irregular shape, so that when the washer is loaded it acts like a spring and deflects, providing
a preload between the two surfaces. Spring washers are a left hand helix and allow the thread to be tightened in a right hand direction only,
i.e. a clockwise direction.
When a left hand turning motion is applied, the raised edge bites into the underside of the bolt or nut and the part that it is bolted to, thus
resisting turning.
Therefore spring washers are ineffective on left hand threads and hardened surfaces. Also, they are not to be used in conjunction with a flat
washer under the spring washer, as this isolates the spring washer from biting into the component that it is fastening. Where a flat washer is
Airframe Powerplant
118
required to span a large hole in a component, a nyloc nut (nylon insert) must be used. The use and effectiveness of spring lock washers has
been in debate of late, with some publications advising against their use on the grounds that, when tight, the washer is flat against the
substrate and gives no more resistance to rotation than a normal washer at the same torque. However, a spring washer will continue to hold
the bolt against the substrate and maintain friction when loosened slightly, whereas a plain washer will not.
Spring washers are availlable in a variety of forms, in some instances (particularly with light alloy assemblies), spring washers are assembled
with plain facing washers between the spring washer and the components. This is done to prevent damage to the surface finish when the
spring washer is compressed although, with steel assemblies, the plain washer is usually omitted.
It is good practices to renew spring washers during overhaull or repair. This procedure is most essential in engines and engine components
as well as where units have reciprocating parts; such as in compressorr or pumps. In normal circumstances, however, spring washers can be
re-used if they have retained their ‘springiness’ and ‘sharpness’. Type of spring washers insclude:
• Single and Double Coil Washers - Manufactured from rectangular-sectioned steel sheet and formed into a portion of a helix, the
single and double coil are the most common types of spring washer to be found on aircraft components.
• Crinkle Washers - Crinkle washers are usually manufactured from either copper alloy or corrosion- resistant steel. They are often used
in lightly loaded applications such as instruments and electrical installations.
Airframe Powerplant
119
• Cup Washers - Cup (or Belleville) washers are manufactured from spring steel and are 'dished' to form a spring of high rating. The
flattening of the washer, during tightening, exerts an axial load to the nut, which will resist any tendency of the nut to lose torque.
Assembly should always be in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Shake proof Lock washers
Shakeproof lockwashers are round washers designed with tabs or lips that are bent upward across the sides of a hex nut or bolt to lock the
nut in place. There are various methods of securing the lockwasher to prevent it from turning, such as an external tab bent downward 90°
into a small hole in the face of the unit, or an inter-nal tab which fits a keyed bolt
Shakeproof lockwashers can withstand higher heat than other methods of safetying and can be used under high vibration conditions safely.
They should be used only once because the tabs tend to break when bent a second time.
Flat washers of this type are manufactured from steel or phosphor bronze and are used in place of spring washers. In some circumstances
conical shake-proof washers are used for locking countersunk screws. Either the internal or the external diameters can be serrated, the
serration being designed to bite into the component and nut to prevent rotation.
All shake-proof washers should be used only ONCE. It is rare for these washers to be specified in assemblies where an anti-corrosion
treatment of the components has been specified, as this could damage the treatment.
Airframe Powerplant
120
Tab Washers
Tab washers, are normally used on plain nuts. The washers are manufactured from thin metallic sheet material and have two or more tabs
projecting from the external diameter. They can also be designed for locking two or more nuts.
When the washer is installed, one tab is bent against the component or inserted into a hole provided, whilst a second tab is bent against the
flat (or flats), of the nut, after it has been torqued down correctly.
Note: Multi-tab washers can be re-used until all tabs have been used once.
Lock Plates
In certain circumstances, the torque applied, the thread, or the type of nut, being used may not guarantee that the nut would not unwind in
use (such as during vibration). Lock plates are used where positive retention of a nut is required.
Airframe Powerplant
121
The nut is torque loaded and then (only if necessary) turned a small amount, (<1/12 revolution) until its flats to align with the hole in the
lock plate. The plate usually has 12 faces to allow for this adjustment. The plate is then placed over the nut and the small setscrew fastened
into the tapped hole adjacent to the nut. Removal of the nut simply involves removing the setscrew, lifting off the plate and unwinding the
nut.
Note: A Tab washer could be used to do the same task. The lock plate is used where the nut is frequently removed -the plate can be used
indefinitely providing it retains a good fit with the nut.
Split (Cotter) Pins
These pins are usually manufactured from either cadmium-plated carbon steel or from corrosion-resistant steel. Their primary purpose is to
lock slotted and castellated nuts as well as for securing clevis pins. The nuts are locked onto their bolts by passing the pin through the hole
in the bolt and the nut castellation. The legs of the pin are spread in one of two methods.
Whilst either of these methods will secure the nut to the bolt, different airworthiness authorities prefer one method to the other.
The pins are measured by diameter and length. It must be noted that the nuts must never be over-torqued to get the holes into line. The
nut must either be backed-off, if this is permitted, or washers added under the nut.
Often a stated torque value will be over a small range rather than a set figure. This allows very small movement of the nut to facilitate
alignment of the locking pins. Details of the correct method for each task will be in the AMM.
The AN380 cadmium plated, low carbon steel cotter pin is used for safetying bolts, screws, nuts, other pins, and in various applications
where such safetying is necessary. The AN381 corrosion resistant steel cotter pin is used in locations where nonmagnetic material is
required, or in locations where resistance to corrosion is desired.
Airframe Powerplant
122
Cotter pin installation is shown in figure, Castel-lated nuts are used with bolts that have been drilled for cotter pins. The cotter pin should
fitneatly into the hole, with very little sideplay. The following general rules apply to cotter pin safetying:
1. The prong bent over the bolt end should not extend beyond the bolt diameter. (Cut it off if necessary.)
2. The prong bent down should not rest against the surface of the washer. (Again, cut it off if necessary.)
3. If the optional wraparound method is used, the prongs should not extend outward from the sides of the nut.
4. All prongs should be bent over a reasonable radius. Sharp angled bends invite breakage. Tapping lightly with a mallet is the best
method of bending the prongs.
Locking Wire
Wire-locking (or 'Safe tying' as it is known in the USA), is the commonest form of locking in use throughout the aircraft industry. The wire is
usually made of corrosion-resistant steel or heat-resistant nickel alloy. Fine copper wire is also used for some special locking operations.
The wire is normally classified by its diameter in increments of 'Standard Wire Gauge' (SWG) or 'American Wire Gauge' (AWG). The most
Airframe Powerplant
123
usual gauge used is 22 SWG (or its American equivalent), although great care must be taken to check the correct wire gauge for each
particular application.
Safety wiring is the most positive and satisfactory method of safetying capscrews, studs, nuts, bolt heads, and turnbuckle barrels which
cannot be safetied by any other practical means. It is a method of wiring together two or more units in such a manner that any tendency of
one to loosen is counteracted by the tightening of the wire. Wire-locking is a positive method of securing items such as bolts, pipe unions,
turnbuckles and nuts. Components designed to be wire-locked have holes in the appropriate positions to enable the lock wire to pass
through.
Nuts, bolts, and screws are safety wired by the single wire or double twist method. The double twist method is the most common method of
safety wiring. The single wire method may be used on small screws in a closely spaced closed geometrical pattern, on parts in electrical
systems, and in places that are extremely difficultto reach. Safety wiring should always be per conventional methods or as required by the
manufac-turer, especially for Light Sport Aircraft (LSA).
When installing the wire it should not span a distance of more than 75 mm (3 in) without being supported. The wire is also positioned so
that the item being locked will be restrained from turning in a loosening direction. There should be approximately eight turns to every 25.4
mm (1 in) length of wire and no length of more than 9.5 mm (3/8 in) should be left untwisted. The angle of pull, or approach, should be not
less than 45° to the rotational axis.
When the wire has been passed through the last hole, the wire must be pulled tight and the twisting continued for at least 12 mm - 13 mm
(1/2 in). The wire is then cut and the end doubled under, to prevent personnel getting `snagged' or badly cut.
An illustration of various methods which are commonly used in safety wiring nuts, bolts, and screws that:
• Examples 1, 2, and 5 illustrate the proper method of safety wiring bolts, screws, squarehead plugs, and similar parts when wired in
pairs.
• Example 3 illustrates several components wired in series.
• Example 4 illustrates the proper method of wiring castellated nuts and studs. (Note that there is no loop around the nut.)
Airframe Powerplant
124
• Examples 6 and 7 illustrate a single threaded component wired to a housing or lug.
• Example 8 illustrates several components in a closely spaced closed geometrical pattern, using a single wire method.
When drilled head bolts, screws, or other parts are grouped together, they are more conveniently safety wired to each other in a series
rather than individu-ally. The number of nuts, bolts, or screws that may be safety wired together is dependent on the application. For
instance, when safety wiring widely spaced bolts by the double twist method, a group of three should be the maximum number in a series.
When safety wiring closely spaced bolts, the number that can be safety wired by a 24-inch length of wire is the maximum in a series. The
wire is arranged so that if the bolt or screw begins to loosen, the force applied to the wire is in the tightening direction.
Parts being safety wired should be torqued to recom-mend values and the holes aligned before attempting the safetying operation. Never
overtorque or loosen a torqued nut to align safety wire holes.
Some forms of wire-locking are done with a single strand (example 8) of the specified wire, especially in cases of where a complete ring or
similar formation of nuts is found. The wire is passed in sequence, through the holes in their respective nuts and bolts (or screws), until the
wire ends meet.
Again the wire must be threaded so that any tendency, of a nut or bolt, to attempt to slacken off, will add tension to the wire.
Use of Locking Wire with Turnbuckles
As with any threaded fastener, turnbuckles must be locked to prevent them from coming loose and jeopardizing the control runs they are
connecting. There are a number of different types of wire-locking used on turnbuckles and the AMM must be consulted to find which
method is specified. Methods used include the single wrap and single wrap spiral as well as the double wrap and double wrap spiral.
The single wrap and single wrap spiral use a single strand of the appropriate wire that passes through the hole in the center of the
turnbuckle, finishing up wrapped around each end. The single wrap spiral also uses a single piece of wire that is spiraled around the
turnbuckle barrel and passed through the center hole twice.
Airframe Powerplant
125
Two pieces of wire are used in the double wrap method, which are basically two single wraps, one in each direction. A double wrap spiral
consists of two single wrap spirals, again one in each direction.
Double Wrap Method. Of the methods using safety wire for safetying turnbuckles, the double wrap method is preferred, although the single
wrap methods described are satisfactory. Run one end of the wire through the hole in the barrel of the turnbuckle and bend the ends of the
wire toward opposite ends of the turnbuckle. Then pass the second length of the wire into the hole in the barrel and bend the ends along
the barrel on the side opposite the first.Then pass the wires at the end of the turnbuckle in opposite directions through the holes in the
turnbuckle eyes or between the jaws of the turnbuckle fork, as applicable. Bend the laid wires in place before cutting off the wrapped wire.
Wrap the remaining length of safety wire at least four turns around the shank and cut it off. Repeat the procedure at the opposite end of the
turnbuckle.
Airframe Powerplant
126
When a swaged terminal is being safetied, pass the ends of both wires, if possible, through the hole provided in the terminal for this
purpose and wrap both ends around the shank as described above.
If the hole is not large enough to allow passage of both wires, pass the wire through the hole and loop it over the free end of the other wire,
and then wrap both ends around the shank as described.
After a turnbuckle has been properly adjusted, it must be safetied. There are several methods of safetying turnbuckles; however, only two
methods will be discussed in this section. These methods are illustrated in figures. The clip locking method is used only on the most modern
aircraft. The older type aircraft still use the type turnbuckles that require the wire wrapping method.
Single Wrap Method. The single wrap safetying methods described in the following paragraphs are acceptable but are not the equal of the
double wrap methods.
Pass a single length of wire through the cable eye or fork, or through the hole in the swaged terminal at either end of the turnbuckle
assembly. Spiral each of the wire ends in opposite directions around the frst half of the turnbuckle barrel so that the wires cross each other
twice. Thread both wire ends through the hole in the middle of the barrel so that the third crossing of the wire ends is in the hole. Again,
spiral the two wire ends in opposite directions around the remaining half of the turnbuckle, crossing them twice. Then, pass one wire end
through the cable eye or fork, or through the hole in the swaged terminal. In the manner described above, wrap both wire ends around the
Airframe Powerplant
127
shank for at least four turns each, cutting off the excess wire.
An alternate to the above method is to pass one length of wire through the center hole of the turnbuckle and bend the wire ends toward
opposite ends of the turn-buckle. Then pass each wire end through the cable eye or fork, or through the hole in the swaged terminal and
wrap each wire end around the shank for at least four turns, cutting off the excess wire. After safetying, no more than three threads of the
turnbuckle threaded terminal should be exposed.
Airframe Powerplant
128
General Safety Wiring Rules
When using the safety wire method of safetying, the following general rules should be followed:
1. A pigtail of 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 inch (three to six twists) should be made at the end of the wiring. This pigtail must be bent back or under to
prevent it from becoming a snag.
2. The safety wire must be new upon each application.
3. When castellated nuts are to be secured with safety wire, tighten the nut to the low side of the selected torque range, unless otherwise
specifed, and if necessary, continue tightening until a slot aligns with the hole.
Airframe Powerplant
129
4. All safety wires must be tight after installation, but not under such tension that normal handling or vibration will break the wire.
5. The wire must be applied so that all pull exerted by the wire tends to tighten the nut.
6. Twists should be tight and even, and the wire between the nuts as taut as possible without overtwisting.
7. The safety wire should always be installed and twisted so that the loop around the head stays down and does not tend to come up over
the bolt head, causing a slack loop
Use of Locking Wire with Locking Tabs
When locking tabs are used, they should be installed in such a way that the tabs and the wire are in complete alignment. Whenever
possible, the closed end of the wire should be in the tab and the twisted end at the component to be locked, although the exact method
may be found in the AMM.
Airframe Powerplant
130
Thin Copper Wire
Thin copper wire is used to hold some switches and levers in a 'set' position and, thus, prevents the accidental
operation of those switches which control certain critical systems such as emergency circuits. When the switch
is required to be operated, then a deliberate movement is made, which will break the copper wire and permit
movement of the switch.
A secondary purpose of copper wire is as an indicator or `witness', where a broken wire indicates that the
switch or control has been operated. This method is employed on systems where it is necessary to know when
a system has been operated (such as in a Fire Protection system).
Pip-Pins
Quick-release 'Pip-pins' are used in assemblies where it is necessary to rapidly remove or reposition components. They usually take the place
of more permanent bolts.
The 'pip-pin' quick-release fastener operates on a

push-pull principle. It consists of a hollow body
containing a spring-loaded plunger. When the pin
is pushed into a hole, two steel locking balls, held
in the shank of the pin, move into a recess in the
plunger. When the pin is fully home, and the
pushing pressure is released, the balls are forced
to protrude from the shank, as the spring around
the plunger expands, and so lock the pin in
position.
Airframe Powerplant
131
A pip-pin is removed by a simple pull on the ring. This action aligns the groove in the plunger with the two locking balls that retract to allow
the pin to be withdrawn. Pip-pins will be found in many places where two components have to be separated at regular intervals and also
require a hinging action. An example of where pip-pins would be required is on engine cowlings. These have to be opened daily to allow for
engine inspection, and are removed completely for engine changes.
Circlips and Locking Rings
Circlips and locking rings are manufactured from spring sheet metal or spring steel wire, they may also be specially designed for a particular
purpose. Hardened and tempered to give either and ìnward' or òutward' spring, they can be used for locking several parts together,
locating components within bores or for locating components onto shafts. Spring sheet circlips have holes in the ends to allow circlip pliers
to be inserted, enabling the circlip to be removed or installed as required. Spring wire rings usually have one bent end that is inserted into a
radial hole, drilled through the component, which matches an inner or outer ring. All circlips are subject to some damage at times and it will
usually be a requirement, after they have been removed, to inspect them thoroughly. Any that show damage or corrosion should be
discarded, although it is usual practice to discard the wire type circlips whenever they are removed.
Airframe Powerplant
132
Keys and Keyways
These items can be found where chain-wheels or pulleys are located on shafts. A key, with its associated keyways (the name given to the
channel, which is cut into the respective components, to receive the key), is used to transmit the driving force from one part to the other.
Peening
Peening is a method of preventing a threaded device (bolt, nut or screw), becoming loose by distorting the end of the thread, after
installing the device. The distortion is normally achieved (using a centre punch) by striking the thread of the bolt or screw whereit emerges
from the threaded device, thus jamming and effectively locking the threaded device and preventing it from loosening.
When using a nut and bolt combination, then one and a half threads of the bolt must protrude from the nut in order to create an effective
peening. The disadvantage of peening (and the distortion of the thread) means that, once the joint is dismantled, then the threaded device
is useless and can only be discarded.
Airframe Powerplant
133
Airframe Powerplant
134
Airframe Powerplant
135
Airframe Powerplant
136
Glue/Adhesive Bonded Joints
As was previously discussed (in the section on Composite and Non-Metallic Materials), these are permanent joints in which an adhesive is
used to join two, or more, materials together. The materials can be any of the large variety of fabrics found in the aerospace industry (metal,
paper, plastic, rubber or wood).
Some advantages of using adhesives, to make joints, are that the materials being joined may or may not be similar and the joints can be
made proof against the leakage of gases and liquids.
Adhesives are normally good electrical insulators, which can greatly reduce dissimilar corrosion on metal joints, and are not, normally,
affected by temperature changes.
Joining with adhesives not only saves the weight (and costs) associated with threaded fasteners (and rivets), but also eliminates the need to
make holes in the structure, for those fasteners, which avoids the possibility of potential stress raisers.
The absence of fasteners in an aircraft's skin results in a smoother airflow around the aircraft, and thus contributes to its aerodynamic
efficiency.
Adhesive bonded joints also provide greater stiffening to the structure, compared to that achieved with mechanical fastenings.
There are, however, some disadvantages in that the surfaces, of the items to be stuck together (the adherents), must be free from grease, oil
or dust, and the type of adhesive must be suitable for the conditions or environment in which it is intended to be placed.
Fumes from adhesives can be narcotic, toxic and extremely flammable, so that great care must be taken when applying adhesives. This
entails working in well-ventilated conditions, wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment and observing the relevant safety
precautions to prevent (and, if necessary, fight) the outbreak of fire.
Locking by Adhesives
Applying Shellac, Araldite etc to DTD 900 specification, may be used to lock many small components, particularly those in instruments,
Airframe Powerplant
137
valves, switches etc. Adhesive is applied to the outside of the nut face and the protruding screw thread, or to the component and screw
head, after tightening, and prevents movement between relevant parts.
It is good practice, when using Araldite, to mix a separate sample under similar conditions, to check that it hardens within the specified time
period.
Loctite
Loctite is the trade name for a liquid sealant, used to lock metal threads. It is an approved, proprietary material, which hardens in the screw
threads after assembly. Loctite is supplied in various grades to give a predetermined locking strength in a variety of applications from stud
locking to retaining bearing housings. When using Loctite, it is advisable to degrease the parts to achieve maximum strength. If the threads
are not degreased, about 15% of the locking strength is normally lost. Loctite should only be used when specified by the approved
drawings or instructions, and applied in accordance with the manufacturer's directions.
Synthetic Resin Adhesives
Synthetic resin adhesives are used extensively for joints in wooden structures, to avoid the localized stresses and strains, which may be set
up, following the use of mechanical methods of attachment.
Synthetic resin adhesives, used for gluing aircraft structural assemblies, must comply with the requirement prescribed in an acceptable
specification. Synthetic resin adhesives usually consist of two separate parts, namely the resin and the hardener. The resin develops its
adhesive properties only as a result of a chemical reaction between it and the hardener.
Metal-to-Metal Bonded Joints
Metal-to-metal joints involve the use of heat, to raise the temperature of the metals to a point where, either by the use of hammering, by
Airframe Powerplant
138
the application of pressure, or by a chemical reaction between the metals being joined, the metals fuse together and thus create the
required bond.
Welding
Welding is the fusing together, by heating the point or edge of contact of two or more pieces of metal (and applying a filler rod if required),
making one continuous piece.
Welded joints are normally considered to be part of an aircraft's permanent structure and they would not be dismantled during routine
maintenance.
Only a trained welder, authorized by the CAA, may weld component parts of a British-registered civil aircraft and that person is required to
submit, to the CAA, a series of test welds, for examination, every twelve months. It is, therefore, beyond the scope of these course notes to
consider the various forms of electric arc, gas, resistance, seam or spot welding techniques.
Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is the permanent joining of metals, using a filler metal that melts at a temperature considerably lower than the metals being
joined. The filler metal is an alloy consisting, mainly, of lead and tin (with, possibly, antimony and bismuth), mixed in varying proportions,
depending on the use for which it is intended.
To ensure a satisfactory joint, the solder must form a metallic bond ('key') with the surfaces, being joined and, to allow this to happen, the
joint surfaces must be free of oil, grease, dust, and corrosion.
It is also necessary to use of an approved substance (a 'flux'), which is applied to the metals, to prevent the formation of potentially corrosive
oxide films while the metals are being heated (usually by conduction of the heat from a soldering 'iron') and joined.
Airframe Powerplant
139
Hard Soldering
Hard soldering includes Silver Soldering and Brazing. In these processes, the fillers melt at higher temperatures than soft solder and provide
a much stronger joint, which is also capable of operating at higher temperatures.
Silver Solder consists of an alloy of copper and silver (with a melting point almost twice that of the soft solders) while Brazing uses a copper-
zinc alloy with a melting point higher than that of Silver Solder.
The source of heat used for hard soldering is, usually, a direct flame and a different flux is also necessary to prevent oxidation of the joint.
Hard soldered joints have their fillers drawn into them by capillary action, therefore the gap between components must be kept uniform
and closely controlled.
As with all soldered joints, the surfaces being joined must be clean and free of oil, grease, corrosion, scale etc. Mechanical methods of
cleaning can include emery cloth, wire brush or filing.
Airframe Powerplant
140
–
™ ™
—
—
’
’
™
™
− ° °
™
™
™
–
™ ™ ™
°
°
°
°
·
·
≈
¡
α≤ ° α π
≤ ≤
°
δ
δ
δ
δ δ
≤
– –
δ δ ≥ δ
o
o
’ ’
— ’ ’
–
—
°
°
—
μ
–
o
o
1)
2)
3)
4)
− ° − ° ° °
— —
– –
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- ： ℃ ℃
-
-
’
— —
°
ü
tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm appears, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is
the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is called
single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple threads or multiple starts. The helix angle of a worm is not
usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.
In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed.
Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component
circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction.Worm-and-gear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be
used to advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism
hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments.
If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact is achieved. If medium to high power
transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop
each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a cone-drive or "Double enveloping"
Airframe Powerplant
21
Skew Gears
These are used to connect shafts whose centre lines do not intersect or run parallel. The teeth are cut on an acute helix, a gear consisting of
two cogwheels having non-parallel, non-intersecting axes.
Gear Trains and Gear Ratios
A gear `train' consists of two (or more) gear wheels, running in series, on separate, parallel, shafts such that one gear transmits its drive to
the other. Gear trains can change the direction of rotation and can also alter the speed of the output shaft. The speed of rotation is
dependent on the ratio between the numbers of teeth of the input gear to that of the output gear (the Gear Ratio).
Airframe Powerplant
22
fl fi
–
°
–
–
“ “
–
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
–
°
° ° ° ° °
°
°
’
“ ”
’
•
•
•
•
•
•
‘ ’
“ ”
“ ”
“ ”
°
° ° °
° °
•
’
•
•
•
•
“ ”
“ ”
–
• –
• –
•
•
•
•
•
“ ”
“ ”
”
“ ”

M6 - Materials and Hardware

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

M6 - Materials and Hardware

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual

Module 6 – Materials and Hardware

Basic Aircraft Maintenance

The objective of this training are:

1. To provide the aircraft maintenance technician skill.

2. Improve skill and technique within environment of work.

3. Handling require that knowledge of saty equipment support.

5. Understands a handle safety and precautions in area of responsibility.

1. FAA – H 8083-30: AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIANS – GENERAL/ 2008

2. FAA– H 8083-31: AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIANS – AIRFRAME/2012

3. INTEGRATED TRAINING SYSTEM/MATERIAL AND HARDWARE – MODULE 6 (Part 66)

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

How is aircraft hardware identified for use?

Common Metallic Materials

Common Nonmetallic Materials

Figure 1.1 Reinforce Plastic

AIRCRAFT METALLIC MATERIALS – FERROUS MATERIALS

The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.

The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.

necessary for hot rolled material.

down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc).

i .e. A Stress of 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2

A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0.5m2, is subjected to a load of 10 MN.

(b) 1N/mm2 = 1MN/m2 so stress = 20N/mm2

Extension = 21.15 - 20 = 1.15 mm

This relationship is known as 'Hooke's Law', which states:

Figure 1.2. Load/Extension Diagram

properties in the plastic phase.

An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results

(a) Represents a brittle material (e.g. glass)

Figure 1.3 Load/Extension Diagram some of Figure 1.2 Load/Extension

Figure 1.4 Load/Extension graph for Brittle, Elactic and Plastic

Linear-Elastic Region and Elastic Constants

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Measures of Ductility (Elongation and Reduction of Area)

• Reduction in area (at the neck)

The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional

The Tensile Test Machine

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials

Coke releases carbon monoxide when it is burned:

(1) C + O2 -> CO2 and

(2) CO2 + C -> 2 CO.

Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons:

2. Rigidity and strength under compression are good.

4. It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.

5. Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.

The Composition of Cast Iron

Ordinary cast iron contains the following elements:

Silicon 1.0 to 3.0%

Manganese 0.5 to 1.0%

Sulphur up to 0.1% (Induce Brittleness)

Also Chromium 0.5 - 1.00% for Stainless Steel

The process is far slower than that of Bessemer

The furnace is tapped the same way a blast furnace is

The basic oxygen steel-making process is as follows:

PROPERTIES WORKED BY USEFUL QUALITY USES REMARKS

Brittle weak, fairly soft Casts easily wears to Properties unaffected by

Strong, less ductile,

Types of Steel, their Properties and Uses

METAL PROPERTIES USES

Uses of common steels

Alloying Elements in Steel

Low Carbon Steel

Medium Carbon Steel