JESSIE V. ALZATE, DRD.

, LPT, EMT
General Objectives of the course
:

Provide the students with the

comprehensive understanding on the
nature of broadcast media in general and
radio broadcasting in particular with
emphasis on the dynamics of community
radio broadcasting operations.
Community
• aggregation of families and individuals,
settled in a fairly compact and contiguous
geographical area, with significant
elements of common life, as shown by
manners, customs, traditions and mode
of speech (Ross, 1967).

Community: a group of people who have

sense of common purpose (s) and/or
interest (s) for which they assume
mutual responsibility, who acknowledge
their interconnectedness, who respect
the individual differences among
members, and who commit themselves
to the well-being of each other and the
integrity and well-being of the group.
Definition Of Terms
⚫ Broadcasting is the distribution is the
distribution of audio is the distribution
of audio and video content to a
dispersed audience via radio, television,
to the general public or a relatively
large subset of audiences.

⚫ The original term broadcast referred to

the literal sowing of seeds on farms by
scattering them over a wide field.

⚫ It was first adopted by early radio

engineers It was first adopted by early
radio engineers from the Midwestern
United States It was first adopted by
early radio engineers from the
Midwestern United States to refer to
⚫ Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the
mass media.

⚫ Broadcasting to a very narrow range of

audience is called narrowcasting
Electricity is a general term
encompassing a variety of phenomena
resulting from the presence and flow of
electric charge.
These include many easily recognizable
phenomena, such as lightningThese
include many easily recognizable
phenomena, such as lightning, static
electricityThese include many easily
recognizable phenomena, such as
lightning, static electricity, and the flow
of electrical current in an electrical wire.
In addition, electricity encompasses less
familiar concepts such as the
electromagnetic fieldIn addition,
electricity encompasses less familiar
concepts such as the electromagnetic
field and electromagnetic induction.
Electronic Media -is a media that
requires the use electricity or electric
power .
• Mass media-These are channels in
communication that can expose large number
of people to the same information at the same
time they include media that convey
information by sound ( radio, audio, cassettes
), moving pictures,( television , films , video)
and (print) posters, newspapers and leaflets
(Alcober, 2009).
Community Broadcasting-is designed to fulfill
social and cultural needs by allowing members
of the audience to participate in decisions about
programming and, in the case of radio, in the
ownership of stations.

• It serves local communities, reflecting the

diversity of their views and needs, and provides
access to volunteer participants. It is public
broadcasting, but it is not operated by a
government or a government agency.
 Exercise 1: Visit a radio station and be able to
determine the stations VMGO
Specifically:
A. Programming format and Policy
B. Ownership
C. Operator
D. Target audiences
 Features of Community Radio
⚫ Belongs to the Community-ownership of the
radio station and all its facilities distinguishes
community radio from commercial radio.
Community ownership can be achieved: through
trust, foundation, cooperative and other similar
means.
⚫ Community participation and
management-administration and management of
a community radio rest exclusively on the
community concerned.
.
Characteristics:

▪ Serves local communities-reflecting the

diversity of their views and needs.
▪ Provides access to volunteer participants.
▪ Public broadcasting but it is not operated by
a government or a government agency-
Owned by members of a society or
cooperative.
▪ Local in orientation
▪ Operates upon voluntary contribution from
its audience, donations, advertising,
memberships, LGU grants
▪ Advertising is prohibited; some have limited
advertising.
▪ Use multi-lingual
 Aspects of participation:
⚫ Policy and decision-making process-decides
and elects people; given responsibilities for the
operation of the station. Example: Programming

⚫Why need participation? Safeguard against

possible misuse of the community radio other
than what the community intends it to be
⚫ Community-Funded-financial support is
generated through membership fees, donations,
grants or revenues from advertisements.
⚫ -Community effort in raising funds is essential in
strengthening community’s sense of ownership.
⚫ Community participation in Programming
◦Programs are based on the decision of the community.
◦Programs must be diverse reflective to the voices of
the sub-groups.
◦Programs are run mostly by volunteers.
⚫ Community Access and Participation
◦born as a reaction to one-way, non-participative
broadcasting system.
◦Audience the main protagonists, by their
involvement in all aspects of its management and
program production-
◦Programming will help them in the development
and social advancement of their community.
 Functions of Community Radio
Facilitates a public forum for community dialogue-facilitates
community activities like Federalism issue.
⚫ Provides voice of the voiceless- the marginalized and minority
groups.
⚫ Encourages initiative in responding community issues.
⚫ To provide an opportunity for the people to express their diverse
views on matters of interest
⚫ Enhances community dialogue and interactive discussions.
Community Radio opens Space for Greater
participation and Access to Media
◦CR brings the media to the level of the
community where it becomes tangible and
part of its daily routine.
◦People prepares the program
◦Brings activities of the organization into the
community sphere.
◦Provides peaceful dialogue during elections.
Note: commercial radio fashions their
programs in relation to future financial
returns.
⚫CR makes media accessible to ordinary
people.
⚫Media do not own and control community,
communities; the community owns and
controls it.
 Community Radio promotes
Development and Social Change
⚫the role of media is not
more than just to entertain
nor the amount of revenue
the stations ultimately
collect as in the case of
commercial radio stations.
⚫health (ex. dengue) or
other problem.
⚫ Could be used to mobilize people to action.
⚫ Provides forum for community dialogue
concerning its problems (just in the case of
Radio Tacunan problem on rhinoceros beetle
and Tibagnol of banana).
⚫ sets in motions discussions on he
CR as Animator and Catalyst for Community
Building
⚫ -sets in motion community dialogue
responding community problems.
⚫ -dialogue push community to come together
expressing their opinions.
⚫ --encourages people to collectively participate
in the political, social, economic, religious, and
cultural development of the community.
• -stronger community solidarity is
formed:
• when members celebrate together
their culture through local songs
and poetry.
• CR broadcast this local production
and the planning process and
evaluation of this programs create
opportunity for people to discuss,
suggest and argue, in a spirit of
respect, resulting in a compromise.
 CR Responds to issues which are
locally and Culturally Important
⚫ CR provides antidote to a media that is not
sensitive to issues which are considered
locally important while commercial radio
have “generic” contents.
⚫ uses local language, addresses local
concerns, develops local culture, features
local personalities; the medium at the
service of the community.
⚫ CR Demystifies Mass Media
⚫ media in general is regarded by people
something beyond their knowledge.
⚫ something for the elite and those have
pleasing personalities (including modulated
voice), and celebrities.
⚫ CR changes these misconceptions by making
available and accessible to them. (Give all
members chance to be “on board”; to be brave
and participate in the activities of the station).
⚫ every one is a participant, every one is a
celebrity.
CR Promotes Literacy and Continuing Education
(SOA)
• -widely used in agricultural extension
programs, teaching farmers and fishermen
new trends and technologies; used in peace
and gender development (GAD).
Reasons:
• Radio is affordable
• Rural people listen to radio
• lesser cost of production of program
compared to T.V.
• Radio has wider reach than classroom.
 CR empowers Communities and Community Members
• -CR presents and alternative to a centralized,
non-participative communication process as in
commercial radio that production, dissemination
and evaluation of programs are limited to a
chosen few (used for economic and political
purposes empowers those who are already in
power).
• -It empowers people by giving the public voice to
the voiceless.
• -provides an opportunity for active involvement
in community reconstruction , development and
decision-making
 Exercise 2
• Feature 1 Community Radio in other
countries:
• A. uses/roles
• B. purposes/functions
• Management
• Ownership
2. Write your critique based on the lecture on
community radio.
3. Present some insights how Community Radio
can be applied in the Philippines.
 HISTORY OF BROADCASTING
IN THE WORLD
May be viewed in terms of:
▪ Development of the facilities for broadcasting
▪ Consequent use in the technologically more
advanced countries in the world.
Q: How developing countries used broadcasting?
Exercise 3: identify at least 2 developing or
formerly underdeveloped countries and 2
developed countries; be able to compare the
uses of broadcasting between these countries.
 HISTORY OF BROADCASTING
IN THE WORLD
Discovery of Magnetism and the
Radio wave
1832 Michael Faraday of England-
• learned that electric current flowing in
one wire could cause a similar current
to flow in a nearby wire.
• He thought that there must be a
relation between all forms of energy
like light and heat, although he did not
give any definite explanation.
• 1864 James Clerck Maxwell,
Scientist from Scotland-showed
mathematical calculation that light,
magnetism, heat and electricity are
actually waves in space that travel
at 186,000 miles/second (300,000
km/sec.).
• The only difference was that each
had its own rate of vibration or
frequency.
 Waves 101
• Everyone has seen waves on the surface of
water.
All waves have certain things in common:
1.All waves have crest (high points),
2. troughs (low points),
3. a wavelength -the distance from one
crest to another or one trough to another.
Frequency
• refers to the number of times the wave goes
up and down.
• The number of complete wavelengths that
pass a given point in a second.
Common Frequency Units
Hz = hertz = 1 cycle/second
KHz = kilohertz = thousand (1,000) cycles/second
MHz = megahertz = million (1,000,000) cycles/second
GHz = gigahertz = a thousand million (1,000,000,000)
cycles/second
Frequency
• refers to the number of times the wave goes
up and down.
• The number of complete wavelengths that
pass a given point in a second.
 Two Kinds of Waves: Compared
1.Mechanical wave
2.Electromagnetic waves
•Mechanical waves’ or sound waves-
Waves that you see and make in
water.
• Both require stuff or a medium to
travel through.
•The sound waves that you hear when
someone speaks push air that hits
your eardrum. The compressions of
the wave cause a vibration on your
eardrum, which you translate into
sound.
• This sound can be speech, music, or
simply noise.
• media that water waves travel in is
water.
• Mechanical waves can switch media
that they are traveling in.
• For instance, when a wave crashes
on the beach we can hear it or if
music is played really, really loud it
can vibrate walls.
• mechanical waves always need
something to travel in.
2. Electromagnetic waves -have the
same characteristic parts as mechanical
waves (e.g., wavelength, amplitude,
frequency, etc), but they behave very
differently.
Speed:
Sound waves- approximately 344
meters/second, Electromagnetic
waves-speed of light (300,000,000
meters/second).
Mechanical waves -need something to
move in e.g., air or water,
Electromagnetic waves can travel in a
vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves- travel in a
straight line unless something changes
their course (e.g., think of a laser beam).
Modulation: is the process of adding
information on to a radio wave.
AM Frequency: 540-1700 KHz (Medium
wave)
FM frequency : 88-108 MHz
1887, Heinrick Hertz- German scientist
discovered the waves.
• Found the technique of producing
waves by means of electrical current
and vice-versa known as
electro-magnetic induction
• Succeeded in transmitting the electrical
impulses for several hundreds of feet from a
spark.
• Discovered that the waves transmitted could
be focused in the same way as light.

This device now called the Transmitter

Edouard Branly-devised an
instrument called Branley
Coherer to detect the
electromagnetic wave
(Carrier Wave). .
Development of Radio
Transmission and
Broadcasting
⚫ Broadcasting started when
Guglielmo Marconi of Italy
made an important
improvement over the Branley
Coherer which he used to
transmit and receive messages
over a distance of about a mile. Guglielmo Marconi and his wireless
Apparatus
⚫ 1896-he demonstrated his wireless apparatus
⚫ 1897-he was able to send and receive signals
through invention at a distance of 34 miles.

⚫ 1898-New York City-based newspaper

commissioned Marconi to report the Kingstown
Regatta, a yacht race for the Americas Cup. A
station was built on the shore and on two of the
ships following the races. Reports were
transmitted by means of the Morse Code and
reproduced in a newspaper.
• Morse code is a method of transmitting
textual is a method of transmitting textual
information as a series of on-off tones, lights,
or clicks that can be directly understood by a
skilled listener or observer without special
equipment. The International Morse Code
encodes the Roman alphabet is a method of
transmitting textual information as a series of
on-off tones, lights, or clicks that can be
directly understood by a skilled listener or
1906-Reginald Fessenden an American
Scientist succeeded in transmitting the
human voice.
1910- first radio broadcast when the
Metropolitan Opera House in New
York City went on Air.
1916-1st radio news service was
conducted airing the result of U.S.
Presidential election between Hunges
and Wilson.
1920-experimental radio stations proliferated in
and outside U.S.
1935-Edwin Howard Armstrong, American
electrical engineer and inventor developed the
F.M. radio.
Commercial broadcasting-responsible in
modernizing the facilities and improved
broadcasting techniques.
 Present Uses:
1. Free world-business and way of life
2. For development by once developing now
developed countries.
3. For development (promoter of change) by
developing countries like the Philippines.
4. Used to connect one country to another
Note: The status of broadcasting depends on the
stage of development of the country
concerned.
Critiques: Is radio really used for development in
our country? Describe the broadcasting
practices in the country.
 Problems:
1. Overflowing of radio stations-overlapping of
frequencies.
2.. Interference and jamming
Implications/insights:
1. On Problems, air lane is a limited resource
2. There must be control and regulation by the
government on the establishment of radio
stations
 History of Philippine Broadcasting
Radio Broadcasting-introduced by the Americans as a medium of
entertainment.
1922-three broadcasting stations was set up in Manila for
demonstration.
1928-local distributors of radio sets built radio stations for
entertainment and commercial purposes.
1940-radio stations reached to more than 100
KZND-first government radio station established before world
war II
-used by the Civil Emergency administration to keep the people
informed on the preparations for war.
-USAFFE-ordered all broadcasting be destroyed before the
Japanese occupation.
▪ Japanese saw the potentials of radio for propaganda
▪ PIAM-radio station used to broadcast Japanese propaganda in
Japanese and English language
▪ Radio stations built by Americans were turned over to the
Philippines after the war—Phil. Broadcasting Service (PBS)
▪ 1946-resumption of commercial broadcasting
▪ Programming was based on canned programs from the U.S.
▪ Radio as major medium for entertainment in urban
areas-Manila, Davao, Cebu and Iloilo
▪ Growth of radio in the rural area was hampered by the lack of
electricity.
▪ 1957-Transisitor radio was introduced
Effects of the introduction of transistor radio:
1. Allowed remote villages to share information
and entertainment
2. Opened rural areas as potential market for
good and services.
Number of radio stations compared to other
countries
1966- 202 radio stations ; Canada 210
UK, 196, Germany 83
Before martial law-350
 Development of Rural Broadcasting
1946-KZRH now DZRH-started to broadcast a farm program in
cooperation with Department of Agriculture and Industry.
⚫ The only radio program directed to rural audience for
disseminating agricultural information.
⚫ Chemical companies starting to sponsor farm programs-as a
market for agricultural products.
⚫ Farm programs became popular in the 60s
⚫ Rural Broadcasters Council (RBC)-1964-to regulate farm programs
⚫ DZLB-1964 -first experimental rural educational radio station
⚫ Established by U.P. College of Agriculture-first to establish a
concept of rural broadcasting adaptable to Philippine condition.
⚫ Recognized as the only training center for rural educational
broadcasting in the Philippines
 Pre- and Post Martial Law Broadcasting
• Before martial law-proliferation of radio stations
• Broadcasting was patterned the American system of free
enterprise
• Used for profit
• Political purposes
• Tri-media network ownership
• Media networks controlled by politicians
• Archaic broadcast laws
• Overcapacity
• Unregulated establishment of radio stations
• Resulted to confusion, jamming and interference
• Lack of program quality
 Pre- and Post Martial Law Broadcasting
• Before martial law-proliferation of radio stations
• Broadcasting was patterned the American system
of free enterprise
• Used for profit
• Political purposes
• Tri-media network ownership
• Media networks controlled by politicians
• Archaic broadcast laws
• Overcapacity
• Unregulated establishment of radio stations
• Resulted to confusion, jamming and interference
• Lack of program quality
During Martial Law:
⚫ Broadcast stations were closed except for
government stations
⚫ Placed under strict government control
Benefits of Martial Law:
⚫ Programs have more substance
⚫ Development-conscious
⚫ Still emphasize entertainment programs
–commercial enterprise
• Tele-broadcast industry moved towards more
personality entertainment programs
After Martial Law and at Present:
• Radio broadcasting is described today as a
government partner in nation building
• Radio stations support government
development programs
• Tighter control over the operation of radio
stations
• Government guidelines have been prepared for
the radio stations
 Kinds of Broadcasting Systems
I. Internal Systems-refers to the methods by which radio
operates in terms of control, ownership or approach,
as far as general programming is concerned.
1. Government-controlled systems-Countries with no
privately-owned radio stations
Kinds:
a. Strict government control
⚫ Program content is based on what the rulers think the
people should listen to in relation to government
ideology
Ex. Peoples Republic of China
b. Control with flexibility-takes into account the
needs of the audience
⚫ Programming is basically-audience-based
while emphasizing the good of the state
⚫ Used more for education and development
Example: India’s Broadcasting system
2. Commercial Broadcasting System
• Takes into account the economics of broadcasting
• Main motive is profit
• Caters to the consumer segment of the society
• Depends on advertising for revenues
• Less role in promoting development
• Controlled by private individuals or organizations
• Practiced by countries that are pure free enterprise
Ex. Macao; Ryukyu ISLAND

3.Mixed broadcasting system

• Most popular broadcasting system in the free world
• Government and private operate at the same time with no
competition
Broadcast as:
⚫ Free enterprise
⚫ Government stations used to support government programs
⚫ Provides listeners a certain degree of freedom to choose which
kind of programs they would like to listen to.
⚫ Balanced broadcasting system
Example: Philippines, Japan, Australia, U.S.
II. External Systems-refers to any system in terms of geographical
coverage and listenership.
1. International broadcasting-refers to the regular transmission of
voice and music over a long distance by other group of people.
Phases:
1. Exchange of programs between broadcasting services
of different countries .
Started in 1923-American Station KDKA transmitted
special Christmas program to U.K.
2. Broadcast from colonial powers to their
colonies-pioneered by the Netherlands in 1927
3. Broadcasting from one country to its nationals or
former nationals.
⚫ Started in Switzerland in 1935-broadcast to its Swiss
residents in Argentina and North America.
⚫ Sometimes called cultural propaganda
1. National broadcasting –broadcasting within
the country with heterogeneous audience.
• Made possible through signal relay or
powerful transmitter.
• 3. Local broadcasting- this is based on the
desire to be relevant.
• Programs are meant to serve the local
audience.
• Characterized by local language.
 Introduction to Radio Medium
Radio as a Mass Medium:
✔ a tool in reaching audience
✔ Knowledge is important to use it effectively:
-Limitations (weaknesses).
1. avoiding pitfalls and unnecessary and costly
waste of energy, manpower, time and money.
2. Pose challenge to look for ways to overcome
them

-Capabilities-using to the best advantage

 Community Radio
(Basic Facilities)
Importance: working knowledge of the equipment
can make individual more creative.
-Operating procedure
-the kind of equipment to use and how to use it in
special broadcast situation.
Professional type vs. home type :
-Designed for heavy duty operations
-can withstand bumps and of regular hard usage
regardless of different climatic condition.
-designed for easy repair minimum loss of time.
 Microphones
▪ A mechanical device that transform
sound waves into electrical impulses or
audio waves as faithfully as possible.
Factors in assessing the worth of a
microphone:
▪ Width of frequencies to which it will
respond ( how high and how low a pitch
it will pick up).
▪ The accuracy of response-the fidelity of
reproduction a microphone can give.
The mic responds equally well to all
frequencies.
▪ Weight, bulk, usability under adverse
weather condition.
▪ Ruggedness
 Types of Microphones
Non-broadcast types:
1. Carbon mikes- mainly made up of carbon granules
which respond to the pressure of sound waves by
producing electrical impulses. Widely used for
telephone, cell phone, and other communication
equipment.
2. Crystal or ceramic mike-widely used in home recorders
and public address system.
-Inexpensive and rugged but limited in frequency
response (ability to respond equally to all sounds no
matter what pitch—low, middle, high).
-The quality of sound becomes poorer as the cord length
is extended.
Broadcast types:
1. Dynamic or pressure microphones (moving-coil
microphones).
-most popular microphones in radio stations.
-excellent frequency response
-with rugged construction made less sensitive to
gusts of wind.
-ideal for outdoor tapings and remote broadcasts.
-mostly non-directional-responding to all sound
coming from all directions.
How it works? The thin diaphragm vibrates in
responds to sound energy. The attached coil
moves through a magnetic field, generating an
electrical current with a pattern that
corresponds to the pattern of the original
sound.
2.Velocity or Ribbon
Microphone :
▪ Second most
commonly used
▪ Oval-shaped and
coffin like
▪ Very good high
frequency response
▪ Excellent sensitivity
▪ Delicate and easily
damaged especially by Sound energy causes vibrations of a
wind and severe metallic ribbon which moves through
noise overload. a magnetic field which produce an
▪ Sensitive to popping electric current. The ribbon responds
to the velocity of the sound not to the
of such speech sound pressure of the sound.
as b and p.
Condenser or capacitor
microphone-the most
expensive microphone
in the market
⚫ Produces high quality
sound-recording
companies prefer to
use it.
⚫ It is inconvenient to use
because it requires a
tube or transistor Sound vibrates the diaphragm.
Movement of the diaphragm
within the microphone varies the electrical pattern on the
case and a special back plate
power supply which
are all very bulky.
Condenser microphone
 Physical Types of Microphones
1. Hand held –small enough to be
easily held.
▪ Durability and the ability to
reject handling noise.
2. Headset mic-offer hands-free
operation and are useful in
radio for such tasks as sports
play-by-play.
3.lavalier is usually clipped to
person’s clothing and usually
worn by anchors on T.V. thus
have little application on radio.
• Shotgun mic is usually used for long-ranged
pick up in television and film. It has little use in
radio.
•
 Basic Microphone Pickup Patterns;
1. Omni-directional-mike can pick up sounds
coming from all directions.
-advisable for taping dramas, round table
discussions, panel discussions and group
singing.
• Bi-directional-two areas of pick up usually
opposite sides of the mic.
• Ideal for interview or other events where
speakers stay on opposite sides.
• Uni-directional (cardioids) or heart-shaped
-pick up sounds from 1 side only usually in front.
 Points to remember in using microphone

1. Do not blow into the mike to test if it is working.

2. Do not expose the mike to gusts of wind.
3. Should not be subjected to extreme temperature.
4. Always tie the mike cord to a firm point nearest the
microphone to avoid damage in case someone trips or pulls
the cord.
5. Never make adjustments on mike units.
6. Do not put the mike where it could attract iron filings.
7. Avoid facing a flat wall when using bi-directional mike- to
avoid reverberation
8. Do not “fondle” the microphone while you are talking.
9. Adjust the position and distance of the mike before you use
it…not while you are using it.
• Console or board-a complex network of
switches, knobs, and meters-or sometimes, a
built-incomputer screen.

Fig. 1 An analog 1 mic -input audio console using slide

faders
 Types of consoles
⚫ Analog console
⚫ Digital console
⚫ Digital virtual console
⚫ Analog-a type of recorded sound source that
produces a sound wave similar to the original
wave.
◦The traditional methods of reproducing
sounds such as phonograph records and
standard audio tapes, use analog method
rather than digital method-the use of binary
computer language
 Elements of the Consoles:
1.Preamps-built into the console which are not visible
2.Input channels-which allow a number of signal
sources to be used and possibly mixed together.
3.A line selector or routing switch, to determine which
of the several signals will go on to the source
channel
4.Potentiometer (pots)-either the circular pot or the
more modern
Vertical fader
5. A cue channel
6. Several buttons to rout the signal over either the
audition channel or program channel (or both)
7. A VU meter to give an objective reading on the
loudness of the signal.
8. An amplifier which boosts output of the console not
visible, since it is built into the console)
9. Miscellaneous controls –allows the producer to
adjust headset volume, choose the source feeding into
the headset.
monitor volume control- being usually used instead
of the VU meter when adjusting the level at which one
choses to listen.
Note: Refer to Console Fig. 1
Digital console images
 Functions of the console:
1. Routing
2. Mixing
3. Amplifying audio signals
Audio-term used to refer to the electrical signals
that are involved in the production or
transmission of sound
Sound-is a vibration through air or another
medium.
⚫ Amplification-is the boosting of a signal to a
usable level. The console gives the operator
convenient control over the volume of various
signal sources such as microphones, computers,
turntables, cd players, cart machines and other
playback units.
⚫ Routing- it allows to determine the path of the
signal or to route e.g. over the air or cue or turn
the signal on or off.
⚫ Mixing- it can put two signals out at once ex. An
announcer’s voice and music. The volume of
both can be controlled separately.
 Basic Parts:
1. Potentiometer-a volume control sometimes
called fader. A slide fader adjust volume-an
adjustment of the VU meter not a control for
a monitor.
2. Volume unit meter (VU)-gives an objective
visual representation of loudness. Zero on
the top of the scale is the reference for
proper volume. Positive 1-reading in the red;
below negative 3-running in the mud.
VU meter showing 3 different levels of reading
• Monitor- a loudspeaker or headset that lets
the operator hear what’s going over the air. It
allows the operator to use the monitor to
listen to a number of sources other than
what’s going over the air.
•
Amplifier- before the signal leaves the board,
it must be amplified, boosted again.
Amplifier
Radio Transmitter
-amplifies further the audio frequency coming
from the console and transmit it to the
antenna system.
-creates a radio wave or a carrier wave which
travels a speed of light (186,000 miles per
second).
-the audio waves are imposed upon the carrier
wave which serves as its vehicle to travel. The
amplified mixture is then fed to the antenna
where radiation takes place. The carrier wave
delivers the audio wave to the radio sets.
 Transmitter
•Audio waves produced by the
microphones are sent to the Transmitter
•Transmitter creates carrier waves
•Modulates audio wave on the carrier
•Amplifies to a usable level
•Cast the resulting signal to the antenna system
•Antenna radiates the signal
 Radio Antenna System:
2 Major Functions:
1. To effect more efficient radiation
2. To increase the distance at which the radiating
radio waves travel thereby increasing the effective
coverage of the radio station.
Types of Antenna :
•Top portion radiating antenna
•Drop wires antenna-effect radiation from top to
bottom which is more efficient.
•High voltage structure
FM Broadcasting Jampro Antenna
Studio and Announcer’s Booth- are rooms
treated acoustically to eliminate unwanted
sound.
-designed to house the announcer and the
console.
-Sound absorbing materials are usually placed in
the surfaces of the room to make it “dead”-no
reverberation or “echo effect”.
-when it reverberates it is called “live” room.
 Types of Radio Programs
Musical Program:
•Almost all radio stations in the world broadcast music programs for
3 reasons:
1. it is well suited to radio broadcasting
2. It takes less time to produce and cost less
3. Music is part of all culture

Classification:
Integrated musical program-built upon or revolves around a definite
theme, which could be a famous composer, a patriotic occasion, a
musical travelogue, a particular period or a sustained mood.
Diverse music program-presents a heterogenous program,
 such as :
⚫A group of popular songs
⚫Variety of semi-classical music
⚫Potpourri of old and new songs

Kinds:

Formal program– has a special script and follows a certain set

pattern .
Informal program-is also known as the disc-jockey program. The
announcer has no script. He adlibs in his program.

Program has a minor part-utilizes musical pieces to create a

certain mood, to bridge from subject to another, or add
 variety to an otherwise monotonous program.

Planning a Musical Program

Two things to be considered:
1.The target audience
2.The purpose of the program
⚫Writer should adopt his style to the type of music.
⚫Script should be tailored to the level of the audience:
⚫Ex. Classical music a smaller but more erudite (learned)
audience-this should not mean cold formality-remember that
audience in musical program is informal, relaxed attitude.
⚫Continuity of the program varies depending whether is live or
recorded .
⚫Live broadcast-Ex. Concert at bay walk can describe the
 Surroundings, a crowd, the arrivals, even the weather.
Disc Jockeying:
1.Say interesting things about the music
2.Provide information about the music
3.Build little bridge between musical pieces, and
4.Present messages or other information that fit into the music or
strengthen the mood of the program
Achieving variety within unity
1.Music with similar style
2.A featured performer
3.Pieces that tell the same subject
4.Selection that come from one place or one period
Note: there should be difference from one piece to another-to
keep the listener interested.
 Music arrangement:
⚫The first and final music should be chosen carefully:
⚫Help listeners identify the kind of program to follow
⚫Gain the listener’s interest
⚫Please many listeners as possible
The closing should make the listener want to listen to the
program again
⚫All lively melodies should not be put together nor all quite ones.
⚫The mood should change slightly from one selection to the next
Selecting of a Name:
1.Short enough to be remembered –this makes easy to put into
the program list
2. Ear-catching- it should give the listeners an idea of what to
expect from the program
Exercise 1. Make a Musical Program Plan
following the Format:
Title:
DJ/Host:
Target Audience:
Theme:

Music Title Information Interesting Topic (Bullet)

Message(s)
1.
2.
3.
•Students must have CP with headset and radio app.
•An e-copy of the music selections or a laptop with zara or v-dj where music
selections are inserted and arranged.
•No plan, no exam.
 MIDTERM EXAM
PRACTICAL EXAM:
• STUDY THE PARTS OF MIXER/CONSOLE/BOARD
• BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF AUDIO TRANSMISSION
OF A RADIO STATION.
• PREPARE A 10-MINUTE MUSICAL SELECTIONS INCLUDING
BRIDGES FOLLOWING INTEGRATED MUSICAL PROGRAM.
• PRACTICE PLAYING YOUR SELECTION USING ZARA RADIO OR
VIRTUAL DJ SOFTWARES
• EACH STUDENT WILL BE GIVEN 10 MIN. EACH TO PLAY THE
SELECTIONS IN THE CAMPUS RADIO ON YOUR VACAN TIME.
 News Program
Basic definition: reports of something new
⚫Importance depends on how many people it affects.
⚫How long the effects are likely to last.
⚫The most valuable contribution of a radio station to the
community.
⚫Radio immediacy cannot be surpassed by newspaper nor television
–so fast and so well (Strengths /advantages of Radio)
Criteria of Selecting Radio News:
1.Real importance of events (politics, economics, science, social
problems)
2.Balance in the choice of stories as well as in the various areas of an
activity represented.
 3. Good taste of the stories
Radio News writing
Standard requirement:
1.Knowledge of the subject
2.Capability to state things simply
Limitations:
⚫Radio cannot depend upon typographic devices, page
position, and supplementary pictures to attract attention
⚫Cannot give detailed account of the event (unless of
extreme importance)
⚫Cannot deal with long statistical summaries, list of names
and similar tabulations- these are the works of
newspapers
 Approaches :
1.Offers general mental picture of events and situations-this makes
the listeners see it clearly the situation described.
2.Radio news should be straight talk, direct and concise-use
conversational approach.
3.First sentence must give the listeners an idea of what the news
item is about and must get the listeners interest.
4.Short time presentation of news must have:
a.What happened
b.Why it happened
c.When it happened
d.Where it happened
e.Who was involved
f.How it happened
 Principles of Radio and Television News Writing
1.One thought to each sentence. –many ideas provided in
one sentence will confuse the audience. Simplicity
ensures understanding.
2.Avoid tongue-twisting phrases-read your copy aloud for
smooth announcing or reading.
3.Vary the length- it will avoid monotony; permits better
pacing for a more listenable newscast.
4.Refrain using quote and unquote technique- long
quotations can be preceded by the name of the quoted
person and the simple verb “said’ ( Secretary of
Agriculture William Dar says…).
Simple sentence-PCARRD SAYS THAT CACAO
HAS HIGH DEMAND.
Complex: Local market demands cacao up to
more than five hundred kilogram per year in
which fifty percent is in the form of cacao balls
and another half is fresh beans.
Correct Form:
Local market has high demand for cacao. The
demand is up to five hundred kilogram per year.
Fifty percent of the demand is in the form of
cacao balls. Another half of the demand is in the
form of Cacao fresh beans.
⚫ Writing for radio is an art to be learned. It is writing in spoken
form. Radio copies must:
1. be easily read by announcers
2. conversational,
3. easily understood by the listener.
⚫ Simplicity is essential. Use simple rather than complicated
words and sentences.
⚫ Radio writing must start strongly, perhaps provocatively, and
end up strongly.
⚫ Repetition is essential.
⚫ Avoid over use of statistics.
⚫ Careful planning is essential.
⚫ Research is necessary to ensure accuracy and relevance.
News Story Structure
• The structure of news is like an inverted pyramid. This means,
the essential facts are presented briefly in the first paragraph. If
the news story is very short, the lead paragraph may be the
whole story. Otherwise, succeeding paragraphs give more
details which support the lead.

Most Essential
Most Essential LEAD
facts
facts
Less essential
(elaboration of Body
facts in the lead)

Least essential Details

facts
(background)
 Application: Arrange the facts following the inverted pyramid style
1. Cacao was known as the drink of the gods during ancient time.
2. Drinking cacao heals coronary heart diseases.
3. NNC director Carlos C. Tsukolate says that cacao beans are rich
in nutrients needed by our bodies.
4. Omega 3, also known as “good cholesterol” dissolves clogs of
the heart due to animal fats.
5. The National Nutrition Council (NNC) reported yesterday that
drinking three cups of coffee a day can help remove plaque in
the coronary artery of the heart.
6. In addition, it has omega 3 which is beneficial for the heart.
7. Tsukolate says, that cacao has rivoflavin or B12 which is good for
the nerves.
8. This was used as ceremonial drink during rituals.
Important reasons why a news story is written in
the form of inverted pyramid:
• The listener will get the most important facts
about the story immediately.
• Editing and headline writing is easier.
• Stories can be cut from the end without losing
the substance if there is not enough airtime.
• Note: Radio News is normally shorter than
news for print since it is written in general
manner which means only the gist of the story
are presented.
• Generalization is necessary:
1.Since time is limited and if the story is very
long, the announcer’s time allotment will run
short
2. Other items might not be read.
3. Details must be left to newspapers while radio
serves as an immediate source of general
information.
 Radio News Style
Understanding the listeners:
1. depend only on their sense of hearing.
2. Cannot go back to story once they miss
something.
What a newscaster must do?
1. should not put in a doubtful position while he
reads.
2. If there are difficult words or phrases in a news
story, the newscaster might stammer or stutter.
Some pointers in writing radio news.
• Be informal. Write the way one talks to a friend
across the table—but be sure to be
grammatically correct and use words in good
taste.
Ways to become informal:
• Use conversational language; this is the
language that you use in your day-to-day
interaction with other persons especially those
that are close to you.
• Use personal pronouns and contractions (he’ll,
they won’t, )
• Avoid long sentences. In an ordinary conversation,
people use short sentences. Short sentences are
important for you to avoid gasping out of breath.
• Provide breathers. Give the announcer a chance to
breath. You can do this by using relative pronouns
such as that or which whenever necessary.
• Mention the source of the information at the
beginning of the story, not at the middle or at the
end of the sentence.
Example:
• Juan de la Cruz , Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA)
Provincial Administrator said, Coconut farmers in
Davao Oriental suffered losses after being devastated
by typhoon Pablo.
STATE COLLEGE PRESIDENT DR. EDITO B. SUMILE Says

that HE WILL GIVE A TWO-day BREAK. THE BREAK

AIMS TO GIVE FACULTY AND STAFF TO HAVE REST. THE

BREAK WILL BE ENJOYED AFTER DECEMBER 13.

DECEMBER 13 IS THE CULIMNATION OF THE 28TH

FOUNDING ANNIVERSARY OF THE COLLEGE.

 Better: Philippine Coconut Authority Provincial
Administrator Juan de la Cruz says that Coconut
farmers in Davao Oriental suffered losses. They
suffered losses due to typhoon Pablo.
•Use transitional words as much as possible like
therefore, however, likewise, also, furthermore
at the beginning of sentences.
•Prefer the indirect quotation. This makes for
smoother, readable copy. However, we may use
direct quotations when we write controversial
issues.
• Handle figures properly
Pointers in handling figures:
• Avoid them unless they are vital part of the
story.
• Round off figures when presenting .
• Example: More than 1 and a half tons of
cavans….Instead of 1,533 cavans
• Always spell out symbols (% should be
percent, kg. should be kilogram)
• Spell out fractions (1/2 should be one-half)
• Always use the present tense whenever
possible.
• This adds to immediacy.
• Avoid abbreviations. A good rule to follow in
handling abbreviations is when in doubt write
it out. An exception would be the use of the
most popular abbreviations already familiar to
the station’s audiences.
• Avoid tongue twisters or tanglers. Change
words or phrases which are hard to read. We
can discover these phrases or words if we read
out news story aloud.
• Avoid sibilant sounds. The letters “z” and “s”
are difficult to voice aside from unpleasant to
the ear. Try to find substitutes for words with
“s” and “z”.
•
• Examples:
•
• Because –due to
• Perhaps—maybe
• Zeal---fervor
• Provide phonetic spelling. News words and
those difficult to pronounce should be
provided with phonetic spelling right after the
word.
•
• Example: Bordeaux (bor-doo) mixture.
Mechanics of Radio News Style
Purpose: Radio news is written for the ear not for
the eye. This is the primary difference between
writing for printed media and aural media.
Style:
Radio news is brief and concise—details will be
accomplished by the printed media.
Should be conversational- to determine if written
news for radio is conversational, try reading it
aloud.
• Always use simple words- explain technical terms
if you use them.
 • Announcement/assignment
• Bring copies of national or regional
newspapers
Exercise No. 3
Writing radio news from a Printed News:
• From a newspaper, select 1 news story from
the front page preferably banner headline
(main stories printed in the front page of a
newspaper)
• re-format it for radio news. Follow the style
and rules in radio news writing.
• Deliver the news over the radio.
 Rules for Writing a Radio Copy
•
•All copies should be typed in capital letters
(however, capital and small letters can also be
used) and double spaced.
•Write only on one side of the paper.
•Time each story by reading it aloud, and place
the approximate reading time on the upper right
hand corner of the page.
•Indent five spaces to mark the beginning of
paragraphs.
• Use acceptable marks at the end of the story
(### or -0- or 30) or END.
• Complete a story on a page, whenever
possible.
• When a story is to be continued on another
page write MORE.
• Don’t hyphenate words at the end of the
margins.
• When difficult words appear in a story, write
their phonetic spellings beside them in the
parenthesis.
• Example : pharmaceutical (farma-shutical).
• Underline words to be emphasized.
• Spell out numbers which are used at the
beginning of sentences.
• Example: Ten out of 100 farmers are
malnourished .
• Do not use direct quotes in radio news. Use
the indirect method instead.
• Example : Wrong—President Pinoy said,
“women must fight for their rights”.
•
• Correct--- President Pinoy said that women
must fight for their rights.
Radio News Item : An Example
• Running time: 45 Seconds
• Date : 27 July 2015, 7:41 PM
GOVERNMENT SEES MALUNGGAY AS KEY TO SOLVE MALNUTRITION
MALUNGGAY WHICH IS VERY POPULAR INGREDIENT OF
“TINOLANG MANOK AMONG FILIPINOS, NOW BRANDED AS
“POWER GULAY”. THIS BRAND WAS KNOWN TO THE PUBLIC
AFTER THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BIO-TECH
PROGRAM OFFICE (D.A.-BPO) DISCOVERED THAT IT IS VERY
RICH IN ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS. DA-PO REPORTED THAT
MALUNGGAY IS VERY RICH IN VITAMIN C, CALCIUM, VITAMIN A,
POTASSIUM AND IRON. THESE NUTRIENTS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR
A HEALTHY BODY. WITH THIS , THE GOVERNMENT HOPES TO
REDUCE MALNUTRITION USING MALUNGGAY.
• MORE
• MORE OVER, DA-PO DIRECTOR ALICIA ILAGA SAYS THAT
RECENTLY, EXPERTS WERE ABLE TO EXTRACT OIL FROM THE
SEEDS OF MALUNGGAY. THIS OIL CAN NOW BE USED FOR
DOMISTIC, INDUSTRIAL, HEALTH AND WELNESS BYPRODUCTS.
• DA-PO PROMISED TO POOL ITS REOURCES ALONG WITH
OTHER SECTORS TO FULLY DEVELOP MALUNGGAY IN
COMMERCIAL SCALE.
•
• END
News for Print: from online report
Gov’t eyes “malungay” arrests malnutrition
• MALUNGGAY is often known as one of the ingredients of
“Tinolang Manok,” which makes this Filipino specialty's soup
green and nutritious. But did you know that malunggay
contains seven times more vitamin C than orange, four times
more calcium than milk, four times more vitamin A than
carrots, three times more potassium than banana and more
iron than pechay. Hence the name “power gulay,” says the
Department of Agriculture-Biotech Program Office (DA-BPO).
Malunggay is key in government’s current
strategy to
reduce malnutrition in the country.
• Alicia Ilaga, DA-BPO director said the country’s experts were
able to extract oil from the seeds of malunggay, which can
now be used as vegetable or industrial oil. Malunggay is now
being developed into hair wax, tea, capsules and other health
and wellness products. Amid all these benefits, only few seeds
of malunggay for planting are available, Ilaga says. During a
recent campaign led by the DA-BPO, the agency was able to
collect only 1 metric ton of malunggay seeds. The DA-BPO is
currently looking into several initiatives to boost supply of
seeds. The agency hopes to create malunggay nurseries. It is
also planning to develop a technology for mass propagation
using tissue culture of malunggay.
 The Bureau of Plant Industry and the
Department of Agriculture in Region III are
now developing a commercial planting
package of technology through the DA-BPO.
Government has organized a network of
growers, seed suppliers, technology
developers called Malunggay Biotech
Information Organization Network to also
boost supply of malunggay seeds. “We would
like to unify and combine efforts from
different sectors so that we can support the
development of the [malunggay] industry,”
Ilaga said.
News- the basic commodity of all media of
communication.
• It is a timely, factual report of an event, a
situation or an idea designed to inform and
interest the audience.
It has the elements of 5 Ws and H
• What happened
• Why it happened
• When it happened
• Where it happened
• Who was involved
• How it happened
 News Determinants-these are factors that determine
news.
1. Proximity-refers either to physical or psychological
nearness of the news to the receiver or listener. One
would be more interested in an event that happened
nearby. If the listener has a special psychological
attachment to a news event that happened at a farther
place, he would still be interested on it.
2. Timeliness- immediacy, or topicality-freshness of the
news or immediacy or usefulness of the information.
•
3. Magnitude or significance-the greater the number of
people affected by the news, the newsworthy it is.
 Other factors making news important:
•
4. Prominent people- Ex. Pronouncement by the
president
5. Station Policy- if the station is run by a
religious group, may be news focus will be more
on religious. Some may give more preference on
political. Community radio gives more
importance on developmental e.g. health,
economics, science and technology.
4. Prominent people- Ex. Pronouncement by the
president
5. Station Policy- if the station is run by a
religious group, may be news focus will be more
on religious. Some may give more preference on
political. Community radio gives more
importance on developmental e.g. health,
economics, science and technology.
News Components:
• These are the factors that compose a news:
sometimes these are called news values.
1. Conflict- it comes in many forms:
• Ideas and man
• Man and his environment
• Man vs. himself
•
• Caution: Do not always capitalize on conflict,
rather we may look on something good like
exemplary accomplishments.
2. Progress –usually refers to change for the better. This
may come in the form of technological breakthrough,
techniques and the like. This is where development
news writers and broadcasters should focus.
3. Human Interest-events that usually arouse emotion,
those that involve man, make interesting news fare.
4. Prominence- this refers to famous people, places and
things. They make news. The more prominent an
individual is, the more he makes news. This is also
refers to events, and places.
5. Suspense- people usually are interested in what
happens next. In here, consequences of timely reports
are followed up.
 Parts of news
•Headline- this is equivalent to a title in the case of
feature and other form of literary articles.
•Usually, one can make the headline after writing
other parts of the news like the Lead, body and
details.
•Although generally, the headline summarizes the
Lead, but unlike news for newspaper, radio news
must be quite detailed compared to the former.
 This should be done since:
• spoken news is not limited on space unlike print
and
•a quite detailed one will provide more complete
information to promote understanding to the
listeners.
Headline structure will follow the simple
sentence pattern of Subject-Verb-Predicate (SVP)
Ex. Copra, (and) corn (are) good for hog’s health
according to D.A.
Example (Print):

•Duterte OKs rice tarrification law

Example (Radio):
•President Rodrigo Duterte approves rice
tarification law
• The Lead
• Summary Lead. This lead answers the 5 Ws (Who,
What, When, Where, Why, What) and one H
pertinent to the story.
Example: Duterte approves Organic Act says Medialdea
• President Rodrigo Duterte, approved yesterday in
Malacanang the Republic Act 10068 known as Organic
Agriculture Act. Executive Secretary Salvador
Medialdea says, this law was passed in order to
promote the raising of crops and animals for human
consumption. These crops and animals are to be
grown free from toxic chemicals.
 Secretary Medialdea says in an interview that the
Organic Agriculture Act will be implemented by the
Department of Agriculture in coordination with
State Colleges and Universities. The implementation
involves intensive campaign on the establishment of
model farms. These model farms will showcase
organically-grown crops, poultry and live stocks.
• Punch Lead: A lead designed to surprise or shock the
audience. Of course you can not make a shocking
lead if the event is not really shocking. This is most
appropriate if something happened surprising in
nature.
Example :
• Beware of camote, a farmer including his three
children died yesterday after eating uncooked
camote (sweet potato) from his farm.
• Picture Lead:
• One which paints a picture of the main character of
the story.
 Example:
• His skin is tanned and wrinkled due to sun
exposure, a result of daily toil in the farm. But
his diligence gave him fortune after his 1 hectare
watermelon applied with modern techniques
produced bumper harvest. Now, Mang Kanor
can not only afford to buy sun block as
protection to his skin but also can hire laborers
to help him to make farming a refreshing job.
•
• Contrast Lead
• It emphasizes irony.
• Farmers are suppose to have enough food since they
produce it but they cannot even eat three times a
day.
• Background lead:
• It paints a picture of the setting of the story.
• Example :
• Fruit trees surrounds the lush corn crops about to
bear flowers, at the middle of the farm stood the
modest hut of D.A.’s Gawad Saka Awardee Mr. Juan
de la Cruz.
• Exercise: Read at least 1 Article of the Davao
Research Journal.
• Write 1 news for radio in Visayan language.
 Radio School
Radio School or school broadcast is a broadcast prepared
for and directed to a group of students undergoing formal
and non-formal education . The radio may or may not be part
of existing school curriculum.

Types:

1.Instructional type
2.Enrichment type
3.Broadcast for in-service education of teachers
4.Two-way radio school-of-the air
5. school-on-the air type
1. Instructional broadcast-pertains to a particular
subject matter area usually presented more than
once a week, often daily.
• Follow the course of study unit by unit
• Beamed to specific grade
• Subject matter aired is basic to the curriculum and
not a general purpose.
Functions:
1. To help improve the quality of teaching
2. To facilitate the coverage of much material in a
relatively short time
3. To develop a relatively cheaper form of instruction
 The enrichment type broadcast-
•-to supplement the course of study rather than to
present the course itself
•Closely related to the course of study and planned for
broader goals.
•Usually aired once a week
•Offered to a span of grade
•They may be useful but not entirely indispensible.
Broadcast for Ins-service education of teachers
•Usually carried outside the class hours
•Geared towards teachers in groups and with and
without preliminary and post-broadcast discussion.
•Aims to improve the teachers skills and features
methods and techniques, demonstration, and subject
matter changes.
 Functions ;
•1. to enable the teachers to maintain continuous
communication with educators elsewhere.
•To improve the teacher’s performance- its impact on
the ultimate beneficiaries.
Two-way school-of-the air-
This is the most unique type of school broadcasting
in which class recitation is almost always entirely by
two-way radio.
•Used to serve school children who live too far from
conventional classroom or working students .
•Supplemented by correspondence course
•Usually used as last recourse when it is impossible for
the learners to be physically present
 BROADCAST FOR Non-formal education—usually referred as
school-on-the air.
•Used to serve a variety of needs
•May be aired to a very small and a very limited segment of the
population ex. Hog raisers).
•Use to impart vocational knowledge .
•May serve a wider group or several segment of society
•More effective when listening is organized.
Functions:
1.Effect change in traditional outlook and practices , acceptance of
new values and attitudes , as well as the acquisition of new
knowledge and skills
2.To help bring the government closer to the people and make them
better prepared to perform their roles as citizens.
 Process of school-on-the air

Coordination Phase
• . Coordinate community officials-present
to them the project.
•Community leaders
Organization/ mobilization phase-
this must be multi-stakeholders represented by:
•Community sectors
•Planning workshop must be done
•Identify students /beneficiaries or cooperators
•Design Monitoring and evaluation device-knowing the progress of
the project and its over-all success in terms of effect and impact.
• Script writing
• Production
• Airing
• Processing of reports
Post-airing Phase
• Technology demonstration
• Graduation
• Evaluation
• Script writing
• Production
• Airing
• Processing of reports
Post-airing Phase
• Technology demonstration
• Graduation
• Evaluation
2. The audiences of radio schools almost always are gathered in
groups such as the degree of captivity depends upon the extent
to which the group listening to the programs are motivated.
 Magazine Program
•Contains a number of items of related or unrelated
topics, usually linked together by narration , music and
sound effects.
•Radio magazine may vary from 5 to 30 minutes.
Format
• usually magazine program starts with a unique theme
music and strong lead story to attract people to listen
and stay tuned.
•Stories must be smoothly linked to achieve coherence.
Advantages
• provides pleasing listening
•It can focus of variety of subject in one broadcast (ex.
Health, fishing, forestry)
• The use of different voices coupled with music and sound
effects makes listening cold information pleasant.
Disadvantage :
• The mistake to attempt to cover too much material-will
result to confused audience
• Irritated if full of facts and figures
Planning the Program:
• Content must be well balanced-to attract audience
• Select topics, items, music sound effects well.
• Avoid wordy stories
• Make a good introduction:
• Narrator should briefly mention the variety of topics to be
featured
• The first item should be a strong lead; highly topical and
well-presented
• Use of narration, music or sound effects are the keys
for the success of the program
Writing the Program script
writer’s job:
• Research
• Organization
Prepare a routine sheet which clearly delineates the
time length of each presentation
• Provide accurate background material for
introduction to different section
• Edit all inserts carefully-to ensure well-balanced
program
• Economy of words is necessary-six or more short
items
• Use short sentences for chosen bridge music
• Avoid using familiar voices
 Talk Program
• The basis of all radio programs.
• Writer should prepare statements that will catch
immediate attention- open with attention-getting
statements.
• Avoid flat and round-about opening statements-audience
may tune to another station.
• Consider the audience in relax mood – do not lecture on
them.
• Radio audience is different from a captive audience.
• Captivate the audience by speaking to him not AT HIM.
• Be conversational and simple with that ad lib feeling
The talk should :
• 1. have purpose (EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES)
 At the end of 30 min. the corn farmers in Brgy. Buso
will be able to:
1. Recognize the importance of planting corn;
2. Appreciate the proper distance in planting corn;
3. Remember at least 3 kinds of corn varieties.
 • 2. Use short sentences;
• Use simple words
• Use picture words
• Develop interesting points
• Be conversational and sincere
Characteristics
1. It is economical-no music, no sound effects-a way of relaying
straight information
2. Flexible –can be easily altered, edited , re-written before
broadcast-easily controlled form of broadcast.
3. Best and unavoidable-especially with first person stories and
very simple, short, factual statements
4. Straight talk is good in comm to adult and particular audience
who have the knowledge and interest in the subject.
• the person may hear a single voice without listening to what
it is saying.

Advantages:
• Can express ideas simply.
• Single announcer can make the audience focus on one
personal viewpoint; makes the message easily relayed and
feedback either agreement or disagreement becomes clear.
• Can easily be criticized or re-written before the broadcast. It is
flexible.
• Inexpensive-Negotiating with only one person means only one
contract to prepare and one fee to pay.
 Limitations
1. Time and place factors
• Listeners has no time to go back to an article if he
did not understand it.
• Announcer has no feedback from the
audience-the script must be interesting enough.
• A talk must be addressed to a single person-to
retain the listeners attention.
2. Lack of variety-talk must be:
• Interesting
• Amusing
• Varied and personal-to compensate for having
only one speaker throughout the program.
3. Need to be simple-even with difficult topics,
address to the lay audience.
• Announcer should use lively examples and
comparisons with events or processes familiar
to his audience.
4. Need to keep facts to the minimum-the
program is short thus a limit to the number of
facts the listeners are expected to absorb in a
short time.
5. Personal factors-address the audience
personally-the broadcaster must know the life
of the people he is talking to.
 TALK PROGRAM SCRIPT: An
Example
Program Name: (the same with musical)
Time slot :
Topic: (specific)
Target audience :
Objectives: (SMART) change in-attitude
awareness, appreciation, recognition, interest
etc)
Knowledge-identification, enumeration, name,
count, select, cite, etc.)
 • Skill-perform, show, actualize, conduct, demonstrate etc.
____________________________
Cues: Instructions
Station I.D.: 3 secs.
Theme MUSIC: Kapalaran (3 mins)
GREETINGS:
• HOUSWIVES
• SCHOOL ADMIN
• FACULTY
• STUDENTS
Introduction of the topic: 3 mins.
Bayabas
Kanunay ka bang gi-ubo ug gisip-on? Tingali kulang ka ug Vit C.
Apan ayaw kabalaka, dili kinahanglan mugasto ka ug dako
aron mahimo kang lig-on sa sakit-sakit. Kaon lang kanunay ug
prutas nga bayabas. Mao na ang atong pagahisgutan karon
kauban si Dr. Liso Cruz…
 II. Nutrient Contents of Guava
Talk: (5 min)
•State in conversational words about guava…its
nutrients etc. or if you have guest, ask key question
about the topic.
Start with a “soft question” to let the guest feel at
ease.
MUSIC: BREAK (Paak) 2.5 min.
Field Report/Interview: (Dr. Cruz, Nutrition Expert).
Narr: time
Parting words:
Extro: Theme Music
 Field reporting/interviewing/adlibbing
•Unrehearsed or less rehearsed, spontaneous speech.
REQUISITES :
•Knowledge of the subject:
•- cornerstone in effective adlibbing.
•- enable for the performer to give unscripted comments.
•Thorough appreciation of the situation.
•Needs research-source of important observation.
•Stay in focus with the event of the moment-means to launch
insights and comments.
•Ability to think quickly.
•Have an agile (alert) mind-to ad-lib with authority and ease.
•Continuity –for audience understanding. Never stop when the
narrative falters (pauses)-learn to recover from a stumble.
 Disc Jockey
•Requires special talents.
•One-man program which introduces and talks about and plays:
•1. popular music
•2. give announcements
•3. interviews
•4. advertisement or advocacy ads
•5. Public Service Announcements (PSA)
•DJ should have a keen vital sense of humor;
•Talent for meaningful comment related to the music;
•Have developed their own styles of delivery as their trademark:
•Can be done through creative experimentation based on:
•A. the personality of the announcer b. selected segment of the
audience.
 Develop Ad-Lib Skills
•ad-libbing without a script is both easier and harder in
developing your broadcast voice than reading a printed copy.
•Vocal training requires that you excel at both.
•Ad-libbing can be easier because you're simply talking into a
microphone.
•You sound natural because you're speaking, just as you do at
home or on the telephone.
•The words you choose are your own, not those of a
scriptwriter.
•Converting everyday language into something a journalist
would say cripples your ability to sound natural and erects a
wall between you and your audience. Viewers don't feel as
though they are seeing the real you because of how you
choose to speak to them, rather than talk with them.
INTERVIEW
 Interview
Goal : find out as much as you can from the
interviewee.
•Sit down or talk first off-the-air with the
person to be interviewed.
Talk to him in advance before the actual
program:
• to make him at ease and avoid “mic
freight”.
• to have conversational mood.
 Uses:
1.as part of the news magazine program
2.As part of the general interest magazine,
combined with music and other items or topics
of general interest.
3.As part of the feature/talk program on a
particular subject.
4.As part of a particular special event program. (on
the spot interview, field interview).
 Types:
1. man on the street
2. expert interview
Interviewer must:
1.At ease
2.Knowledgeable
3.Vitally interested in the work of the interviewee.
4.Professional in conducting the interview.
5.Must be natural, straight forward.
6.Conversational
7.No too long pauses
 Must do for field Interview-reporting
1.Preparation- do research, do your homework-avoid to be
corrected by the interviewee.
2.Develop listening skills.
•Pay attention to what your subject is saying and react
accordingly
3. Don’t ask dead-end questions –these are questions that
elicit “yes or no’ answers.
•Pose questions that will force the interviewee to respond
at length.
4. Ask questions that are innovative and inspired
questions.
5. Ask questions you know the audience wants
to answer to.
6. Do not overwhelm bully, or intimidate the
person being questioned.
7. Avoid being to pushy or aggressive-put your
guest at ease.
• 8. interviewer must be alert to discover leads in the answers he
receives.
• 9. devout the first few minutes to less serious discussion in order
to brighten the subject and to encourage the interviewee to talk
comfortably.
• Your personality is not the main concern during the interview but
of your interviewee.
 Qualities of Interviewer
1.Should represent the listener in asking
questions.
2.Should keep his own views and personality in
the background.
3.Should be articulate.
4.Should be alert to be able to pick up interesting
leads from the answers.
• INTERVIEW MUST BE
CONVERSATIONAL-questions and
answers must come spontaneously.
• You may have a minimal rehearsal to
obtain conversational mood.
• The interviewer must be curious and
inquisitive and must visualize himself as
an average listener.
• The first few minutes of the interview
must be devoted to less serious
discussion-to brighten the topic.
• Always introduce the interviewee-convince
that the interviewee is worth listening.
• Introduction should serve to illustrate:
• Who and the why.
• Note: the audience wants to know what the
interviewee wants to say, not about him so..BE
BRIEF..
 Exercise :
Conduct a man-on-the street (MOS) interview by
highlighting a process (how to activities), a project,
a business, or any job that you think interesting to
your listeners.
1.Find an interviewee based on the criteria listed
above;
2.Using your cellphone and a monitor, report your
interview live in the station. You may opt to record
your interview.
3.You may go out on the street looking for subjects
on your right or left direction or inside the campus
especially projects that on-going; interview the
in-charge, owner, or specialist about the subject.
4.THE INTERVIEW MUST NOT BE LESS THAN 3
MINUTES.
 • Radio forum
• Refers to special broadcasts prepared for rural listeners who
meet in organized group to discuss together what they have
heard.
• Supplemented with printed study material before the date of
broadcast.
• Materials serve as references for discussion that follows every
listening session-one of the most important elements of radio
forum.
-is a club of about 15 to 20 villagers who wish to listen in an
organized way to selected radio programs.
Uses:
1. As a starting point of discussion among themselves.
2. Increase their knowledge and information.
3. Put into practice some of the things they have learned.
 • Purposes of Discussions;
1. Clarify issues and enables the members to exchange views
and experiences.
2. Helps understand and solve problems at hand.

Mechanics:
1. Discussion maybe formal or informal
2. Listen-discuss-act-discussions are usually followed by
activities to be undertaken.
3. If new problems arise, the members write to the radio station.
4. Involves different modes of communication like radio, printed
materials, and personal communication.
 • Characteristics:
1. Voluntary association of adults who wish to improve the
welfare of the whole community and are willing to cooperate
with one another.
2. Each individual forum has a leader who acts as chairman,
secretary who keeps the records and correspondence of the
group .
3. A two-way flow of information-radio, printed materials and
personal contact.
4. Stresses the idea of audience participation-ensures maximum
support and action.
Advantages:
1. Listeners have full opportunity to discuss different ideas,
apply them to their own situation, and prove the result
through practice.
 2. The idea of audience participation encourages each panel
member to accept any decisions arrive at any forum.
3. Serves as a social purpose-gives members the feelings of being
bound together since they belonged to the same occupation
and their existence depends on what they can provide through
group effort .
4. Enables the radio production staff to assess the effectiveness
of their broadcast.

Disadvantages:
1.It is hard to assemble people to listen to a particular place and
time due to their varied activities.
2.Distance between the place of assembly and of farm houses
may pose problem in organizing and servicing of farm forums.
 Radio Commentary
1. Introduction
•Radio listeners have the right to objective and
factual reporting.
•They rely on journalists giving them correct,
unprejudiced and balanced information about
events and developments.
•Listeners do not want to be manipulated
•Journalists should report the facts and give
background information.
• listeners are hardly ever interested in our
personal opinions.
• Personal opinion should never become visible
in the news we write, or in our reports,
analyses and background pieces.
• not be credible with these informative
formats if personal opinions shine through.
• there is one journalistic format that is
different.
• commentary format- more or less in total
contrast to the above-mentioned rules:
 2. Definition
•commentary contains and explains a journalist’s
personal opinion about a controversial issue.
•Unlike a radio report, it can not be objective or
balanced.
• It always reflects a subjective point of view and
the subjective judgment of the author.
•The main aim of a commentary is not to inform
the listeners about facts, events or
developments.
 Objectives of a commentary:
• to complement the reporting about a current
issue,
•to discuss and evaluate the issue.
•show possible consequences.
• A commentary confronts listeners with a clearly
stated opinion about the issue and aims to make
them think about how they themselves feel
about this issue.
•Length of a commentary: between 2 and 4
minutes.
3. When and why do we use this journalistic
format?
Strengths and weaknesses of the format
•A commentary is a journalist’s critical evaluation of a
topic.
•Should help listeners form their own opinions.
•Listeners will either agree or disagree with the journalist’s
judgment.
•journalist’s clearly stated opinion will not leave them
indifferent.
•Different commentaries concerning one subject will make
the listeners more critical and aware of problematic
issues.
• A commentary never stands alone. In a radio
programme, it may, follow the news block or a report.
• the topic of the commentary has already been covered
in the programme.
• listeners already know the basic facts before they are
confronted with an opinion about the issue.
• Commentary must be clearly separated from the
informative parts of the programme through an
introduction and a back-announcement.
• These studio announcements should tell listeners that
they are about to hear a commentary and give the
name of the commentator.
Example:
Host’s introduction:
“As we heard in the news, Government
Ministers and a representative of Company
PILLCO have signed the contract to build the
new factory. We now hear Mary Miller’s
commentary on this subject.”
<Commentary>
Host’s back-announcement:
“That was a commentary by Mary Miller on the
building of the new chemical plant.”
• Public broadcasters, must give room to all relevant
political standpoints in their programmes.
• make sure to broadcast commentaries from authors
with differing opinions: if the programme includes a
“pro” commentary today, it should contain a “con”
commentary tomorrow or the day after tomorrow.
• Opposing commentaries can even run back-to-back in
one programme- creates pluralism within the
programme and listeners can derive new ideas and
arguments from the different opinions presented.
• Radio commentaries can deal with politics, business,
culture, social issues, religion, ecology, sports, etc. -
practically anything.
• But The subject of a commentary should be topical,
controversial, and of common interest. It must be an
issue, about which people can have vastly different
opinions.
• to express these controversial opinions on the radio and
present them for discussion.
• deal with current affairs, but in some cases also write a
commentary about something that happened years ago
–for instance if new aspects have been unearthed and
are now being discussed, which show the facts in a
different light.
 Who are Qualified to Write?
•anybody who qualifies can and should write
commentaries.
•Journalists who want to write commentaries must
have expert knowledge about the topic in
question.
•must have an opinion on it and be willing to make
the reasons
that led them to this opinion public.
•be able to make their standpoint clear.
• have a strong personality.
• need it to be convincing and credible, and to
confront any criticism that their commentary
may trigger.
• Commentaries often lead to animated
discussions if superiors, colleagues or listeners
do not agree with the argumentation.
• the commentator can then stand the pressure
arising from such a situation.
Pros and cons of a commentary
Pros Cons
Structures facts, developments Commentator must have
and comprehensive knowledge of the
background information and subject in question (must have
evaluates spent a lot of time researching the
them. topic).
Helps listeners form their own Not every commentator has the
opinions. strong personality and charisma
that are required.
Authentic (strong and Commentators might face criticism
convincing from people who think differently.
expressions of opinion).
 4. How is it done?
•clearly voice opinions and do not have to remain
neutral and objective.
•Have to follow certain rules.
Must meet certain criteria:
•must have expert knowledge about the topic of
the commentary.
•know the background and the context,
• must know the pros and cons.
• have an own opinion on the issue and be
courageous enough to express it.
• be able to present facts and logical reasons
backing up the opinion.
• Listeners will not take a commentary seriously
if they realise that the journalist is critical or
disapproves of something, but is unable to
provide good arguments for this point of view.
• commentary is a value judgement, but it must
never turn into emotional gossip or even
hate-speech.
• When writing a commentary, use very lively
and persuasive language. You can play with
words, use irony and sarcasm and other
rhetoric means.
• You want to sound convincing to your
listeners.
• always make sure that you are not insulting or
hurting anyone personally.
• A commentary is a well-worded opinion piece
– but no place for personal insults or calls for
hate and violence.
 Structure
4.1. Opening statement
•A strong opening statement is essential for a good commentary.
This is your first opportunity to express your opinion and to attract
the listeners’ attention.
Example
•Strong opening statements:
“This is hard to believe! …”
“Today is a bad day for the residents of BIGTOWN! …”
“What on earth was the government thinking? …”
•“The day has finally come! …”
•“This is great news for the residents of BIGTOWN! …”
•“The government deserves praise! …”
• Opening sentences “catch the listeners by the ears” and
get them interested in what follows.
• They will want to know how you continue, what reasons
you give to back up this strong opening statement -
regardless of whether they share your point of view.
• As you now have the listeners’ undivided attention, you
have to make sure that they will keep listening.
4.2. The facts
• quickly summarize the most important facts
• include the most important facts in your text.
4.3. Argumentation:
•is the central part of your commentary.
•give further details.
•Present arguments and details that support your
opinion, but also devote attention to the
arguments of your opponents in the form of a
critical discourse.
• weaken their arguments by counter-balancing
them with your own, much stronger ones.
•unveil your line of argument to your listeners
step-by-step and convince them.
4.3. Argumentation:
•is the central part of your commentary.
•give further details.
•Present arguments and details that support your
opinion, but also devote attention to the arguments of
your opponents in the form of a critical discourse.
• weaken their arguments by counter-balancing them
with your own, much stronger ones.
•unveil your line of argument to your listeners
step-by-step and convince them.
• “The day has finally come! …”
• “This is great news for the residents of BIGTOWN! …”
• “The government deserves praise! …”
• Opening sentences like these “catch the listeners by the
ears” and get them interested in what follows. They will
want to know how you continue, what reasons you give
to back up this strong opening statement - regardless of
whether they share your point of view.
• As you now have the listeners’ undivided attention, you
have to make sure that they will keep listening.
 Radio Documentary
• refers to informational programs that deal
with a current social issues and aim at one or
more objectives:
1. Provide socially useful information. Ex. Rice
shortage
2. Persuade the audience to take remedial action
3. Inspire or uplift. Ex. Fruitful laborers
• Refers to any program that sets out to explore
a subject matter rather than merely entertain.
Radio documentary or feature is a purely acoustic
performance.
• devoted to cover a particular topic in some depth.
• Usually with a mixture of commentary and sound
pictures.
• is broadcast on radio or published on audio media,
such as tape or CD.
• resemble radio drama in many ways, though
non-fictional in subject matter,
• others consist principally of more straightforward,
journalistic-type reporting – but at much greater length
than found in an ordinary news report.
 Other forms of Radio documentaries:
•Presentation of information about historical or biological
subjects
•Cultural broadcasts of great writers and national heroes.
Characteristics of Radio Documentary
1. No fixed cast of characters-voices generally represent large
social groups of varying shades of opinion.
2. Has no plot in which the action is planned-general effect is
sought-one which highlights an issue or a problem of great
importance and points towards a resolution.

3. Generally uses a narrator to keep the action moving and to

integrate the many aspects of the problem.
• 4. Covers plenty of facts-its informational
aspect is of primary importance.
• 5. documentary cast may be large, but the
voices does not represent specific characters.
• 6. May or may not use mood music and sound
effects though it generally does.
 Types of Documentaries
Narrative
• a talent will describe the subject matter with facts, figures.
• articulate the narration as to create interest about the topic.
Musical
• explains the topic in a script frequently, punctuated with
musical insertions.
• done when a documentary is required on a personality closely
linked with music.
• it is on birds, rivers, nature and tourism.
• Your voice superimposed
on musical notes enhances the value of script and enthralls
the listeners better than a dry description for long spells of time.
• Documentaries which are made about tourist
resorts or fascinating places otherwise are
• frequently marked with musical notes to highli
ght the points not through words but by
Creating
an atmosphere which makes the listeners
understand about those places in
a rather lighter way.
Dramatized
• At times an impression of drama is essential to
elaborate the theme of a documentary, though
this is done sparingly.
• Some documentaries on historical wars may
carry some impressions in
words or sound effects to create a sense of excite
ment and to make the audience understand.
• the historical facts close as they might have
happened. Over doing dramatic effects may
remove some of the gloss of a radio documentary.
•
 Scripting for the Radio Documentary
Thinking it through more logically, here are a few
reasons to script:
1. To introduce and/or end an item or program.
2. To link sections of a program.
3. To convey information that is not available in
recorded form, or which can be more logically or
succinctly conveyed by a narrator.
4. To give a program editorial direction so that
somebody can be heard to be controlling the flow
of information.
5. To introduce mood or feeling into a program, or to
set a scene;
6. To tell a complete story as in a feature program.
 Length and Number of Scripts
• The more analytical a program, the more
scripting is involved.
• Demands the logical presentation of a variety
of material.
• Scripting must be held to a minimum, within
the requirements of the program.
• say what needs to be said cleanly,
economically, and efficiently.
 Planning
• Scripting is integral with planning.
Script without a plan –will result to a program
compiled with no overall shape and no flow.
Planning is really a two phase operation:
(a) pre recording, and
(b) post recording.
Pre-record planning
• Before going into the field you must have basic
plan.
• Have a clear idea of what you are about to do.
• Without Plan will result to "Magpie Method“- almost
indiscriminate gathering of material, on the premise that if
enough is obtained, somewhere in its bulk will be a program.
• face a pile of recorded tapes, with little idea of how to order
this vast amount of material.
• go into the field with a fairly clear idea of what you want.

Ask the basic questions:

• What is the present situation?

• How has it come about?
• What will happen if it isn't remedied?
• What steps are being taken?
• Who is taking them?
• When can we see a change?
• What is that change likely to be?
Post-record planning

Workable method:
a) Listen through to what you've recorded.
• cut out the pieces you plan to use and name
them.
• Do not have hugely more sound than the length
of your programme (although how much room
you plan to leave for script very much depends
what kind of programme you are making, i.e. an
Insight has much more script than a Spectrum).
Post-record planning

Workable method:
a) Listen through to what you've recorded.
• cut out the pieces you plan to use and name them.
• Do not have hugely more sound than the length of
your programme (although how much room you plan
to leave for script very much depends what kind of
programme you are making, i.e. an Insight has much
more script than a Spectrum).
 Scripted Openings
• The cut is arresting, relevant, and short- to
grab the attention of the listener.
• Effective in an analytical program as in a
human interest one.
• It must not be overdone to the point of
gimmickry.
• Alternatively - and cautiously - use effects in
the opening cut.
 Flow Between Sections
Make one section move easily into the
Next.
• Achieved by good clean writing-avoid short staccato
sentences or long convoluted phrases that leave a
narrator breathless;
• Write good spoken English which means you're
continually reading back as you write,
• substitute words with synonyms that fall more easily
from the tongue;
• use good grammar.
• The easy way to introduce a cut is the rhetorical
question.
 Identifying speakers
Not necessary to identify them at each cut when:
• Using a limited number of speakers.
• their voices are readily distinguishable.
• name, aren't important on the program.
When 2-3 speakers:
• identify each speaker with a brief cut at the
beginning, and then simply let the story take
over.
• use the technique of identifying speakers at the
end, with a recap of a sentence or two each.
 Scripting the More Subjective Documentary
Subjective program, script writing becomes:
• more than merely a link between statements
and opinions,
• woven much more closely into the fabric of
the program.
• not solely concerned with interviewing and
recording.
• mentally edit material as it goes on tape;
• they think of script links as they record; they
listen for.
• the telling effect that will underline a passage
of narration. From the start, they have the
total package very much in mind.
Scripting makes easier if:
• direct talent accordingly.
 Making a radio documentary: The trick is telling
the story
Crucial elements of documentaries
• The sounds in the background,
• change in atmosphere, and
• witnessing events unfolding
Things to include in working radio documentary:
1. need good contributors: people you want to
listen to and who have something interesting to
say.
2. need to think about where you record them.
3. hear them in their own environment- ask
them to the place they're talking about.
4. remember to record loads and loads of
background sounds.
5. Stop and listen to where you are.
6. Think about how much that background
sound evokes the atmosphere and record it so
the listener can join in.
7. Avoid recording people talk about things
happening, without actually hearing them
happening.
References, Course Requirements and Grading System
References :
•
– Egargo, F. N. 2008. Community Broadcasting in the
Philippines, National Book Store.
– Hausman, C., Messere F. and Benoit P. 2007. Modern Radio
Production. Thomson Wadsworth Co. U.S.A.
– UPLB-IDC, 1996. Manual in Community Broadcasting.
– J.V. Alzate et. al.( 2013). Impact of IRCMP on the
•
– Socio-economic Status and Participation of fishing
Households in Mati, Davao Oriental, Published
Research paper, Davao research Journal, Vol. 9.
J.V. Alzate and R.A. Dalagan (2014)Agri-tourism
Potentials and Support System in the City of Mati,
Davao Oriental. Unpublished research Paper,
DOSCST In- House Review 2015.

J.V. Alzate (20140 Village Crop Productions

Implemented under Micro-Financing Program
through Cooperative Development in Davao
Oriental
• Course Requirements : News Scripts, Community
Radio Exposure Journal
• Community Radio Simulated Exercise,
Seminar on Media Literacy
Grading System :
• Assignments----10%
• Major Exams----40%
• Quizzes-----------30%
• Exercises---------10%
• Participation/Attendance-------10%
•
• Total 100%