Page

- 149
Introduction Pnm I
- 168
Basic Concepts and Issues on
,196 lJI{IT
t Human Bevelopment
-: 186
* Brenda B, Corpuz, Ph,D,

-200

-224

;239

!zsq
i
i
Lzx
:
W NTRoDUCnoN

254 Every living creature is called to become what it is meant to be.

The caterpillar is meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full grown
263 herb, bush or tree; and a human baby into a mature person, the person
'\vho is fully alive, the glory of God" in the words of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn in our
biology class. We have seen it to be a fantastic process. So
wonderftrl a process that we can't hetp but experience a feeling of awe
for the Power or the Force or the Principle (theists call this Power or
Force or Principle (God)) behind all these.
The process of development involves beginnings and endings.
What was this organism then? What will this organism be?
A number of researches on human development have been
conducted. A lot of theories on human development have been
forwarded. Researches on human development continue as existing
i theories get corrected, complemented or replaced. Up to the present
l,2el
F several issues on human development are uffesolved and so the search
F
I for explanations continue.
-101 In this Unit, you will be acq[ninted with human development as a
pnocess, the developmental'tasks that come along with each developmen-
tal stage and relevant issues that are raised about human development.
child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Difierent Life stages

Human Development: Meaning, Q mmr

MoDuLE I Concepts and Approaches

- Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D. $oup,

After li

l.
answer
Whr
adol
' hyp,
hum
2. Wiil
ofl
3. Will
rate.
CHAttENGT
4. Wil
grad
In this introductory Module, you are challenged to:
5. Do
o define human development in your own words. devr
. draw some principles of human development. adul
o distinguish two approaches to human developmenL o, IBSTRA
A
ffi tNTRoDucrloN
As you read this textbook and do tlre activity in your small groups,
Meaning of
Human
you are undergoing the process of development. What principles govern begins at con
this development proven? What do experts say about development? includes gro'
These are the concerns of this Module. positive or ne

Some major
Here an
ffi&ACrrvrTY l. Develop
1. Here are picures of Naschielle and Kenn. Each one is a bundle of developr
possibilities. Describe what they were before birth (their point of then wal
origin) and who they will possibly be after birth unto adulthood. the trunl
What will they possibly become? Expound on your answers. and fin
infancy,
with ph'
gradually
neck, sh
caudal p
By'
relatively
effective
ment (Sa
 Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts andApproaches

Q mmvss
After listening to the predictions given by each member of the
group, answer the following questions:
I. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child,
adolescent and adult Naschielle and Kenn may become and
hypothesized on who they once wre you were"referring to
human development. What then is development?
2. Will there be any,thing cornmon in the pattem of development
of Naschielle and Kenn? If yes, what?
3. Will there be differences in their development, e.g. pace or
rat-e of development? What and why?
4. Will the process of development take place very fast or
gradually? Expound on your answer.
5. Do you believe that Naschielle and Kenn will continue to
develop even in adulthood? Or will they stop developing in
adulthood?

'I lgstRAfirou
Meaning of human development
groups, Human development is the pattern of movement or change that
govern begins at conception and continues through the life span. Development
t? includes growth and decline. This means that development can be
positive or negative (Santrock. 2002).

Some major principles of human development

Here are some major principles of human development:
1. Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/
of development.htm) Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit, crawl
point of then walk before they can run. The muscular control of the of
the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands
and fingers. This is the proximodistal pattern. During
infancy, the greatest groMh always occurs at the top - the head-
with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example,
neck, shoulders. middle trunk and so on). This is the cephalo-
caudal pattern.
By understanding how characteristics develop, we can make
relatively accurate and useful predictions about learners and design
effective instructional strategies based on our knowledge of develop-
ment (Santrock,2002)
Child and Adolescent.Development: Looking at Leamers at Diftrent Life $ages

2. While lhe patlern of development is likely to be similar, the reflect th

outcomes oJ developmerutal processes and the rate of develop- Sor
ment are likely to vary among individuals. (http:ll relationsh
www.cdipage.com/development.htm) - What were shared in the personalit
small group discussion on what Naschielle and Kenn may become smile u
were premised on many o'i'fs". Meaning if they come from a good and eve
home with loving and caring parents they may develop into warm what the
and responsible children, adolescents and adults. If they come from a fine la
a deprived environnient, they may develop into carefree and irrespon- of facto
sible adolescents and adults. end up
Naschielle may develop faster and more favorably than Kenn reflect th
due to differences in heredity and environment. Since heredity and Th'
environment are different for different people, it seems obvious that inextrici
individuals will encounter factors that make them different from separate
other individuals. As a resulq we can expect individual diferences in developn
developmental characteristics and variation in the ages when people and |'.las
will experience events that will influence their development. father ar
3. Development takes place gradually, (http://www.cdipage.com/ on their
development.htm) Naschielle and-Klnn won't develop into pimply consequ
teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In revert to
fact, that's the way of nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly. so forth
The seed does not germinate ovemight. While some changes occur process '

in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years

for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of deve-
TWo approa
lopmental characteristics.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the
If you
from birth to
product of hiological, cogiritive and socioemotional
in late old agt
i

processes (Santrock, 2002),

if you believe
Biological processes involve changes in the individual's physi- as it does dur
cal nature. The brains of Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will
gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal changes What t
when they reach the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline Baltes (Santro
as they approach late adulthood. All these show the biological following char
processes in development. l. Deve
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual's devel
thought, intelligence, and language. Naschielle and Kenn develop 2. Devt
from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two biolor
words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing
their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw.in every flag ceremony
3. Deve
the ll
to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot,
playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these 4. Der',
being
 Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Developmeht: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

', the reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.

l*elop- Sosieemotional processes include changes in the individual's
(http:// relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
in the personality. As babies, Naschielle and Kenn responded with a sweet
become smile when affectionately touched and frowned when displeased
a good and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do
fro warm what they wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop into
csne from a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad
inespon- of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may
end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards. All these
tran Kenn reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development.
and These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are
ious that inextricably intertwined. While these p,rocesses are studied
tfrom. separately, the effect of one process or factor on a person's
m development is
not isolated from the other processes. tf Kenn
people and ]rlaschielle were undemourished and troubled by the thought of
father and mother about to separate, they could not concentrate
.com/ on their studies and consequently would fail and repeat. As a
irno pimply conseq.uence, they may lose face and drop out of school,
one. In revert to illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and so on and
so forth. See how a biological process, affects the cognitive
process which in turn, affects the socioemotional process.

pa1 of deve-
Two approaches to human development
lc it is the If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change
Eorn birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline
fuemotional h late old age, your appf,oach to development is traditional. In contrasl
if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place
ilidual's physi- as it does during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.
bp. They will
nonal changes What are the characteristics of the life-span perspective? Paul
rscular decline Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the
rhe biological frllowing characteristios:
l. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No
r individual's developmental stage dominates development.
Kenn develop 2. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of
ords, the two biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.
to memorizing 3. Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout
flag ceremony the life-span.
rcr or a pilot,
lem. All these 4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing
beings in a changing world.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difierent Life Stages

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regula- 10. Play

tion. Growth, maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals well
of human development. The goals of individuals vary among tencr
developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle il. Dev
and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back chall
stagei while maintenance and regulation take the center stage. masl
pracl
Principles of chitd development and learning that inform practice t2. chik
learn
Below are the principles of child development and leaming which
thesr
are the bases of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in early
devel
childhood program for children from birth through age 8, which were
stated in the position paper of the National Association for the Education
of Young Children (2009). They affirm the principles of human This cou
development and characteristics of life-span development approach we adolescent, wh
just discussed. Find out which one is a re-statement of the principles of will be occupi
human development. significance is
ment that inch:
l. All the domains of development and leaming-phy'sical, social
and emotional, and cognitive-are importang and they are closely hood? You can
interrelated. Children's development and leaming in one domain ybu relate to
influence and are influenced by what takes place in other students, to ol
domains. education stak
Many aspects of children's learning and development follow continuous prc
well documented sequences, with later abilities, skills, and
knowledge building on those already acquired.
J. Development and leaming proceed at varying. rates from child $nrrucr
to child, as well as at uneven rates across different areas of [. "Growth il
a child's individual functioning.
a. What d
4. Development and leaming result from a dynamic and continu-
ous interaction of biological maturation and experience. 2. Define de'
5. Early experiences have profound effects, both cumulative and developme
delayed, on a child's development and leaming; and optimal State the :
periods exist for certain types of development and leaming to perspectiv(
occur. teachingJe
Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regula- as you te:
tion, and symbolic or representational capacities. 4. Research I
7. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent rela' developme
tionships with responsive adults and opportunities for positive
relationships with peers. a. Illustratr
8. Development and learning occur in and are ipfluenced by b. How d
multiple social and cultural contexts. pnrximo
9. Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world pencils
around them, children learn in a variety of ways; a wide than th
range of teaching strategies and interactions are effective in practice
supporting all these kinds of leaming. develop
l
t
t
Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Danelopment: ilteaning, Concepts and Approacfies
I

I
p regula- 10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as
l goals well as for promoting language, cognition, and social compe-
[t
pv among tence.
hdr middle ll. Development and learning advance when children are
challenged to achieve at a level just beyond their current
I dre back
mastery, and also when they have many opportunities to
lcr stage. practice newly acquired skills.
p practice 12. Children's experiences shape their motivation and approaches to
learning, such as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in tum,
tsng which
these dispositions and behaviors affect their learning and
P; in early
development.
:hich were
I Education This course is focused on the development of the child and the
of
human
poach we &lescent, who are your clientele in basic education. Necessarily, you
linciples of
rfll be occupied only with the child and adolescent. So then, of what
ipificance is your understanding of life-span development, a develop-
iial, social
urt ffrat includes the entire human lift cycle from conception to adult-
' are closely
bod? You can apply what you will leam about life-span development as
sre domain yin relate to yourself, to your fellow teachers, to parents of ydur
ce in other sdents, to other colleagues in the teaching profession and to other
oducation stakeholders. It is inspiring to note that development is a
rent follow cuttinuous process.
skills, and

from child {SmrucATroil

nt areas of *Growth is an evidenpe of life."
a. What does this mean?
rrd continu-
nc€. Define development in your own words. Translate the meaning of
rulative and development in Filipino and iri your local dialect.
md optimal State the 5 major principles of human development from a life-span
leaming to perspective. Give at least one application of each principle in the
teachingJeaming process. What have these principles to do with you
self-regula- as you teach learners?
+ Research further on the cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of
sistent rela' development.
for positive
a. Illustrate both patterns by a drawing or diagram.
iluenced by b. How do you app.ly your knowledge of cephalocaudal and
proximodisal pattems of development in your teaching? Hint The
I the world pencils of pre-K, Kindergartners and Grade t pupils are bigger
rys; a wide than those of pupils in the higher Grade levels. Does this
effective in practice have something to do with proximodistal patterns of
development?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages F

5. Interpret the following quotations in relation to human 4. Two appn

development:
a. "Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some
other men, no other man." (Murray, H.A. & C. Kluckhohn)
b. "Man is an unfinished'project. He is always in the process of
becoming."
l--
6. In the light of researches on human developmen! which of the trvo
lDevelopment o

approaches is closer to the truth traditional or lifespan? Why?

7. If your approach to human development is traditional, are the

characteristics of human development from

@
I
a life-span perspective
acceptable? Explain your answer.
/

\:
rr [\lil
BIG IDTAS
I
Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in

L
lDevelopmental
this chapter.
of studv
I
Meaning of human development
Four principles of human development and ttreir educational implica-
tions.

Principle Educationat lmplication 5. Characteri

a. perspecti

b.

c.

d.

3. Patterns of development
a. The direction of groMh following the cephalocaudal pattern
from to , the
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal paffern is
from to the
 Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Developinent Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

human { Two approaches to human development

some Ibaditional vs. Life-span Approach

F
ohn)
ress of

Danelopment during childhood

itre trvo
hy?

are the
Epective
[helopment during adulthood

pnted in lbelopmental stage/s as focus

d strdy

implica-

Characteristics of human development from a life-span

perspective.
Child and Adolescent Developrnent Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages

MREtLt(
Guide Ques
l. You are a
other livi
evidence
developinl
2. As a tea<
6. ln , one sentence, "write the principlb on human'development Read anc
expressed in this Venn diagram. .'
fantastic
Teddy en
7. Discuss the meaning of the quotations written beneath the title of As he stood ;

these Unit and Module. Relate the quotation to your life. school, she t
'
looked at het
.:,,
-
,':^'t -
-'---
RISEARCH Howbver, tht
*__tu
slumped in h
Research and reid any'research on human development' Give an Mrs. Thompst
abstract of the research by stating the: hb did not p,
l.) problem messy and tt
2.) methods could be un,
3.) findings would actualt
4.) conclusions pen,. making
popers.
q- ffsI YouR ultDtRsTAttDtt{G At the schoo
Put a y' check before a correct statement and an I before a
review each
However, u'hr
wrong one. [f you put l, explain whY.
l.Development is a pattern of change. Teddyb first
2. Development is either growth or decline. ready laugh.
3.From both traditional and life-span perspectives'development is isajoytob
lifelong. on excellent
4.ln the development process, there are things that hold true to because his r
all people. a struggle. I
5. Individuals develop uniformly. been hard o'
6.Developmtint is predictable because it follows an orderly show much i
process. steps aren't
7. Development is unidimensional. withdrawn a
8. Development takes place in a vacuum. have many fi
9.The effect of biological process on development is
isolated from the effect of cognitive and socioemotional
processes.
 Pa( I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts andApproaches

&REttECroN
Gukle Questions:
I- You are a bundle of possibilities. You are meant to develop like any
other living thing or else you will rut. Remember "Growth is an
evidence of life." If you are alive, then you must be growing and
developing. Are you on your way to development?
i As a teacher, you are a facilitator of the development of learners.
lopment Read and reflect on how one great teacher played a role in the
fantastic development of a child. Here is a true-to-life story of
Teddy emailed to me by a a dear friend.
title of ls lp stood in front of her 5't' grade class on the very fir* day of
rlnol, she told the children an untruth. Like most teachers, she
bked at her students and said that she loved them all the same.
Hov?ver, that was impossible. Because there in the front row,
fuiped in his seat, was a little boy named kddy Stoddard.
Give atr
Ifrs Thompson had watched kddy the year before and noticed that
b did not play well with the other children, that his clothes wdre
rcssy and that he constantly needed a both. In addition, Teddy
could be unpleasant. It got to the point where Mrs. Thompson
wuld actually take delight in making his papers with a broad red
pn, making bold Xb and then putting a big "F" ot the top of his
FWTS.
It the school where Mrs. Thompson taught, she was required to
before a t*'iew each child's past records and she put Teddyb off until last.
Ho*,ever, when she reviewed his file, she was in for a surprise.

Teddy's first grade teacher wrote, 'Teddy is a bright child with a

rcady laugh. He does his work neatly and has good manners... He
pment is is a joy to be around...'His second grade teacher wrote, 'kddy is
sr excellent student, well liked by his classmates but he is troubled
d true to bcause his mother has a terminal illness and life at home must be
a struggle. His third grade teacher wrote, 'His motherb death has
ben hard on him. He tries to do his best but his father doesn't
orderly dpw much interest, and his home life will soon affect him if some
geps aren'l taken. Teddy's fourth grade teacher wrote, 'Teddy is
vithdrawn and doesn't show much interest in school. He doesn't
lruve many friends and he sometimes sleeps in 'class.'
ment is
motional
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages Par

By now, Mrs. Thompson realized the problem and she was usktmed ond he was v'o
of herself. She felt even worse when her students brouglot her wedding in the
Christmas presents wropped in beautiful ribbons anel brigi',i pilpet', the groom. Of
except for kddyls. llis present was clumsily wrapped in the heavy, wore that brac(
brown paper that he got from a grocery bag. Mrs Thompson took over, she mad'
pains to open it in the middle of the other presents. Some of the remembered his
children started to laugh when she found a rhinestone brdcelet with
some of the stones missing, ond a bottle thot was one-quarter full They hugged ,

of perfume... But she stifled the children's laughter when she Thompson's eat
exclaimed how pretty the bracelet was, putting it on, and dabbing Thank you so't
some of the perfume on her wrist. Teddy Stoddard stayed after that I could mt
school that day just long enough to soy, 'Mrs. Thompson, you
smelled just like my Mom used to.' Mrs. Thompson
'You have it a
After the children, she cried for at least an hour. On that very day,
she quit teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. Initead, she began could make a
to teach children. Mrs. Thompson paid particular attention to Teddy. wu.'
As she worked with him, his mind seemed to come alive. The more (For you that do
she encouraged him, the faster he responded. By the end of the Des Moines that
yean kddy had become one of the smartest children in the class
and, despite her lie that she would love all the children the .tame,
Teddy became one of her 'teacher' pets..
Writi down

A year later she found a note under her door, from Teddy, telling
her that she was the best teacher he ever had in his v,hole life.
Six years went by befare she got another note from kddy. I{e then
wrote that he had finished high schobl, third in his class, and she
was still the best tea'cher he ever had in his life.
got another lette4 saying that while things
Four. years after that, she
had been tough at times, he'd stayed in school, had stuck with it,
and would soon graduate from college with the highest of honors.
He gssured Mr,s. Thompson that she was still the best ant{ favorite
teacher he had ever had in his whole life.

Then four years passed and yet another letter cqme. This time he
explained that after he got his bachelor s degree, he decided to' g:a
a little .further. The letter explained that she was still the best and
.favorite teacher he ever had. But now his name was a little
longer... The letter u,as signed, Theodore F. Stoddard, M.D.

The story does not end there. You see there was yet another letter
that spring. kddy said he had met this girl and was going to be
married. He explained that his father died a couple of years ogo
 Part I Unit 1 Module 1 - Human Development:.Meaning, Concepts andApproaches

9,::;itt']'l(d and he was wondering f Mrs. Thompson might agree to sit at the
giit her wedding in the place that was usually reserved for the mother of
J Ddper, the groom. Of course, Mrs. Thompson did. And guess what? She
I leavy, wore that bracelet, the one .with several rhinestones missing. Morg-
bn took over, she made sure she was wearing the perfurne that Teddy
I o-f the remembered his mother wearing on their last christmas togethen
,let with
ner full They hugged each other and Dr. Stoddard whispered in Mrs.
ben she Thompson's eor, 'Thank you, Mrs. Thornpson for believing in me.
dabbing Thank you so -much for making me feel important a:nd showing me
rci aJier that I could make a dffirence.'
on. you
Mrs. Thompson, with tears in her eyes, whispered back. She said,
en' day,
'You have it all wrong. You were the one who taught me that I
e began could make a dffirence. I didn't know how to teach until I mer
o Teddy. w.t.'
he more (For you that don't know, Teddy stoddard is the doctor at rowa Methodist in
I o.f the Des Moines that has the Stoddard Cancer Wing,)
he class
P Some,
Writd down your reflections.
t relling
,e
! ife.

Iie then
attd she

le rhings
';: ith il,
' honors.
.:uvorite

time he
zci to go
be.st o.nd
i; little
).

er letter
ag to be
TQrS AgO
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

The Stages of Development and

rllroDulE Developmental Tasks ffiffii 0.,'
2 Study tt
pictures, then
l. Do the
2. Symboli
for the
3. If you
you lik
group.

(HAtI.tNGT

In this Module you are challenged to:

o define developmental tasks in your own words.
o identify developmental stages of learners in different curriculum
year levels.
o describe the developmental tasks in each stage.
o state for yourself how these developmental tasks affect your role
as a facilitator of learning.
G +

W TNTRoDUCTToN

For every developmental stage, there is ari expected developmental

task. What happens when the expected developmental tasks are not
achieved at the corresponding developmental stage? How can you help
children achieve these developmental tasks?

Soro

Pre.natal perir
Referring
following questi,
"How ./i't
and gyov, and
what v,ill it bt
born is on a t
 Part I Unit 1 Module 2 -The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

nt and
ffiffiACTI,TTY
Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of
brpuz, Ph.D.
pictures, then answer the following questions.
l. Do the pictures suggest the respective developmental stages?
2. Symbolize each developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands
for the developmental task for each stage.
3. lf you were given a chance, which developmental stage would
you like to be in? Why? Share your, answers with your small
group.

curriculum

7-8 WeekHuman Emhryo

Sour<:e : h.! tp : lwwta)rtn^e hmd. cttnt,l ba ht.i
mt vour role slideshow.conteption

br elopmental
asks are not
can you help

Sow'ce: Santrock, J.W'. Lfe-Span Development, &th Editbn, 2002.

Pre-natal period
Referring to pre-natal developrnent, Santrock (2002) asked the
following questions sr-rccintly':
"Hov, .fiont .so sintple u beginning tlo endles.s .fbrms develop
and grow and mutura'? W'hut u,u.s this organism, u,hal is it now, and
whot u,ill it become'? Birth's./i"agile moment arrive,s, when the new-
born is on a thtre,vhold hetween two u,orlds."
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Photos by Socrates Paclibar and Peter Mauris Dicang Photos by Glori

Infancy (from birth to 2 years) Early.Childh

A,s newborn.\, we were not empty-headed organisms. We cried, In early
kickecl, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We slept a lot and four years ot
occasionally we smiled, although the meaning of our smiles was not our lives so
entirely clear. We crau,led and then we walked, a .journey of a grasped yet.
thousand miles beginning with a single step. ...Sometimes we mythologies
conformed, sometimes others conformed to us. Our development was took wings. 7
a conlinuous creation o.f complex forms, and our helpless kind small world
demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two people. When
halves: "me qnd not me." And we juggled the need to curb our be confused rt
own u,ill with becoming what we could will freely. (Santrock,.2002)
 Part I uhit 1 Module 2 - The stages of Development and Developmentat rasks

Photos
Hnotos by Gloria
Gtoria C. Oldham, Lovelyn and Socrates paclibar
eldham, Lovelyn

Early.Childhood (3 to 5 years)
i. Ilb cried, In early childhootl, our greatest untold poem was being only
,t a lot and four years old.^ We skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in
iles was not our lives so busy, bu.sy becoming sdmething we had not quite
turney of a grasped yet- who knew.our thoughts, which worked up into small
netimes we mythologies all our own. our thoughts and images and drawings
'opment was took wings. The blossoms qf our heart, no wind courd touch. our
ipless kind small world widened as u,e discovered new refuges and new
'se into two people. When u,e said "1" we mednt something totally unique, not to
lo curb our be confused with any other." (Santrock; 2002)
tock, .2402)
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages

Adolescence
"In no o
for us. We c
the zodiac'. .ll'
Photos Socrates Paclibar and Nicolas
tried on one ;

We v,anted on
Middte and Late Childhood (6-12 years) up the prftit
"In middle and late childhood, we were on a dffirent plane, found that .fir
belonging to a generation and a feeling properly our own. It is the dance. In out
wisdom of human development that at no other time we ane mone acquainted u'it
ready to learn than at the end of early childhood's period of confined to o
expansive imagination. Our thirst was to know and to understond. fragile cable
Our parents continued to cradle our lives but our growth was generation v,a
also being shaped by successive choirs of friends. We did not two but lastin
think much about the ./uture or the past, but enjoyed the present." roots, the otht
(Except .for a .fev' words, the paragraph is taken from Santrock,
2002)
 Part I unit 1 Modure 2 - The stages of Deveropment and Deveropmentar
rasks

Photos by socrates and Lovelyn c. paclibar and Emma A. Nicolas

Adolescence (13-18 years)

"In no order of' thing.s u,as adorescence, the simpre time
of tife
for us. we clothed our.s,erves u,ith rainbows and went ,brave es
the zodiac',.flashing ./iom onc encr o.f the v,orrd to
the other we
tried on one .fhce ctfier onother, .vearching
./br a face of our own.
we wanted our parent.s ro uncrerstand us and hoped they
wourd
u! the privilege qf unclerstanding rhem. Wi *rntia to give
I plane,
found that .firsl we had to learn to- stand and walk and climb and
fty but
b is the
dance. In our most pimply antl awkv,ard moments
? mone
acquainted u'ith .sex. we prayed
we became
riod of .furiousry at adurt games but were
confined to ct society o/' our ou)n peers. ou, geniration
brstand. was the
tth was fragile cable b), u'hic,h the besr antl the ,ori, of our parents,
generation was tran,tmitted to rhe pre.sent. In the end,
did not there were
lwo but lasting bcque.st.s,ur parenrs courd reave us one
|esent."
roots, the other u,ing,s. (Santrock, 2002)
- being
tntrock,
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

by L. Ruth Lovelyn C. and Emma A. Nicolas

Uiddle adul
Early adulthood (19-29 years) In mi,idi
Early aclulthoocl is a time for work and a time for love, :!B- Fot'sctntc
sometime,s leaving little time .for anything else. For some of us, find- *" neeti lr, ,i
ing our place in adult society and committing to a more stable life fri coutltura,
toke longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are agc. titore tint
and wonder if it isn't enough .iust to be. Our dreams continue and mie. howa.,'ct
our thoughts ore bold but at. some point we become more pragTtatic. rpec'ial .fltr.',
Sex and love are powerful passions in our lives - at times angels discipline oi
o.f light, at other times o.f' torment. And we possibly will never ryed adults v
know lhe ktve o.f our porents until we become parents ourselves. ,an-r ili ti r;:;,
(Santrock, 2002). "S*rtrror'k. lttr
 Part I unit 1 Modure 2 - The stages of Development and Developmental rasks

Photos by Soc & Lovelyn Paclibar, L. Ruth c. Taylor, Lilian Marie c. Dicang

Mirldle adulthood (30-60 years)

In midtlle ad,rlthood uthat ute hav,e been forms what we will
time for love, be. I;or sonte o.f- u,s. midtlla age is such a fogg place, a time when
tme of us, find- we neecl lo di.;c'over v'hut v,e are running .from and to and why.
norc stable life we compare ou, li.fb v'ilh v,hat vts 1t6vts5J to make it. In middle
gs v,ho we are age, tnora tintc.ttrclchc,s he.fitre us and some evaluations have to be
s continue and made, hov,ever reluctanrlv. A,s rhe young/old polarity greets us with a
more pragmatic. special .f'orce. y,e neetl to .join the daring of youth with the
at times angels discipline o.f-age in u v,o)t rhar does justice to both. As middle-
blv will never aged uclttlt,\ y,a (,ot11(: to ,sen,\e that thc generations of living things
rents ourselves. pass in tt .shrtrr v'ltilc rrntl lika runnar,s hand on the torch o.f li.fe.
(,\untn,r'k. )0())t
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Quruus
l. How n
these s
giw b

Havigh
l. ird
2. mi
3.d
4. ea
5. mi
6. ld
L Whd "r

3. What t
,t Dma
m€nt 0

5. Refer t
the ne:
HaYidt

Photos by Rodel B. uarpto, ulona

ts. CarPio, Lovelyrr \,.
u. ulonam, Lovelyn Paclibar,
Tdurrucrr
Nicolas

Late adulthood (61 years and above)

"The rht,thnt and nteaning of human development eventually
wencl their t4taj) lo lute odulthood, when each of us stands alone at
the heart o./'the etrrth antl "suddenly it is evening"' We shed the
leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to the
truth. We learn that tife is lived forward but understood baclanard.
We trace the connection between the end and the beginning of life
and try to .figure out v,hat this whole show is about before it is
ot)er. (Jltintarelv t4'e come to knout thal we are what survives of us'
(Sanrrock, 2002).
 Part I Unit t Modub 2 - Tlre $ages of Darebpnpnt and Dewlopnental Taslc

Q mlrYsrs
l. How many developmental stages were described? How do
these stages compare to Havighurst's. develop;nental stages
given below?
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:
l. infancy and earlf childhood (0-5 years),
2. middle childhood (6-12 years),
3. adoleicence (13-18 years), .

4. early adulthood (19-29 years),

5. middle adulthood (30-60 years), and
6. later maturiry (61+).
2. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?
3. What .task/s is/are expected of each developmental stage?
4. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplistr-
ment of the lower level developmental tasks?
Refer to Havighurt's Developmental Tasks given in the table on
the next page. Match the descriptions given by Santrock. Ar€
Havighurst and Santrock saying the same things?

r, Emma A.

t eventually
nds alone at
ll e shed the
dov'n to the
,d backward.
nning of life
be,fore it is
rvives of us.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life SCages
Ea B -EEq €g :e E o ngsml
:; .gri.gE;cagt SBsE*
ss +c;+ti.+;EEeEEEHE
I'
Concept of
.f \o
ln each
a-l
of eVery indir
that 'oarises al
E s e3 Ei*B ; B t 9P
bo
which leads t
Er
6
H"Eg E;Eap.1.g,."*; aE€ o to urthappine
(Havighurst, I
;5
o0
69
2
F#E;; rErg€ EEt EeegE$- ,e
€P o.
Developmer
c.l + F-
The eig
with Havighu
E
S E
EE?gE
E _E
E !
.9
>.=>r not include pr
tD EA' ,c e&IE Ls.E
:5=
S'a
hood while S
0
cl
t-,,
cl
is $s; Hggse cO
!: o.
E9
developmental
The develo
F-
q) -(\c.l*n\O
Let's d,
a s.9Ei and compare
o
a
q)
c)
i, g; *:; i
tt fu :E ilarE =ai
l. Prenatal
dous gr,
brain at
gE
E; Etf IE; *H- EE eIB flEa, 2. Infancy
depende
\o r
' -s t ginning
: Er EB$ u #i*r- :e8",
E
E
3.
bnd soc
Early cl
are the
I s Eii,sE;!;;E;*-iE:IEg,uEet;EEEA€s self-suf/,
E
z
SE; f,E€* Eg€ ES $iAE =: I ness s*,i
4. Middle
school ;
^oo
.l^ g
=oo
Eq b e r €r A
arithme
Eg Ei EE; E: I'l.Ecef larger t
tral the,
EE s; esEti! 3$EEEeIIE
i
ef i H H*
Si JH
r3 r,:
Hi3 ;;g igrq €
3 J=3
3g E;g8
"5 5 E i Eg=o & 3 3ri.
F&

5. Adolesc,
of age)
height t
ment o.
-N
breasts,
the voit
 Part I Unit 'l Motture 2 - The stages or Deveropment and Deveropmentar rasks

o msmACTtoN
A
Concept of developmental tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected
of every individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental ask as one
that "arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievemdrrt of
which leads to happiness and success with rater tasks while failure teads
to unhappiness, social disapprovar, and difficulty with later tasks.,'
(Havighurst, 1972).

Developmental stages
The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Sanhock are the same
with Havighurst's six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did
not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early child-
hood while santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These
developmental stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs.

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Let's describe the developmental tasks as described by santrock
and compare them to those listed by Havighurq! himself.
l. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremen-
dous growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with
brain and behavioral capabilities. .
2. Infancy (from birth to lB-24 months) - A time of extreme
dependence on adults. Many psychorogicar activities are just be-
ginning ' language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor cooidination
'and
social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade I) These
-
are the preschool years. young children learn to become more
self-sufficient and to care .foi themserves, deve'lop school readi-
ness skills and .spend many hours in play with peers.
1. Middte and lare chitdhood (6 -ll years of age, the elementary'
school years) - The fundamentat skitts of reidtng, writing aid
arithmetic are mostered. The chird is formally ixposed io the
larger u,orld and its cuhure. Achievement becomes'a more cen-
tral theme of the childb world and self-control increases.
,. Adolescence - (10 - 12 years of age ending up to Ig-22 years
o! ,Sr) Begins with rapid physical changes-- dramatic gains in
height and weight, changes in body coitour, ond the Zevelop-
mgnt o.f sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the
byeasts, development-of pubic and .facial hair aid deepening of
the voice. Pur.suit of independence and identity are promiieni.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Thought is more logical, absffact and idealistic. More time is #3-Ar

spent outside of the family.
High sch
Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting thruugh
the 30s) - It ls a time of establishing personal and economic
independence,'career development, selecting a mote, learning to
live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and
rearing children.
Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) - It is a time o!
exponding personal and social involvement and rcsponsibility; of Allow sma
assisting the next generation in becoming comrytent and mature
a. Come
individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a
develop
career
Late adulthood (60s atnd above) It is a time for adjustment to
b.Doar
and de
decreasing strength and health, l.ife review, retirement, and
adjustment to new social rules.
use tl
in the
c. Sing a
$,nrnrcArrc]r
Discuss t
l. Answer this question with a learning partner. What are the lesson. I
implications of these developmental asks to your role as a facilita-
tor of learning? Let's pay panicular ittention to the stages that
correspond to schooling - early childhood, middle and late
childhood and adolescence. iH
BIG IDT
Let's do #1. Early Childhood - What are preschool teachers
supposed to do with preschoolers? Help them develop readiness for l- Complete
school and not to be too academic in teaching approach. They
ought to give much time for preschoolers to play. Or perhapo help Developn
preschoolers' develop school ftadiness by inEgrating children's games
in school activities.
f Show tl
#2 - Middle and L,ate childhood inclusive
Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils by and deve
 Part I Unit 1 Module 2 - The Stages of Development and Developmental Tag<s

I time is = I- Adolescence
High school teachers ought to help their students by
i thruugh
*onomic
tztng to
sily and

I time of
bility: oI e -AJlow small groups to do each of the following:
d maturc
|ion in a a- Come up with an object to symbolize each period or stage of
development.

Itment to b- Do a multimedia presentation of the outstanding characteristics

Dnt, and and developmental tasks of each developmental stage. you may
use the text of Santrock found under each collage of pictures
in the ACTIVITY PHASE of this lesson.
c. Sing an appropriate song for each developmental stage.

I are the a Discuss the meaning of the quotation beneath the title of the
e facilita- lcsson. Relate it to the stages of development,
hges that
and late

F ue DEAS
teachers
dirrcss for L Complete this unfinished sentence.
rch. They
ilaps help Developmental tasks are
n's games

A Show the developmental stages by means of a diagram

inclusive of the ages. write also the outstanding bharacteristic trait
w and developmental task of each developmental stage.
child and Adolescent Development: Loqking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Tesr voun UnoeRsramtxc rnE

I. Put a check (r/) beside those statements that are correct and an
(t) bebide those that are wrong. If your answer is an l, f l#l cn
explain why. tc 1or r
, lEb
iE dt
l. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of
human development.

2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier

stage also means failure for the leamer to master the
developmental task in the next stage.

Preschool age colresponds to early childhood stage.

4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage. tlrig rrr

dhd
.'. rdst
5. Teenage is middle childhood.

6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during

early childhood.

7. Play is a great need of children in middle olildhood.

8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major

concem of middle childhood.
 Part I Unit 1 Module 2 - The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

MRIruEc,olr
[rect and an
sr is an I, l. Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood days.
Were you able to acquire the developmental tasks expected of early,
middle, late childhood and adolescence. What facilitated your acquisi-
tions of the ability to perform such tasks? Write your reflections:
t 3 stages of

in an earlier
!o master the

nd stage.

gage.
2. Having mastered the developmental tasks of early'childhood middle
and late childhood and adolescence, reflect on what you should do as
a teacher to facilitate your students' acquisition of these developmental
tasks. Write down your reflections.

concern during

lc childhood.

ss is the major
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

(discon
lssues on Human Development our de'
moDuffi 3 Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
acacia
- butterfl

3. Stabilit
stabili
experir
d i ffer
develo;

RePort
debate
ttTNGE

on
kr thislesson you are challenged to take an informed stand/position
the three (3) issues on development.
@, mmv
After e'
teacher facilitl

W TNTRoDUCTToN
LWhor
you
Each of us has his/trer own informal way of looking at our own
c1

nature
and other people'-s development. These paradigms of human development
while obviously lacking in scholastic vigoq provide us with a conceptual 2. Who I

framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come argun
up with their own models of human development. Back up by solid benryex
research, they take stand on issues on human development. 3. Who
more

ffi&ACTrvril
o ngsml
(This is supposed to be assigned at least more than one week A
before the scheduled debate)
The iss
Small group Debate sparked anin
to do well il
Divide the class into 3 small groups. Let the groups choose their society's 'mas
topic for debate. Here are the topics and issues: reason molt ,

l. Nature versus Nurture - Which has a more significant influence in old age? |
on human development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an For children r
individual's biological inheritance. Nurnre refers to environmental poor schoolir
experiences. ,remove the ',
(Santrock, 20r
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity - Does development involve
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes
 Part I Unit 1 Module 3 - lssues on.Human Developrnnt

(discontinuity). To make it
more concrete, here is a question: Is
,rent our development like that of a seedling gradually growing into an
acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a
wuz, Ph.D. butterfly?

3. Stability vs. Change * Is devetopment be$ described as involving

stability or as involving c.hange? Are we what our first
experiences have made of us or do we develop into someone
different from who 'we were at: an r"rlirr 'point in
,..--:
Report to the whole class what transpired in your small group
debates.

hd/position
Q nunrYsrs
After every small group presentation to the whole class, the
Eacher facilitates the whole class discussion and asks the following:

l. Who are pro-nature? Pro-nurture? Are there additional r€asons

at our own you can give in favor of nature/nurture? Who are neither for
bvelopment nature nor nurture? Why?
t conceptual 2. Who go for continuity? Discontinuity? Can you give additional
have come arguments do defend continuity/discontinuity? Who are in
p by solid between continuity and discontinuity? \Vhy?
3. Who claims stability is more.correct than change? Change 'is
more corect than stability?

o agsmAcTrou
r one week
I
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have
ryarked animated debate among developmentalists. Are girls less likely
m do well in math because of their 'feminine' nature or because of
choose their
siety's 'masculine' bias? How extensively can the elderly be trained to
tulson more effectively? How much, if at all, does our memory decline
nt influence h old age? Can techniques be used to prevent or reduge the decline?
refers to an For children who experienced a world of povea.),, neglect by parents, and
tvironmental poor schooling in childhood, can enriched experiences in adolescence
.trmove the 'deficits' that they encountered earlier in their development
(Srrnock, 2002)?
ent involve
rct changes
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Based on the presentations, each one has his4rer own explanations cannot do
for his/her stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? how they
Up to this time. the debate continues. Researches are on-going. But let by creatir
me tell you that most life-span developmentalists recognize that extreme
. heredity, e
positions on these issues are unwise. Development is not all nature or conceptior
all nurture. not all continuity or discontinuity and not all stability or all quality an
tions, and
change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature and
nunure, continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our Do not lose
life-span development. ... The key to development is the interaction of tion. At the
nature and nufture rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted parents should
by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of "both-and" not development of tl
"either-or". Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this lesson part.
and the message gets crystal clear.
2. Do the s
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a Psycholog
person even to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environ- a group a
ment, there is no pierson (Scan and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 3. Discuss I
2002). Heredity and environment operate together -or cooperate and
"The frigh
interact - to produce a person's intelligence, temperament, height,
parents, pr
weight... ability to read and so on.
4. Here is ,

lf
heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater Months S
influence or contribution, heredity or environment? The relative contribu- 2010 Issu
tions of heredity and environment are not additive. So we can't say the follor
50% is a contribution of heredity and 50o/o of environment. Neither is it . Does t
correct to say that full genetic expression happens once, around concep- individr
tion or birth" after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to ' a persc
see how far it gets us. Cenes produce proteins throughout the life span,
in many different environments. Or they don't produce these proteins,
. Read tl
depending on lrow harsh or nourishing those environments are. (Santrock,
highli$
2002).
on stal
PERNfu
experir
answer,
@nmrrcAilolr
Let's find out where you can apply what you learned from a
How the Fi
discussion of these developmental issues. What makes
be anxious, over
l. Convinced of the interactive influence of heredity and environ- to heart attacks,
ment on the development of children, prepare for a powerpoint ' There's a lir
presentation for parents to show them how crucial their role is way we are beca
in the development of their children. Remember that heredity of our childhood
lifestyle choices
is already fixed. Their children have been born and they have
But there's
passed on these inherited traits at conception and that they
r
 Pad I Unit 'l Module 3 - lssues on Human Development

I
I cannot do anything anymore to change them. So concentrate on
t erplanations
how they can contibute to their children's favorable developr.nent
[*rt answer? by creating the environment conducive to development. Like
prng. But let
herediry environment is complex. It includes nutrition as early as
lOrd extreme
.ll conception, parenting, family dynamics, schooling, neighborhood
nature or
quality and biological encounters such as viruses, birth complica-
pbiliry or all
tions, and even biological events in cells.
L nature and
rrterize our Do not lose sight of the objective of your powerpoint presenta-
fuaaion of tion. At the end of your powerpoint presentation, the
Bl as quoted parents should go home very much convinced of their role in the
hdh-and" not development of their children and get very much inspired to do their
of this lesson part.
2. Do the same presentation (in # l) to a class in General
mssary for a Psychology where they discuss the nature-nurture debate or to
lhout environ- a group of student teachers.
I b1' Santrock, 3. Discuss the implications of this statement:
noperate and "The frightening part about heredity and environment is that.we,
ment, height, parents, provide both."
4. Here is an intere5ting article titled "How the First Nine
has a greater Months Shape the Rest of Your Life" from the October 4,
hive contribu- 2010 Issue of Time Magaziits. Read, analyze then answer NT
rre can't say the following questions: \,.-.
t Neither is it . Does the article agree that heredity, ehvironment and t$
round concep- individual's choice are the factors that contribute to what
r the world to a person may become? Read that paragraph that tells so.
t the life span, . Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus. your attention on the
these proteins,
highlighted word, PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue
are. (Sanffock,
on stability versus change issue on p.3l.Does the word
PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first
experiences have made of us (stability)? Explain your
answer.

How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
earned from a
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to
be anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone
fy- and environ- to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?
r a powerpoint There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We aie the
way we are becausq it's in our genes. We tul1l out the way we do because
il their role is of our childhood experiences. Or our health aRd well-being stem from the
r that heredity
lifestyle choices we make as adults.
and they have
But there's another powerful source of influence you may not have
and that they
Child and Adobscent Development: Looking at Learners at Difrerent LiE Stages

considered: your life as a fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; q,rilsr Yo
the pollutants, drugs and infections you were exposed to during gestation;
your mother's health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you - As far as
all these factors shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you to this correct and
day. conect statemen
This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal orjgins, I, explain why.
whose pioneers assefi that the nine months of gestation constitute the most
consequential period of our lives, PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, ririnel l. I
influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as (
the heart, liver and pancreas. ln the literature on the subject, which has
2.
exploded over the past l0 years, you can find references to lhe fetal
(
origins of canceL cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension,
diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal-origins 3. I

research, scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions I

influence not only our physical health but also our intelligence, tempera- I

ment, even our sanity.

As a journalist who covers science, I was intigued when I first heard
about fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply w RESTAR(

into the field, I had a more personal motivdion: I was, newly pregant. If it l. Read tl
was true that my actions over the next nine months would affect my
Hanis (
offspring for *re rest of his life, I needed to know more.
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the 2. State in
niessage that what she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor's book.
appointments, sees it in the pregrrancy guidebooks: Do eat this, don't drink 3. a. Wat
that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers could be forgiven for
feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog full of guilt and devoid of
H
pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden. b. In
*de
But the scientists I met weren't full sf dire warnings but of the excite-
and
ment of discovery - and the hope thal their discoveries would make a posi-
tive differenge. Research on fetal orlgins is'prompting a revolutionary shift DO
in thinking about where human 4ualities come from and when they begin
to develop. lt's turning pregDancy inlo a scientific frontier: the National 201
tnstitutes of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will exF
examine its subjects before they're'born. And it makes the womb a promis-
4. Read o
ing target for prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-health
scourses like obesity and heart disease -;:::
#;;::r2::;:*r,rf;,
Mrr,rrc
,, ilIS
:-, . BIG IDEAS
l. Rela
Reflr
you
. becc
l. With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity and envil
change-stability controversies, the wiser stand is here
decir
orfi
 Part I Unil 1 Module 3 - lssues on Human Derlebpnrnt

k womb;
i gestation;
q- fisr YouR uNDtRsrA]tDt]tG
:it you - As far as our discussiens are concerned, which statement is
Er to this correct and which one is wrong? Put a check (t/) before thb
conoct statement and mark I the lwong one. If you mark a statement
il orjgins, l, explain why.
r 6e most
rirg, ririne)
rs such as
l. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human
developmdnt than environment.
*tich has
) the fetal 2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of
pcrtension, development can no longer be changed.
ril-origins J. From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, later
conditions experiences are the key determinants of a person's
B, tempera- development.

first heard i.1 RISIARCH

ue deeply 1_1"
'
lErt. If it l. R,ead the published book The Nurture Assumption, by Judith
effect my
Harris (1998).
kring the 2. State in not more than 2 paragraphs the thesis of Judith Harris
d doctoris book.
don't drink 3. a. Watch "Lonely Only" in your YouTube. Only Children:
brgivan for
Debunking the Myhs About Single Children.
il devoid of
b. In 1896 Granville Stanley Hall describbd only children as
*petted'l, 'humol€d", *indulged",
'tre excite- "deficient on the social side",
*e a posi- and "spoiled". Today, many consider this a MYTH-WHAI
funary shift DO YOU THINK?
they begin For related articles, refer to TIME Magazine, July 19,
ie National 2010 issue. State in not more than l0 sentences the position
! that will expressed in the YouTube and in the* Time Magazine.
b a promis-
rblic-health 4. Read on Fetal Origin.
cfore birth.
tnr 4, 2010
MRErLtcrtol{
l. Relate what you leamed here to your personal development.
Reflect on your own personal development. What has helped
you become the person that you are' now? Is what you have
, become a product of the mere interaction of heredity and
ntinuity and environment? Or is what you have become a product of 'both
heredity and environment interacting and what you have
decidpd or determined yourself to become? (Self-determination
ot' freedom is a third factor). Write your reflections.
Child and Adolesent Development l-mking at Leamers at Diflgrent Life Stages

Research in Child and Adolescent

Deuelopment I l. Resean
rUloDuH 4 - Maria Rita D, Lucas, Ph.D, I tallyint
I

-Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph,D. -I +. Resean

I
I
valid r

I s. Teactx
Loo*,
I ' rather
I aassnc
I 6. Thert
CHATTENGE I b""uu

In this Module challenge yourself to:

I "ond,
. explain the basic principles of research.
I z. stude
I rived
demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers
I
I "ond,
and producers of developmental research.
I g. stude
read researches on child and adolescent development and make
I
I
simple research abstracts out of researches read. I q. "ond,
ttis
I thet
ffi lNTRoDucItoN
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This Module ,@ nnl
is not intended to be a substitute for that three-unit course. It is sim-
ply meant to supplement what you got or will'still get in the Research Sharc
course.
the right si
As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented side. The t
about the development of the child and the adolescent are products of to the righ
research. It might interest you to know how these concepts/theories will proce
were arrived at. Or after having been exposed to a number of answers.
researches cited in this Course, hopefully, you may be so inspired that
you, too, would like to start conducting researches on you own or join a o lssr
goup for researh. t'
You
ACIIVIil about rese
Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each tive regan
statement? Put a check mark y' to indicate your answer. out of res
All
Statement Yes No
a product
1. is only for those who plan to take
Research to leam a
master's degree or doctorate degrees. appropriat
2. Research is easy to do. decisions
 Part I Unit I Module 4 - Reseamfi in Child andAdolescent Oantqrnent

bscent Statement Yes No

ffi.
W)2, Ph.D.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires
tallying the responses.
and

4. Research with one or two rcspondents is not a

ffi
G#"11#iiiA,+S

re4'.8t;F:iii,w,
ru';#;/ffin
ffiifl::rl1;Ss
E& 1 ..:.:liriiljiliilllLli:
El:-rl:irr.J:iit.+iiili
5.
valid research.
Teachers, because they are busy in their class-
rooms, are expected to use existing research
rather than conduct their own research in the
I-B l'4:::i+l}i$jiili
classroom.
6.' There is no need to go into research
because a lot of researches have already been
conducted.
7. Students are mere users of knowledge ar-
rived at by research. It is not their task to
, consumers
conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications to
t and make conduct research.
9. It is not worth conducting research considering
the time and money it requires.

his Module
l It is sim-
b Research
Q nnnlsrs
Share your answers among classmates. The teacher will designate
the right side of the room as the "Yes" side and the left as the 'No"
is presented
side. The teacher will read each statement and the students Will move
products of
to the right or left side of the room based on their answers. Teacher
pts/theories
will process each question by encouraging students to explain their
number of answers.
nspired that
m or join a o lrstRACTroN
I
Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude
about research. As a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a posi-
r with each tive regard for research. Best practices in education are usually borne
r. utt of research. Research informs practice.
All of the topics discussed in this book is, in one way or another,
e product of research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers
b leam about child and adolescent development. When conducted in an
apropriate and accurate manner, it becomes a strong basis for making
&cisions about the things you will do as an efflective teacher.
Child and Adolescent Developqr6nt Lookiry at Leamers.afDifierent Lih Stages

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research Compan

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important know- if your origiru
ledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of leamers and their jibes with yot
families. Well-informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most
authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to come up
ciginal hypo
with informed debision on what to teach and how to teach. This llct your ori$
involves decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective I

teaching-learning processes, and even those involving research, too. It can Research Dr
help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our
Researr
teaching with the developmental levels of our leamers.
integrity pn
adolescent de
Teachers as Researchers
The . conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and disser- important th
tation writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us leam how to data-gatherir
conduct research by finding out the different research principles and the are given u
research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent
development.

The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to'the scientific
method, since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such,
researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5
steps of the sciehtific method. They are as follows:

f . identifo and define the problem

2. determinL the hypothesis
3. collect and analyze data
4. formulate conclusions
5. apply conclusions to the:original hypothesis

Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first

step. This is followed by stating a tentative answer to the research
froblem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is also referred to as an
"educated guess". How correct is your "educated guess" or "hypo-
thesis"? If you research problem is concerned with determining the
cause of an effect or a phenomenon you have to gather and analyze
data derived from an experiment. This is true with experimental
research. However, if your research problem is concemed wittr describing
data and chaiacteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are
studying, you do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive
research. After analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.
 Part I Unit I Module 4 - Resoarcfi in Child and Adolescent Developrncnt

Compare your conclusions to your original hypothbsis to find out

I know- if your original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis
nd their jibes with your finding and conclusion, afTirm your hypothesis. If your
tre most
ciginal hypothesis does not jibe with your finding and conclusions, re-
GOme up
eh. This lxt your original hypothesis.
'cffective
F. lt can Research Designs
o fit our Researches that are done with high level of quality and
integrity provide us with valuable information about child and
rdolescent development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is
important that you know various research designs and different
rd disser-
r how to deta-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some
r and the at given and described below:
ilolescent

Research Desiqn Descrlption Strenqths, fVeaknesses

scientific l. Case Study An in-depth look Need to exer-
As such, at an individual. information cise caution
pve us 5 about an when generalizing
individual's fiars, from the informa-
hopes, tantaiiei, tlon; the subject
traumatic of a case study
experiences, is unique, with a
upbringing, family genetic make-up
relationships, and experiences
health, and no one else
anything that shares; involves
helps a judgements of
psychologist unknown reliability,
i the first
research
understand that in that usually no
person's develop- check is made to
to as an ment (Santrock, see if other
r "hypo-
2002). psychologists
rining the agree with
d analyze other observa-
erimental tions (Santrock,
describing 2002t.
r you are 2. Conelational A research design Useful because Because
lescriptive Study that determines the more strongly correlational
associations two events are research does
rclusions.
 Life Stages
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different

kctrl
correlated, the not involve the
more we can manipulation of
predict one from factors, it is not a
the other. dependable way
to isolate cause
(Kantowitz, et al,
2oot cited bv

A research design The only true Experimental

3. Experime.ntal
that determines reliable method research is
cause-and-effect of establishing limited to what
relationships. cause and is observable,
The experimental effect. testable and
method involves manipulable.
manipulating one
variable to determine Failure to achieve
ifchanges in one randomisation may
variable cause limit the extent to
changes in another which the studY
variable. This sample is rePre-
method relies on sentative of the
controlled methods, parent population
random assignment and, with it,

of variables to test of the findings of

a hypothesis. the study.

Experimentation
with humans is
rlrlsfia
subject to a
number of external
influences that
may dilute the
study results
(Donnan, 2000).

A furtrer limitalion of
experimental research
is that subjects maY

change their
behaviour or resPond
in a specific manner
f' bsect
simply because of
awareness
of being observed -
 Part I Unit I Module 4 - Research in Child and Adolescent Development

-.
Dhe
I I Hawthome effect
bnof I
(Haughey, 1994;
lsnotal
Ie way I
Clifford, 1997).
! cause I
z,dal, I 4. Naturalistic A researfi despn hat .One of the advantages The disadvantages of
Edby I Observation focuses on children's of tris type of research naturalistic observation
, 2002). I
experiences in nafural is hat it allows the re- indude he fact Srat it
ental I
settings.' searcter to directly ob- can be difficult to d+
ls I serve the subject in a termine the exact
l wtrat I This does not involve natural setting. cause of a behavior
dle, I any intervention or and the experimenter
ildl manipulation on the cannot conbol oubide
5le. I part of he researdrer. variables.
This technique in-
o *ni.r. I
volves observing
ntion may I subjects in their natu-
extent to I
ial environment. fhis
e study I
b repre- type of research is
rof the
I
I often utilizqd in situa-
ppulation I
tions where conduct-
hit, I
ing lab research is
nbility I unrealistic, cost pro-
ndings of I hibitive or would un-
II duly affect
subjecfs behavior,
the

entation I

is
nans I
5. Longltudinal This research design
studies and follows
Allows them to record They are expensive
toa I through a single
and monitor develop-
menhl trends
and tim+consurning.

of externall group over a period of

The longer the
es that I
time. The same indi-
viduals a're studied
study lasts, the more
the
ute I
over a period of time, subjects drop out -
sulb I usually several years they move, get sick,
r, 2000). 0r more. lose interest, etc.
I Subjects can bias the
hilation of I

ntd research l because those who

may remain may be dis-
Seds I

lsr I
similar to those
who drop out.
, o, ,.spono
I 6. Cross-sectional A research strategy in Allows them to record It gives no informaton
cific manner I

rcause of I
which individuals of dif- and monitor develop- about how individuals
ssl ferent ages are com- The re-
mental trends. change or about tre
ooserveo - I
pared at one time. searcher does not stability of their char-
 chitd and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages

individuals to grow up
or become older.

7. Sequen$al This is the combined Allows them to record It is complex, expen-

cross-sectional and and monitor develop- sive, and time -con-
longitudinal approaches mental trends. lt pro- suming.

io learn about life- vides information that

span development is impossible to obtain
DlteCathering
(Schaie, 1993 cited from cross-sectional or
longitudinal approaches Deta€dhedq
by Satrock, 2002).
This starts with a alone (Santrock, 2002).
Tcchnlque
cross-sectional study
that includes individu- 1. Observatirn
als of different ages. A
number of months or
years after the initial
assessment , the same
individuals are tested Physiologk=
again{his is he longi- Ileasures
tudinal aspect of the
.design. At this later
time, a new group of 1 $andardize(
subjects is assessed at TesG
each grade level.

Aclion Research Action research is a Appropriate in a par- Typically takes place

in one organisation
I ftrvhrs a
reflective process of ticular setting when the
progressive problem- purpose of study is "to only at a particular Qwsfbnndrr
solving led by individu- create changes & gain time and muld not be
als working with ohers information on pro- interpreted within dif-
in teams or as part of cesses and outcome of ferent organisations in
a "community of prac- the strategies used" the same way.
tlce' to improve the (Hunt 1987). Therefore, research
way they address is- findings are hard
sues and solve prob- Uses different methods, (impossible) to
lems (Wikipedia, the can get the best out of generalise.
free encyclopedia). the different methods
ernployed, if done well.
lf research pailcipanB
ln he mntext of teach- do not feel they un-
ing, action researches Stakeholders are in- derstand and 'own' he i. trb*smry
of teachers stem from cluded throughout and research proiect, this
their own questions so researchers are could lead to a poten-
ecmb
about and reflections more likely to make a tial conflict of interest
on their everyday 'difference'. between the re-
das$room praetice. , searcher and those
participating in the
organisation, but also
between the re-
searcher with some
participants, on the
 Part I Unit I Module 4 - Research in Child and Adolescent Dewlopmed

Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

one hand and other
members of tn orga
nization, on the,otpr.
rnflex, expen-
arrd time -con-
D

Deta-Gathering Techniques
Data-Gathering Def in ition/Descri ption
Technlque'
1. Observation Observations can be made in either laboratories dr ma-
terialistic settings. ln naturalistic observation, behavior is
observed in the real world like classrooms, home in
neighborhood.

2. Physiological Certain indicators of children's development such

Measures as, arnong others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured.
3. Standardized These are prepared tests that assess individuals' perfor-
Tests mance in different domains. These tests are administered
in a consistent manner.
cdly takes Place 4. lnterviews and lnvolve aSking the participants to provide information
ne organisation
r at a particular Questionnaires
-
about themselves based on the interview or questionnaire
ad could not be given by the researcher.
rpeted within dif-
rt uganisations in
Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed
same way. questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person, or
refore, research on-line.
lings are hard
possible) to lnformation is obtained by utilizing standardized proce-
eralise. dures so that every participant is Bsked the same ques-
tions in the same manner. lt entails asking participants
xeadr particiPanb for information in some structured format.
not feel they un-
lard and'own'he 5. Life-History Thesp are records of information about a lifetime
nrch proiect, this
Records chronology of events and activities. They often involve a
I lead to a poten- combination of data records on education, work, family,
conflict of interest
reen the re- and residence. These include public records or historical
rcher and thoSe documents or interviews with respondent.
ticipating iir the
rrrsation, but also
ween the re-
lrcher with some
ticipants, on the
chikt antt Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

Impact of Te
Ethical Principles
Research
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers
and nothing. t
are subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics
Evidence sugg
that govems the behavior of teachers, there also exist gthical standards
that guide the conduct of research. These ethical standards serve as l. teach
reminders that as researchers, we shguld strive to protect the subjects of rnorc
our study and to maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these mone
ethical principles are found in documents such as the following: Pine

l. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research 2. pa*ic

iation http //www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About-AERA/
more
Assoc
classr
Eth icaLStandard s/Eth ical Standards.pdf
' 2. 3. teach
Ethical Standards for Research with Children - Society for leami
Research in Child Development (USA) http://www.srcd.org/ (Millr
index.php?optionrcom-content&ask:view&idd8&ltemid: II0
4. engal
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Conceming and
Researc h http ://www. lcsc.edu/po I icy/Po I icy/ I . I I 2a.PDF edtrct
and
We invite you to read and reflect on them. 5. teach
Common among the three standards given above are the following and
considerations for researches conducted with young children and other conn
vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National Association 2007
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are: Teacher
l. Research proced'ures must never harm children, physically or shift from thir
psychologically. to something
2. Children and their families have the right to full information
about the research in which they may participate, including pos-
sible risks and benefits. Their decision to participate must be
based on what is called""informed consent." There must be
informed consent procedures with"research participants.
3. Children's questions about the research should be answered in a
truthful manner and'in ways that children can understand.
Researchers must be honest and clear in their communication.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through
research with children should remain confidential. Researchers
should not disclose personal information or the identity of partici-
pants in written or oral reports and discussions.
 Part I Unit I Module 4 - Resebrctr in Child andAdolescent Development

Impact of Teachers' Research Involvement on Teachers

lcsearchers Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain
r of Ethics and nothing. to lose when they. get involved in the research process.
d standards Evidence suggests that:
ds serve as l. teachers who have been involved in resqarch may become
r srbjects of more rcflective, more cnitical ard analytical in their teaching, and
fls of these more open and committed to professional development (Oja &
ring: Pine 1989; Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007).
rch 2. participating in teacher research also helps teachers become
ERA/ more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the
classroom.
3. teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong
Society for leaming, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation
yw.srcd.org/
(Mills 2000; Stringer 2007).
riFll0 4. in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking
engaging
r Conceming and reconstructing what it means to be'a teacher or teacher
educator and, consequently, the way teachers relate to children
and students.
5. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers
[rc following and prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently
en and other connected to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb
I Association 2007).

Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a

physically or *iftfrom thinking about teacher research as something done ,o teachers
D something done Dy teachers (T.r-ichner 1999; Lampert 2000).
I information
ncluding pos-
pate must be
rere must be
ants.
urswered in a
r understand.
nmunication.
ained through
[- Researchers
rity of partici-
 child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages

t A Resear
.ppcars a
@,nnrucArlon
. Tde
l. The class may be divided into groups. Except this Module on
.
Research. divide the Modules in this book among the groups. Go Resear

over the Modules of the Unit assigned to your group and look . Date c

for statements of research findings. If the research design . hfiodr

and the data-gathering techniques were not identified, iden- . lrledror
tify to the best of your ability what must have been used . Findirtr
in the researches. The Table below can make your task easier. . Conclu
. Referer
Data-
Statement of Research
UniUModule Page gathering
Research Finding Design Used The firs
'technique
qtncfun. n
r icue dgt i
*vrt to $c
Ed Tlrc rne
*"*ed in t
fqcd. Ttrc
L curclusion
Fift proble
ft findings ar
t Su$' and
t Absrract.
irr,+ bibliog
ryt
Srrf th€
r clild and
lb using t
metl
-rrch
 Pert I Unil I Module 4 - Research in Chitd and Adoies@nt Devetoprnent

L A Research Abstract - A research abstract is a brief summary that

.
appears at the beginning of the article. It has the following parts:
bdule on
. lltle
ponps. Go . Researcher/s
iand look . Date of Research
I design . Intnrduction
bd, iden- . Methods
cen used . Findings/Results of the Study
sk easier.
. Conclusions and Recommendations
. References
Data-
pthering
The first three (3) are self-explanatory and so need no further
:chnique
oglanation. The introduction, as the title implies, inffoduces the problem
c issue that is being studied. It includes a concise review of research
rlevant to the topic, theoretical ties, and one or more hypotheses to be
t!!ed. The method section consists of a clear description of the subjects
aaluated in the study, the measures used and the procedures that were
Sllowed. The results section reports the analysis of the data collected.
Tlr conclusions and recommendations state the author/s' answers to the
gecific problems of the studv and suggestions on next steps based on
te findings and conclusions of the study. Methods, Findings/Results of
lhc Study and conclusions and Recommendations constitute ihe nody of
rlc Abstract. The last part of the abstract is the references. These
hclude bibliographic information for each source cited in the research
rport.
Surf the internet for samples of research abstracts/researches
r child and adolescent development. select one research abstract
tlen using the matrix given below, write the problem, the
crcarch methodology, the findings and conclusions.
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leame6 at Diflerent Lile stages

rI
L Ard
?.Fa
uhin
fin
3, Then
Whic
dep€t
the r
.l. Tea
resea
trs!
5- Rcs
slr|
ht
d

t- t'o
rl
t
-g
!il
rtl
fr
rlct
&
SE
h
 Part I Unit I Module 4 - Research in Child and Adolescent Development

€ sre DEAS
l. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.
L For research on child and adolescent development to serve its
ultimate purpose, researchers must be governed by ethical
principles.
3. There are various research designs and data-gathering techniques.
Which research design and data-gathering technique to use
depends on the nature of the research problem and objective/s of
the research.
4- Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct
research and are consumers or end users of
knowledge when
they utilize research findings to improve insffuction.
5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers' self-under-
standing and on their classroom practice. It enables teachers to
develop a better understanding qf themselves, their classrooms,
and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.

Conclusions

SYNAPSE STRTNGTHTNTRS

research

You may want to replicate a research that you came across

with in your readings of research abstracts (APPLICATION # 2
above). Or you may want to research on a research problem
you consider to be relevant and significant. Have it checked by
your teacher. With your'teacher as resedrch adviser, conduct a
research on the approved problem. Your teacher may set aside
a day or two for the research presentation by group. The
research groups may take turn serving as panel of reactors
during the research presentation. For evaluation, you may use the
Scoring Rubric below for the research paper and the Research
Presentation Rubric for your presentation.
 I Chird and Adolescent Dev€lopment: Looking at L'€arners at Difierent Life stages

50lr-
I

o
oIt
u I;
o
F
&
6
t.
I
6 l!
o
3.

v.E (!-
r
o !2 o
I o Hs E €s Ec,
Eg
l,
,
E!t
'0(o E6's$ c ,C
;E -E -d
AE .E'E t-
I
E
o
oE
'r6 - i
gf; E$HB b.!
tl EEEHHE
n
I
E EEE 3 Ph E EEBI
9;9edt C e$Eci tee5
:EgE5 E.g I g5 FE I
JOOO 5 lro) EE =o,Y,rou Lll 16 r, cL o .E
=gE a a a a al
I

t^
a I
I
lY
i I

o9e tlt
,g g
b uE
!t 5f,.€
E
.e 8
co,
o
E(! c(!
- E I
I
I
I
I
gE 3Eg EB g I

.8e E EEE
0,
o .He 8 e .99o EEEIE
g L
i
;E d PE
r
E6 2. .Z! Ct 3 -t
I

* -6E xg .g!oc5 .!!or! L

oll ell EI
ol IEE€;
o !..

EEHEP€ o
o)
E
EE Elgtt
E{ e =
gE '6eEi,
=orJ
F 8.9' gEE sl
a
I

cLl J,:ZT' f (E! a it.E o H E

c
I I

(!ll cr I
I
a
o.ll o a 'a
C
a
I i

t i i

EI,I io o. E
L
E
I
I
I
I I-
8l8l
o
gE
E
o o
o
c
.9
I rE
FE
sI I
l;
otl I
o L
6) E(Jo E a
.€ 8c, I
I
c(! cc o -ts=ED
E a
tr, ll 5 6S
E s; aE- o6_
OE cn
(o'g
ioo, '=g0)
q 3;E II
I
I
I
LC
.96 E ExB 6=
b-oo o
EC
sB9 (u
ell
Lll I
otr o9E6 6s ct) I
Esg
I
rEt olQ(E E O-
ot 3 gE,
_
= H a l
*5 6
-O^EO
.c 8d, t
(, ll
Llr lr
o.l LLo->.Y
o=oX
E_E
e65S6
(lu (, OD
s€ S O)o
].E E J
=olJ
-(.4 (! !
(J>Ul €-E EgTE E
a
L
I
.oll
Ell a o a a a a
a i
I
C I

I
o o
c
-0 ir:
c arY
t->\.o FE n- (!
.9
E .g i!'
t.
I

q9 Il([

t
'6
EO6
=E;i
X >6b
rE
c .-o
srb
* or€
oo!
EC
E
o o
(, c i'.
9g oE oI oo
=
@ (! E
c>o: PE o Ef z
I

E€
(! o'6 .ll sEtiE 6s) o 5s I

(!ft 3r
E' o
=d
6, EE;* E= ->s
c =o)0,
e6
OE o9
c(o0,
I
ct
'a,
OI
I
gEi B 6d.9rr1*-
_-

ES =.!
5F EE
oP
(,,x9 Er
E5 I
L-
gEE Eq EE,
9;
L=
EE
ul
c)I
CI
trl du 8
(s E$ PE EE )6 ()E t6 SE I
t

o.
(!l I

qrl a a a a a a I

i
oEt l-
E:l
ot o 0c o g .t.
Ert
IE
I.
l=
gi
!lt
Es
!b o6
e.
9o
E.!
o
o
o
E Eg
ar'
ID !0E iE
i!
ol EE
o,
B8
o.o
.99 o
o
N
rlE
I'
Ef,
trlq i*
FI
:E
-9
..li
I
gtr Ob
>o eo 6 E EL..
BA
I

€fi o tr P EE 5 I
I
o. o- o o fl,-

L-
 Part I Unit I Morlule 4 - Research in Child and Adolescent tlerolopment

6!
-O

t-d $
o0 c.l c.l ol rl
+
I
qS
B
C) x x X x x x
E
iE
G
U
E c
a
o
o I
o $
,t L(u
co
.90E
o9()
-iji{
ox
b c,
o
O a& 9 fiqo
==- gE F E
T C)
c>9
odx
c o x-
o
U
o
;oo.
o i;E-
6'o ;e3x
a\a2.2
d hs
n59 9z
'e,

o
c6 i
{o
?E
!(!

EEPE
o .. > o
r5 JO
o -rrE
Q-4o
K-OEtr
g(i q r.g E SE
2od =€
L5B
E I
<o) ao E'tr E
13O a6=
3* 5 FEe *g
(,,
s, tr:i9.o
.:r
6o
odoEq.9
5D o
=ibEE
.e
€ r'E
E Eb-c I c
EgEE bo6 H:
--.=aF
+H 5 Al6 oE6
oc>: 'i.c K 3 t6^qa ;'ido .E;
i;uco E
^ Gt Li
:J>oc -sX;-'z
i'i,i:tr4) -.BL
I
FOEO 6*
6lc' dl{o9S il;z !, t'
t
id

L .BEfrP 8.! (,E!6) C .I o E :i '-Oq

.^ 6 o.:l v69 e.8
a OE rL
=
aE ; O >EET &ca a,= t
& o o-^
Eo & o
EI
o E.^ g o
do
Ed
oF 60 6
o
Cl
-AtsB
ooN- E.E ob
rrY ,() .o
ooS
a, .96 E- co
I EE $E
o -.,6 o E -- $;
oE 09
t & orB
r.(t 6-Io.r g8
EO H.EE
cLo x "lo Za
E 9gE o3 frEe o(, ;a 0)
rE
FE q)
L d u 'ihB +b a ;'5 ya9)
.9!6 o= !€
ql ra o.o
'Xo o>O- k trg .=e

EE=rtc (D 96qr sB
-Lo,
6 0- >
6
6) Ha5;E E'E .-EO
!E ()
;ioo:
Ec-
o.'5
4Or
cro
ocl
&q) al 6 ^= o.o= >
H EEg f $iig € rc
F uia
o!f,
'"c
3co
2a'o
X oa,
s€
68
'! S;*R"E .= ia
r6
:loo
u) o.= -=
6
JA6 (nC
$grE al
q0 q, aC
L
o
E
-;
tr!) t , 0)
.EE
oo
9b -o 'P tr 3 -:q
pE->, Eo $#
!1 E i-t q
il'a a
E ,-
oo g'a 9.3.E, a5
t gie.E o>
EE
EH g3 >,s
7ftr
,.o
8#
sB y1
$E_
(l
.9b o o
>i 1r,0) ,.AO xz
F. t o.:.5
rE 3a
h6
F:: dEs .=oco ,56
o
(, o x
q.l
I aeio
E o !|E
OEF x6
o-O
Ex8s, Fio
u?-ni
otsh O.= u
.U
E H 6 Yq _qJ
EFE3, u o* HS E
z -E€ AE
ets€9 r6
6
6Oots 5::b otr 6 .^ o:: o;'.;5 E5E
oo c=b ,=5 ; E HA iB
d
P 8Ea H {_e
u krd 0x
og)
!= EEBE ot E o-E lL >.=.o
't=*
JooE o9r
b6
o,E
a

q
.t, o co
(,
.E,
o o
I a
6,
tr o aoa
lt o
s tr
t
o
o
o
!o
o
c
o t
C)

o
d
ho G, 6)
o '5[)
o o
o U o o
& d
(,
ChildandAdolescentDevelopment:LookingatLearnersatDifferentLifeStages

MRErrcrtoN iloDUr
It is said that because teachers are overloaded with work, they

usually frown on the conduct of research. Reflect on the consequences

of tiris attitude. What can be done to prevent this? Write your

reflections here.

Ja*rnr
Ar 6e ea
. explain
. draw ir

mHrRr
Fnud's v
fi. IIe can b
J his very int
I develop
re cmsideret
fus)- Freud':
;Ap*dory. Hx
tLrricts and d
de of whic

ACTI'

Recall a r
decision. I
vas abouq
1un decisi
 Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
rlltoDulE
t work, theY
5 - Maria Rita D. Lucas, ph,D,

consequences
P Write your

CHATI.TNGE

At the end of ttris Module, the students are expected to:

' explain Freud's views about child and adolescent development.
. draw implications of Freud's theory to education.

ffi tNrRoDucTroN
Freud's views about human development are more than a century
old. He can be considered the most well known psychologist becausl
of his very interesting theory about the uncons.iour una-also about
sexual development. Although a lot of his views were criticized and
some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier
views). Freud's theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds
of other
theorists and thus became the starting point of many other theories,
notable of which is Erikson's psychosocial theory in Module 7.

ffi&Anrvril
l. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a
decision. Narrate the situation below. Indicate what the decision
was about, the factors that were involved and how you arrived at
your decision
 child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

Jltrd'r S
nuatYsls
Q u-of p
Freud
What tactors int'luenced you in making your decision?
Which of the following did you consider most in rnaking your pclnscxr
decision: what will make you feel satisfied, what is most beneficial or
Frrd e p

practical, or what you' believed was the most moral thing to do? &g ttr r
Elaborate on your answer. errn'dS
f,rLTh
pcific cr
?
-ific
f reds ar
rer *ill
Onl
EdL D
J. j frrrig). 1
ABSTRAfi toN /GEN ERAtlzATtoN
I' r Oral Pr
'l
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many airiies"
psychologists present different views'about how personality develops. As
r grmg€r
mentioned. Frer-rd presents a very interesting theory about personality. its -G- thar i

components ancl development. Read on and hopefully it will also

rr* or (

somehow lead yolr to understand more your own personality.

tfcndent
As you read through F'reud's, theory, fill out the graphic organizer
fr trarld

below to hightight the important concepts:

-iqis and
.{rrl
*eqre in
Dg rtd
lirogt'notrs:ottc. the
.'l spec'ilic urctt -rs
hlen or
thut bet'onrs thc qI tre -
./bcus ol pleusure lrcs ntr
neecls.-l.his nta.t:
&moc
hc thc motilh.
d persona
unus and thc -'ra a
genilctls.
qddrc r

l:i.rttt i rtn. llas u I t s

Pbni
./i'om ./oilure to lb EEnbh.
sat is.f1' lhe nee ds d.s bo_tr
of a purticular ffirg tre
psrchosexual
st{tgc.
,qF bqs r

rs their ft
- drir fi
 Part I Unit I lrlodule 5 - Freud's psychoanaly.tic Theory

Freud's Stages qf Psychosexual Development

I
Frbud is the most popular psychologist that studied the develop-
i
ment of personality, als6 probably the most controversial. His theory of
ling your psychosexual development includes five distinct stages. Accordini to
trficial or Freud, a person goei through the sequence of*hcsl n* .tug;r:inJ
g to do? along the way therb are needs to be met. whether these needs are met
or'noq determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality
or not. Th,e theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified
specific erogenous zones for each stage ol development. These are
spgcific "pleasure ar€as" that beoome &Oal poins'for the particular stage.
lf needs are not met along the area" a iixation occurs. As an adutt, the
person will'now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months); The erogenous zone is the
mouth. 'During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an oral Fixation
or oral Personality which is shown in an increased focus on oral
:d. Many activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that is, have
velops. As a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or oral aggres-
onality. its sive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her naits, or use curse
*ill also words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may become too
dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. on the
: organizer other hand, they ,may also fight these tendencies and become pessi-
mistic and aggressive .in relating with people
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The chitd,s focus.of
pleasure in this stage is .the anus. The child finds satisfaction in elimi-
nating and retaining feces. Through society's expectations, particularly the
parents, thechild needs to work on toilet training. Let us remember that
between one year and a half to three years the child's favorite word
might be "No!". Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training
process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may
choose to defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. tn terms
of personality. fixation during this stage can result in being anal
retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and controli-or rnal
expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is
the gertitals. During the preschool age, children becornd interested in what
makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen
fondling their genitals. Freud's studies led him to bblieve that during this
stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys- then
see their father as a rival for her mother's affection. Boys may fear
that their father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the castration
childandAdolescentDevelopment:LookingatLeamersatDifferentLifeStages

anxiety. These feelings comprise what Fretrd 1all1d..9:Oiq"^ComPlext

In Greek Mytholog!, oedipus unintentionally killed his father
and

rnarried his mother Jocasta.

Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may
also have a similar
towards their father'
e*perience, develtping unconscious sexual attraction
This is what is ,.f.ir.d to as the Electra Complex'
AccordingtoFreud',outoffearofcastratiollandduetothe
strong competition of their father, boys eventually decide to identify with
their father' tlre boys
therrirathei than fight them. By identifying with
Iharacteristics and identify themselves as males
and
;;; ';^r"uiin. at this Stage
*p,",., their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation
and avoidance) and
could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging
weak or confused sexual identity according to
psychoanalysts'

Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)' It's during. this stage

that
focus is the acquisition of
sexual urges remai'i r.brJt*0. The children's
physicat"andacademicskills..Boysusuallyrelatemorewithboysand
girls with girls during this stage'
Genital Stage (puberty onwards)' The fifth stage.of The id.
psychosexual

developmentbeginsatthestartofpubertywlrensexualurgesareonce a vital role i

baby's essel
againawak.n"d.lntheearlierStages,adolescentsfbcustheirsexual
pleasure centered on the principle. lt
uiges towards the opposite sex peers, with the
needs. So u
genitals.
consideratior
For example
Freud's PersonalitY ComPonents baby will cr
Freuddescribedthepersonalitystructuresashavin$threecompo- the child is
each person' the first to
nents, the id, the ego ani the superego' For attention. th(
.*..g. is the id, iollowed by the ego, and last to develop is the Nothin
superego. needs. It is
While reading about the three components, use the
graphic
others. Just
questions about them'.
organizer below to Put Your notes and no regard o
id wants sor
The t
preschooler.
begins to e
aware that
knows that
later" so it
such. it is t
help the id
ttre situatior
 Part I Unit I Module 5 - Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

r Complex.
; father and

ie a similar
l their father.

I due to the
irientify with
her. the boys
rs males and
L at this stage
rcidance) and
sts.
One's
is stage that Personality
acquisition of
rith boys and

ps1'chosexual The id. Freud says thar, a child is bom with the id. The id plays
rqes are once r riml role in one's personality because as a baby, it works so that the
; their sexual bebl's essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasurb
ntered on the pinciple. It lbcuses on irnmediate gratification or satisfaction of its
-eds. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
eonsideratiorr for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation.
F'or exanrple, a baby is hungry. It's id wants food or mirk... so the
three compo-
bb1' will cry. when the child needs ro be changed, the id cries. when
rn. thefirst to fre child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cord, or just wants
evelop is the &ntion, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own
l the graphic rceds. lt is not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of
fiem. odrers. Just see how babies cry any time of day and night! Absolutely
rc regard of whether momrny is tired or daddy is sleeping. when the
il wants sornething, itit now and it wants it fast!
wants
The ego. As the biby turns into a toddler and then into a
peschooler, lre/she relates more with the environment, -the ego slowly
begins to emerge. Tlre ego operates using the reatity principle. It is
auare that others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it
tnorvs that being irnpulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences
hter. so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
sch. it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it f'unctions to
help the id nreet its needs. it always takes into account the reality of
tre situation.
Child and Adolescsnt Dovelopm€nt Loolfirg * Laamers at Dlfferent Life Stages

The superego.:.Near the end of,'the preschool years, or the end

LI
of the phatlic stage, the superego deve.lops. The superego embodies a
il
person,s morat aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers
r
J"r
and other persons who exeft influence irnpa( to,be good or moqaL
The superego is likened to conscience bec.rtuse it exerts influence
on Eq
what one considers right and wrong.
rl
cl
The Three Components and Personali$ Adjustment
uir
frilrt
Freud said that .a well-adjusted person is qne who has stnong egp' #
who can help satisfi the needs of the id without ^goi18 against the rhl
superego *trlt. ma-intaining the person's sense of what. i.s
lo,gi;alt
practicai and real. Of coursi it is not easy for.the ego ts'do..all thu
and strike a balance. lf the id exerts too much power over the
ego'
pleasure-seeking takes
the person becomes too impulsive and -behavior
or., on.', life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego
so strong that the ego is overpowered. The-person becomes so
harsh

and judgmental to himself and others' actions. The

person's best effort
to be gioO may still fall short of the superego's sxpectations.
by
The ability of a leamer to be well-adjusted is largely influenced
his parens
how the leamer was brought up. His exporiences about how
met his needs, the extent io which'he was allowed to do the things he
wrong, all
wanted to do, and also how he was taught about right and
that a
figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment
individual
;;; Jff .a.e.' Freui believed that the personality of, an
is

formed early during the childhood years'

**tfi:1"::rHflr.
Freud said that mosr what we so through in
our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not
available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most
of what
Electra Complex
influence us is our unconscious, The Oedipus dnd
mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious,
out of
our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. while these

complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking,

feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways'
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is
stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises
a very
small part of who we are so that, in Qur everyday life, we are only-
most of
Frc
aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality;
what we are is hidden and out of reach'
 Part I Unit I Module 5 - Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

F the end The subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subcon-
rnbodies a rious. This is the part of us that we can reach if .prompted, but is
L teachers not in our active cdnscious. Its right below the surface, but still
or moral" lridden" somewhat unless we search for it. lnformation such as our
puence on tslephone number, some childhood memories, or the hame of your best
ctrildhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of
the very small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of
the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath
5E0ng ego, the water's surface.
gainst the
The water, rnay represent all that we are not aware of, have not
is logical, experienced, and that has not been made part of our personalities,
do all that
referred to as the noncoriscious.
r the ego,
rvior takes
! supenego
s so harsh
test effort

Eurenced by
his parents
Conscious
r things he
wrong, all
rcnt that a Preconscious
ndividual is
Superego
Ego* I.{onconsciotrs
through in
hin are not
st of what
r Complex
ous. out of
[hile these
ir thinking,
*Note:
Ego is freefloating
tware of is in all three levels.
rises a very
e are only
U; most of
Freud's Conception of the Human Psyche
(The Iceberg Metaphor)
Ctrild and Adole,cent Dsvqld,pment: Lookirtg at Learners at Different Life Stages

Sur4KArtoN ffi
i.ffiryr RESEAR(
iwe

l. Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to
formutate his theories. Among the many case studies, five really . Read a re
stood out is bases of his cdncepts and ideas. Do further ryaling matrix below.
of these case studies and write a reaction paper on one of these
case studies focusing on how he explained the personality
development of the individuals in the case studies.

From your intemet search engine, just type Freud's case studies. lt
will be easy to find a pdf file which you can readily download.

2. Notp Freud's ideas about hypnosis, free association and interpretatiOn

of dreams. Do you think his ideas are still useful today? Explain
your views.
 Part I Unit I Module 5 - Freud's Psychoanalyti;Tlrory

couutfiror
m RESIARCH

ed to
ireally Read a research that is related to Freud's Theory. Fill out the
bading
I these
mality
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

@ sYNAPst sTRENGTHENERs
MREFrEcrx
Visit the Library of Congress in Washington DC, through itd virtual
museum. Visit the walls that contain very interesting pictUres, documents
and information about the most controversial psychologist of all time,
Sigmund Freud!
You won't need a passport, just follow these steps:
l.Go to www.loc.gov
2.Click "Exhibitions"
3.Click "View all exhibits"
4.Go to "Sigmund Freud: Conflict and .Culture"
5.Seat back and enjoy the virtual tour! The pictures and write-
ups are so interesting!!!!
As in any visit to a museum, it would be good to take some
notes. Make notes of the following and add your own ideas and
comments as well...
Describe Freud's family background. Describe the composition of
his family. What do you think was it like for Freud growing up in this
family?
 Part I Unit t Module 5 - Freud's Psychoanalytic Th€ory

&RrFucTroN

From the Module on Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory t leamed that...

Child and Adolescent.Development Looking al Leamers at Ditferent Life Stages

dropped I

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Liza agat

tt,rorluH 6 Development times mo
appeared
Maria Rita D, Lucas, Ph.D.
-
Q annlsls
l. On situatio
lQ-peso bills?

CHAttTNGE On situation
does this say
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o describe Piaget's stages in your own words.
. conduct a simple Piagetian Tiask interview with children. On situation
o match learning activities to the leamers' cognitive stage. dropping the

W rilTRoDufiro*
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a
classic in the field of educational psychology. This theory fueled
other researches and theories of development and learning. Its $nnsrnAcn
focus is on how individuals consffuct knowledge. The children
ages and so also r

They were in diffe

AfiIVITY
has influenced the
As you read throug
Read the situations below. The class may choose to dramatize
development of.chi
each of ttre situation before analysis is done.
ing this understand
1. It's Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving "aguinaldo" to the
children. Three year-old Karen did not want to receive the one
For sixty ye
development. His n
hundred peso bill and instead preferred to receive four 20 peso
individuals as they
bills. Her ten year-old cousins were telling her it's better to get
tasks were later kt
the one hundred bill, but they failed to convince her.
Piaget called
Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their
logy'' because he u
stuffed animals. They had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and I
organisrns. Piaget w
dolphin. Mommy, a psychology teacher, enters and says, "Good
in philosophy. Knc
thing you're sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or
heories and researc
morp bears?" Tria and Enzo says, "stuffed animals." Riel says,
came'up with $e r
"Bears"
Piaget exainin
3. While eating on her high chair, seven-month old I i7a accidentally
 --T

Part I Unit I Mo<lule 6 - Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

dropped her spoon on the floor. She saw mommy pick it up.
Liza again drops her new spoon, and she does this several
times more on purpose. Mommy didn't like it at all but Lizir
appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the whole time.

Q nrunlsrs
L On situation l: Why do you think did Karen prOfer the
2g-peso bills?

2. On situation 2: Why do you think Riel answered "Bears?" What

to answer the question?
does this say about how she thought

3. On situation 3: Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy

dropping the spoons?

The children in thb situations presented above were of different

ages and so also should apparent differences in the way they thought.
They were in different stages of cognitive development. Perhaps no one
has influenied the field of cognitive development more than Jean Piaget.
As you read through this Module you will come to understand cognitive
development of .children and adolescents and also identifo ways of apply-
ing this understanding in the teaching learners.
For sixty years, Jean. Piaget conducted research on cognitive
development. His research method involved observing a small number of
individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These
tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemo-
logy" because he was interested in how knowledge de.veloped in human
organisms. Piaget was initially into biology and he also had a background
in philosophy. Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his
theories and research of child development. Out of his researches, liaget
came up with the staseq of cognitive development.
Piaget exainined the implications of his theory not only to'aspects
Ghild and Adolescent Development Looking at.L€arnets at bifferent Life Stages

of cognition but also to intelligence and moral development. His theory Piaget's Stages o
has bien applied widely to teaching and curriculum design specially in
Stage 1. Sens
the preschool and elementary curricula.
birth to i
reflexive
Basic Cognitive ConcePts nized in
Schema. Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive focuses r
structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their ment thn
environment. It is an .individual's way to understand or create mqning ' and the '
about a thing or experience. lt is like the mind has a filing cabinet. and stage, ter
each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an environm,
experience qith. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, Object p
he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a that an o
tail. It barks. It's furry. The child then "puts this description of a dog is attains
o'on
file" in his mind. When he sees another similar dog,'he "pulls" out Module I
the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal; and says.
Stage 2. Pre-(
"four legs, tail, barks, furry.... That's a dog!" from abo
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into the presc
an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema' If the nature. A
child sees ariother dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sentations
sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a different-
to the us
looking dog) into his schema of a dog. ing
AccOmmodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. Symbolic
lf the same child now sees another animal that looks a linle bit like a events. A
dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a drawing.
dog, and say, "Look mommy, what a funny looking dog' Its bark is understoor
funny too!" Then the mommy explains, "That'S not a funny looking dog.
Symbolic
That's a goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now 7 years. I
create a new Schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his from a gl
filiirg cabinet. tends the
Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural At arounr
need to understand how the world works and to find order, structure, drink fror
and predictability in their life. EQuitibration is achieving proper balance or a telel
between'assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not play with
match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive struct{rres, we expe- can do a
rience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy ttprops".
between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert princess b
effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium Egocentri
once more. his. point
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the . same poir
environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, others. Yo
Piaget's theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of for his nu
leaming like Bruner and VYgotskY. funderstanr
daddy.
 Part I Unit I Module 6 -.Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Developrnenl

Piagetrs Stages of Cognitive Developtnent

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from,
birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes mere orga-
nized in his movement and activity, The term sensori-motot
focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle move-
ment through which the infant comes to leam about tiimself
and the world. ln working with children in the sensori-motor
stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating
environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the rhitd to know'
that an object still exists even when out of sight. This ability
is attained in the sensory motor stage. (Please refer to Unit 2,
Module 13 for more notes.)
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers
from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding io
the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in
nature. At this stage, the child can now make mehtal repre-
sentations and is able to pretend, the child is noW ever closer
to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the follow-
ing:

Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and

events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A
drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be
understood as representing a real obiect like a real MRT ffain.
Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to
7 years. Riel, a two-y€ar old may pretend that she is drinking
from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pre-
tends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass.
At around four years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to
drink from an empty glass. tums the glass into a rocket ship
or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend'
play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six,
can do a whole ninia turtle routine without any costume nor
"props". Tria, who is 7 can pretend to host an elaborate
princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see
his. point of view and to assume that everycine also has his
. same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others. You see this in five year-old boy yho buys a toy truck
for his mother's birthday. Or a three year old girl who cannot
i^rnderstand why her cousins call her daddy "uncle" and not
daddy.
Child andAdolescant Oevelopment Looking at Leamsrsiat Different Llfe Etages

Centration. This ref€rs to the'tendency of the child to only of additior

focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other shaped intc
aspects. For example, when a ch'ild is presented with two clay.
identical glasses with the same amount of water. the child will
Conservati
say they hale the same amount of water. However, once
of objects
water from one.of the glasses is. transferred to an obviously
even if the
taller rbut narrower glass, the child might say that there is
opment of r

mqre water in the taller glass. The child only focused or the concret
'teptered" only one aspect of the new glass, that it is a taller amount of
glass. The child was not able to perceive that the new glass
same as \Y
is flso narrower. The child only centered on the height of the The childre
glass and_ excluded the width in determining the amount of
being a pn
water in the glass. server.
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability o
'reverse their .thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5,
Seriation. l
in a series
but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2. size.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to anribute human Stage 4. Formal
like, traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. When at nigtn
operations (
the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, "Mr. Sun
becomes mr
is asleep."
and can hyg
Transductive reasoning. fhis refers to the pre-operational ins
child's type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Hypothetk:
Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A
different'hy
causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her mommy
data in ordr
comes home everyday around six o' clock in the evening.
be done in
when asked why it is already night, the child will say. can now dq
"because my mom is already home." (For more notes on the
Analogical I
cognipive development of the toddleq refer to Unit 2.)
tionship in o
Stage 3. Cpncrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized
down possib
by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms
The individr
of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages analogy. lf I
between,,8-ll years or the elementary school years. The
to.._-. The
concrete,,operational stage is marked by the following:
in the contir
Decentbring. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive what contine
the different features of objects and situations. No longer is thought and
the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This vidual can r
allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete reasoning.
obiects and situations.
Deductive R
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations. the applying a gr
child can now follow that certain operations can be done in example, all
reverse..For example, they can already comprehend the com- ,tures. Greenli
mutative propefty of addition. and that subtraction is the reverse has cold tem
 Pa(l.Unit lModille 6 - Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

of addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay

shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of
clay.
Conserryation. This is the ability to know thai cenain properties
of ob.iects like ntrmber. mass. volume. or area do not change
even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the devel-
opment of the child's ability of decentering and also reversibility,
the concrete operational child can now iudge rightly that the
amount of water in a taller but narrower container is still the
same as when.the water was in the shorter but wider glass.
The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually
being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker antJ then a con-
server.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things
in a series based on one dimension such as weight. volume or
size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal
operations covering ages between 12 and l5 years, thinking
becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems
and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the fotto*-
ins
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with
different'hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final decision or .iudgment. This can
be done in thL absence of concrete objects. The individuals
can now deal with "What if' questions.
Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the rela-
tionship in one instance and then use that relationship to nanow
down possible answers in another similar situdtion or problem.
The individual in the formal operations stage can make an
analogy. lf United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is
to_. The individual will reason that sincb''the UK is found
in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in
what continent? Then Asia is his answsn'Through reflective
thought and even in. the absence of concrete ob.iects. the indi-
vidual can now understand relationships and do analogical
reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a pafticular instance or situation. For
example, all countries near the north pole have cold tempera-
,tures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland
has cold temperature..
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking al Learners at Different Life Stages

From Piaget's findings and comprehensive theory, we can

Chararacter
derive the following principles: Description
t. Children will provide di.fferent explanations of reality at different
Father
stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or
situations that engage leamers and require adaptation (i.e., assimi-
lation and aocomodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the apprppriate
level of motor or mental operations foi a child of given age;
avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their
currrent cqgnitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.

@"amrrcATron
Mother
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family
members. Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can be
from. a story you have read or a movie or "telenovela" that you
watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to relate the characters
to Piaget's sages of cognitive development.

Title of Story/Movie:

Write a brief summary of the story:

 Part I Unit I Module 6 - Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

71

Chararacter Piagetian Connection

Description
Father What is his. stage of cognitive development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this.
stage. (What he thought of, how he'thought, his reactions and
attitudes)

Mother What is her stage of cognitive development?

Examples: Cite instances why you say she is in this
stage. (what he thought of, how he thought, his reactions and
attitudes)
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difierent Ufe Stages

Childrcn What is his i/her stage of ooghitive'development?

Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this stage.
(what he thought of, how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)

Other Character
 Pan I Unrt I Module 6 - Praget',s Stages ot Cognitive Development

71

3.

Characters What is his/her stage of cognitlve development?

Examples: Cite instances why you say heishe is in
this stage. (what he thought of, how he thought. his
reactions and attitudes)
Ctild and Adolescott Oaotopmam t-oouU dteamsrs at Difierent Lile Stages

ffi sYNAPsE sIRtNGIHENtRs

MRffrcror
Organize a talk show. Four students volunteer (or will be assigned
by teacher) to act as Piaget. Sturdent I will be interrogated on Stage 1
of Piaget; student 2, on stage 2; student 3, on stage 3; and student 4,
on stage 4. The students acting as Piaget should master the s[ages
assigned to them to enable them to answer question from classmates. From the nl
The students should use the pronoun YOU when they ask the
question and the four students acting as Piaget must use the pronoun I
when they answer the questions.

RESTARCH

Read a research that is related to Piaget's theory. Fill out the

matrix below.
 Pan I Unit I Module 6 - Piaget's Stages of cognitive De)Eihaot

&RtrHc,oN

From the module on Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development, I leamed

that ...
 Child and Adolescent D€velopment Looking at ['6amel3 at Different Life Stages

Iudicate hov
Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory using the followin
rlltoDulE 7 of Development 0 : never i
- Marla Rlta D, Lucac, Ph,D, I = occasic
f
2 = fairly c
i

3-veryol

2. I feel the
CHAII.ENGE 3. I arn fillec

In this Module, challenge yourself to:

. explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about.
. write a short story of your life using Erikson's stages as frame-
work. Autonor
. suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson's theory can be (Infanc1
useful for you as a future teacher.
_ 6. When pe,
thing I dr

ffi t\TRoDucTroir __7. After I

made a n
h

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly

regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving
learning'and trials which help us to grow. Erikson's enlightening theory 10. When I d
guides us and helps to tell us why.

.Stage 3: Initiativ
ffi&A.rrvril
_ll. I am pre;
Erik Erikson's Stage Theory of Development Ouestionnaire want.

This contains selected items from Rhona ochse and cornelis plug,s
self-report questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with
Erikson's first 5 stages of psychosexual development. It can serve to make
the stages personally relevant to you.
_14. I feel wh
what I ha
 Part I Unit I Module 7 - Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Iudicate how o,ften each o.f these statemen'ts applies lo you by

using the following scale:
0 : never applies to you
I = occasionally or seldom applies to you Read the
2 = fairly often applies to you instructions at the
3 : very often applies to you end before putting
scores here,

Stage l: Trust Versus Mistrust Score

(Infancy and Early Childhood)

_1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humarrkind.

2. I feel the world's maior problems can be solved.
3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
4. People can be trusted.
_5. I feel optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage I

Stage 2:
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Score
(Infanryand Childhood)
_ 6. Wherr people try to persuade me to do some-
thing I don't want to, I refuse.
_].After Ihave made a decision, I feel I have
made a mistake.
_ 8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
_9.1 worry that my friends will find fault with me.
10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score in Stage 2

Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt Score

flnfancv and Childhood)
_l L I am prepared to take a risk to get what I
want..
_12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing
something.
_13. Iam confident in carrying out my plans to a
successful conclusion.
_14. I feel what happens to me is tlre result of
what I have done.
_15. When I have difficulty in getting sometlrirrg
risht. I give up.
Total Score in Stage 3
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

rl Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority

(Infancy and Childhood)
Score
Scores for each
reflecting greater stn
l. The response to
_16. When people look at something I have done, and then added to
I feel embarrassed. obtain a trust sco
of
2. Responses to iten
_17.1 get a great deal pleasure from working.
and l0 to assess
18. I feel too incompetent to do what I'would 3. Answers to 12 an
really like to do in life. 14 to measure ini'
4. Answers to 16, I
_19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel 20 to calculate in,
I would fail.
5. Responses to 2l r
competent. obtain a measure
6. Answers to 26,28
-20.1feel Total Score in Stage 4 intirnacy.
(Source: Ochse, R., & Plq
theory of personality dcvt
Copyright @ 1986 by thc
Stage 5: Identity Versus ldentity Diffusion
(Adolescence)
Score I ANALYSIS
Plot your :
21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.

_22. I feel certain about what I shor,rld do with rny

life.

23. My worth is recognized by others.

_24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am. Shame and Doubt

_25.1 am unsure as to lrow people feel about me.

Total Score in Stage 5

Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation

Score
@arlyAdulthood)
26. I feel that no one lras ever knowrr tlre real me.

_21. I have a feeling of complete "togetherness:'

with someone.

28. I feel it is better to remain free than to be-

come committed to marriage for life.

29. I share mv private thoushts with someone.

30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.

Total Score in Stage 6

Scoring:
Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson's statements about each stage
 I Partl Unitl ModuleT-Erikson's Psycho-SocialTheoryof Development

Scores for each subscale range from 0 to 15, with high scores
ting greater strength on a particular personality dimension.
l. Tlre response to item I should be reversed (0 = 3, 1 :2,2 :1, 3 = 0)
and then added to the numbefu given in response to items 2, 3, 4, and 5 to
obtain a trust score.
7. Responses to items 7, 8, and 9 should be reversed and added to items 6
and l0 to assess autonomy.
3. Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 13, and
l4 to measure initiative.
{. Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and
20 to calculate industry.
5. Responses to 2l and 25 must be reversed and added to 22,24, and 25 to
obtain a measure of identity.
5. Answers to 26,28, and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give
intirnacy.
(Source: Oclise, R.. & Plug, C. (1986). Cross-cultural investigation ofthe validity of Erikson's
ttrcory of personality. development. Jodrnal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1240'1252.
Copyright O 1986 by the American Psychotogy Association.)

A1{ALYSlS
Plot your score for each stage. Encircle your score for each stage
 Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners al Different Life Stages

What did you discover about yourself in this questionnaire?

7. The epigene
says that v,e
personalities
in part deter
previous stal
petal opens u
through its gt
Have these scores. in mind as you read about Erikson's stages and see order of dete
how the stages can guide you in self-understanding and in understanding out of order.
others as well. Erikson,s the,
Erik Erikson lirst believed that r
published his eight
stage lheory ol
human develop-
f, nssrnAcTroN /cENIRALTZATToN
A
stages. The th
pafiicularly on
menl in his 1950
and result into
book, Childhood lntroduction to the I Stages:
and Society.
Erikson's 'psychosocial' term is derived from the two source words -
8. Each stage inv
The stages were
included in the forces. A helpl
namely psychological (or the root, 'psycho' relating to the mind, brain,
chapter entitled 'contrary dispo:
The Eight Ages of personality, etc) and social (external relationships and environment),
stage and its ir
Man'. He both at the heart of Erikson's theory. Occasionally you'll see the term
expanded and for the first-list
relined his theory extended to biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to life, as in
in later books and
'dystonic' for dr
biological.
revisions, mainly: signify the opp
ldentity and the Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But
forces or dispos
Life Cycle (1959); Erikson extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social
lnsight and
aspects into Freud's biological and sexually-oriented theory.
9. If a stage is n
Besponsibility psychosocial s
(1964); The Life J. It's also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps
Cycle Completed: stages of our Ii,
A Review (1982, aided by his own journey through the 'psychosocial crisis' stages
'achieving' a h
revised 1996 by model that underpinned his work.
Joan Erikson); and dispositions thar
Like.other influential theories, Erikson's model is simple and well-
Vital lnvolvement
in Old Age (1989).
! designed. The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and
I0. On the other har
Joan Erikson tations and mali
analysis of personality and behaviour, and also for understanding and
expounded on a ment. A malignr
'ninth' stage after for facilitating personal development - of self and others. It can help
Erik's death. This the positive and
the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time
is lound in her a p6rson who ca
1996 revisions to understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own
The Lile Cycle
and involves toc
and his students' personality and behavior.
Completed: A such as a persor
Erikson's eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is
I I. The crisis stages
Review.
very accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several
and lap and mingle
different perspectives for understanding and explaining how personality
stages. It,s a br
and behavior develops in people. As such Erikson's theory is useful
formula which re
for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing
12, Erikson was kee
with conflict, and generally for understanding self and orhers.
'overlapping,. Cr
Various terms are used to describe Erikson's model, for example
fingers, not like
Erikson's biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory (bio refers to
suddenly rvake u1
biological, which in this context means life); Erikson's human develop
don't happen in
ment cycle or life cycle, and variations of these. All refer to the same
r

mixed-together an
eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Erikson's most distinct work
13. Eriksorr also en
and remarkable model.
'generativity, in h
 Unit I Module 7 - Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development

1. The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, "This principle

says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our
personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is
in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the
previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each
pelal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order which nature,
through its genetics, has cletermined. If we interfere in the natural
order of devel.opment by pulling a petal forward prematurely or
out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower."
Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and
believed that the earlier stages served as a foundation for the later
stages. The theory highlighted the influence of one's environment,
particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon the next
and result into one's personality.
E, Eaclr stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional
Tordr forces. A helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing.forces is
d 'contrary dispositions'. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life
stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson used the words 'syntonic'
dle for the first-listed 'positive' disposition in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and
fe. as 'dystonic' for the second-listed 'negative' disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To
signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between each pair of
eud. forces or dispositions, Erikson conn€cted them with the word oversus'.
nd I lf a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or
psychosocial strength which will help us through the rest of the
stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves
'achieving' a healthy ratio or balance between the two opposing
dispositions that represent each crisis.
and ilO. On the other hand, if we don't do so well. we may develop maladap-
u-<sion tations and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future develop-
anding ment. A malignancy is the worse of the two, It involves too little of
It ;an the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as
s3:ne a pi:rson who can't trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad
rt his and involves too much .of the positive and too little of the negative,
such as a person who trusts too much.
moiel- t. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to over-
rom Iap and mingle from one Stage to the next and to the preceding
stages. It's a broad framework and concept, not a mathematical
,r) ls formula which replicates precisely across all people and situations.
ntnS. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
he is. 'overlapping'. Crisis stages connect with each other like inter-laced
for e tingers, not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don't
bio suddenly wake up one morning and be in a new life stage. Changes
man de don't happen in regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated,
rto&e mixed-together and organic.
drstimr Erikson also emphasized the significance of 'mutuality' and
'generativity' in his theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamcrs at Different Life Stages

the effect of generations on each other, especially among families, and there the minut,
particularly between parents and children and grandchildren. Everyone maladaptive ter
potentially affects everyone else's experiences as they pass through Overly trusting,
the different crisis stages. Generativity, actually a named disposition mean them harm
within one of the crisis stages (Generativity v Stagnation, stage an explanation o
seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best course, is the chi
interests of children - one's own children, and in a way everyone They will develo;
else's children - the next generation, and all following generations. depression, paran

Now you are ready to go

over the eightstages. As you read, enioy fttl' Virtue
ing up the concept map we mede, found at the beginning of each sfage. If the propet
This will help you remember the important terms in each stage and how hope, the strong
fhese ferms are interrelated. Use fhe side mngins to write your thoughts
will work out we
ahout fhe sfage and how they connect to your own life now and as a
future teacher. in the first stage
a moment for the
The Eight Psychosocial have to be perfec
here immediately,
Stages of Development:
they will work or
through disappoin
life.
Too m oo much

Stage Two

Stage One
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and
a half of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust
without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary
caregivers, like the parents can give thd baby a sense of familiarity,
consistency, and continuity, thgn the baby will develop the feeling that the
world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the
parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it,
Psych0social Crisis
if other interests cause both parents tq turn away from the infant's needs
The second stagr
to satisfu their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or
three or four yehrs ol
she wilI be apprehensive and suspicious around people.
minimizing shame and
now a toddler, to expto
Maladaptat!on/illalignancy develop a sense of a
Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to be discourage the child.
perfect. In fact, parents who are overly protective of the child, who are People often advise ne
 Part I Unit I Module 7 - Erikson's

maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls sensory maladjustment:

Psycho-Social Theory of Development

there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the

Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would
mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their command to find
I
an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of
course, is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side.
They will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by
depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.

Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of
hope, the strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they
will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well
in the first stage is when the child isn't overly upset by the need to wait
a moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs: Mom or Dad doesn't
have to be perfect; I trust them enough to believe that, if they can't be
here immediately, they will be here soon; things miy be tough now, but
they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us
through disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of
life.

Srge Two

Too much Too much

Psychosocial Crisis

rd
Ist

'I}
D.
[E
fie
iL
Psychosocial Crisis
i'ds
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to
or
dtree or four yehrs old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while
minimizing slrame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child,
now a toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will
develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents shor.rld not
discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance is required.
People often advise new parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage,'and
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

the advice is good. This way, the child will develop botlr self-control and Shge Thrce
self-esteem. On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop
instead a sense of slrame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on
any attempt to explore and be independent, tlre child will soon give up
with the belief that he/she cannot and shorrld not act on lris/her orryn. We
should keep in mind that even something as innocent as laughing at the
tocldler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt
lris or her abilities.

There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you
give children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to
help children do what they should learn to do for themselves, you will also
give them the irnpression that they are rrot good for much. If you aren't
patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your
child will never leanr to tie them, and will assume that this is too difficult
to learn!

Maldaptation/Malignancy Psychosocial Cris

Stage three i
Nevertheless, a little "shame and doubt" is rrot only inevitable, but or six. The task
beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson means a positive
calls impulsiveness. a:sort of shameless willfulness that leads you. in later bilities, learning
childhood and even adulthood, fo jump into things witlrout proper conside- initiative by encot
ration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is too muclr shame and doubt, and encourage fa
which leads to the malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. The com- play, not for for
pulsive person feels as- if their entire being rides on everything they do, before, of imagini
and so everything mustrbe done perfectly. Following all the rulei precisely hitiative is the a
keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all costs. But if childt
Many of you know lrow it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt can be responsib
yourself. A little more patience and tolerance with your own children may watch down the
help them avoid your path. And give yourself a little slack, too! intentions." It w
round and down
Virtue thing... well, sht
what's going to I

If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and to her! She can
doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of as well. The cap
the most adrnirable - and frustrating - things about two- and three-year- Erikson is,
olds is tlreir deterrnirration. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve Oedipal experien<
that "can do" attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are involves the relur
much better off as adults. to the opposite t

encourage the ch
this process is c
feel guilty about
 Pail I Unit I Module 7 - Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Shge Thrce

oo much

Psychosocial Crisls
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five
or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative
means a positive response to the world's challenges, taking on responsi-
bilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can encourage
initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept
and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for
play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never
before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn't a reality right now
laitiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, .then they
can be responsible as well, and guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my
watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that there were no "evil
intentions." tt was just a. matter of a shiny object going round and
round and down. What fun! But if my five year old does the same
thing... well, she should know what's going to happen to the watch,
what's going to happen to daddy's temper, and what's going to,happen
to her! She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to feel guilty
as well. The capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and a's such, he includes the
Oedipal experience in this stage. From his perspective, the Oedipal crisis
involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness
to the opposite sgx parent. A parent has the responsibility, socially, to
encourage the child to "grow up -- you're not a baby anymore!" But if
this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the child learns to
feel guilty about his or her feelings.
 Child and Adolescent Developrnent: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Maladaptation/Mal ignancy Psychosocial Crisis

Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Stage four is
Erikson calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling six to twelve. The
or be "without mercy". The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. avoiding an excessiv,
'school
They have their plans, whether it's a matter of or romance or nation" and dedicatt
I politics or career. It's just.that they don't care who they step on to skills their society
ichieve their goals. The goals are the only things that matters, and guilty sphere at work now
feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme form of by teachers and pe,
ruthlessness is so.ciopathy. They all contribute.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the must accept, Childr
ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much conceiving a plan, b
guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try success, whether it
things because "nothing ventured, nothing lost" and, particularly, nothing to social.
feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a lead on a Agood way tr
project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed. stage and one in t
games. Four-year-old
Virtue understanding of thr
A good balance leads to.the psychosocial strength of purpose. A course of tlre game.
sense of purpose is something many people crave for in their lives, yet unless it is by thror
many do not realize that they themselves make their purposes, through on the other hand, i
imagination and initiative. I think an evbn better word for this virtue sacred, and is more
would have been courage, the capacity for action despite a clear come to its require
understanding of your limitations and past failings.
lf
the child is ,

or rejecting peers. I
sense of inferiority
Stage Four Erikson mentions, a
lf a child believes d
how haid yoLJ try. t
t
i ilaladaptation/Mal i gnr

Too much oo much Too much indu:

virtuosity. We see tl
the ones that paren
without allowing the
without a life: child
of all sorts. We all
it's all that stands ir
Much more con
all of us who suffer
about. If at first yo
didn't do well in ma
another math class. I

we never try out for

developed social ski
never go out in pub
 Part I Unit I illodule 7 - Erkson's Pgydro-Social Theory of Development

Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about
six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry while
avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. clrildren must "tame the imagi-
nation" and dedicate themselves to education and to learning the social
skills their society requires of them. There is a much broader social
sphere at work now: The parents and other family members are joined
by teaclrers and peers and other members of he comrnunity at rargei
They all contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers
must accept. children must learn that there is pleasure not only irr
conceivirrg a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or
social.
A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third
stage and one in tlre fourth stage is to look at the way they play
games. Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague
understarrdirrg of the rules, may change them several times during the
course of the game, and be very unlikely to actuallyt finish the game,
unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seventyear-old,
on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers thern pretty much
sacred, and is more like-ly to get upset if the game is not allowed to

If the child is allowed too little success, because of harslr teaclrers

or rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a
sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority,
Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism; and,other,,f.orms of discrimination.
lf a child believes that success is related to who you are rather than to

Ialadaptation/Mal i g nancy
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow
virtuosity. we see this in children who aren't allowed to "be children,"
the ones that parents or teachers push into one area of competence.
without allowing the development of broader interests. These are the kids
without a life: child actors, child atlrletes, child musicians, child prodigies
of all sorts. we all admire their industry, but if we look a tittle closer.
it's all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Muclr more common is the malignancy called inertia. Tlris includes
all of us who suffer from the "inferiority complexes" Alfred Adler talked
about. If at first you don't succeed, don't ever try again! Many of us
didn't do well in mathematics, for example, so we'd die before we took
another matlr class. Others were hurniliated instead in the gym class, so
we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball. Others never
developed social skills -- tlre most important skills of all - and so we
never go out in public. We become inert.
 Child and Adolescent Developmentl Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Virtue powerless, but irre

A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and responsible time of
inferiority -- that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to Without these
keep us sensibly humble..Then we have the virtue called competency. an uncertainty abou
lescent is confronte
fering from an ider
our society ask is i
Stage Five One of Erikso
psychosocial mora
you have money, g(
Quit school and g
'oo much break, smell the ror
Too much
"success" as fast a
Malignancy time to figure out
Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis
Oglala Lakota, perl
There is such
so involved in a pz
there is no room l,
dency fanaticism. I
lescents are, of cou
to see things in bla
them and promote
Psychosocial Crisis rights to disagree.
five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around
Stage The lack of idr
I 8 or 20 years old. Thg task during adolescence is to achieve ego to the malignant ter
tconfusion.
identity and avoid role It was adolescence that interested They reject their n
Erikson first and most, and the patterns he saw here were the bases
they reject their nq
for his thinking about all the other stages. groups that go agai
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to militaristic organiz
the resi of society. It requires that you take all you've learned about life divorced Jhemselve
and yourself and mold il intb a unified self-image, one that your commu- They may become
nity finds meaningful. they may withdraw
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we "bad" or being "no
should have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent's If you success
respect, one with good adult role models and open lines of communica- Erikson called fidr
tion. societies standards
Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain ac- inconsistencies. We
complishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. talking about acce;
In primitive and traditignal societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to community. you \\
leave the village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some fidelity means that
symbolic animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be that will allow you
required to go through certain tests Of endurance, symbolic ceremonies'
or educational events. In one way or anothet the distinction between the
 Part I Unit I Module 7 - Erikson's Fsycho-Social Theory of Development

powerless, but irresponsible, time of chil'dhood and the powerful and

responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.
without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning
an uncertainfy about one's place in society and the world. when an ado-
lescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suf-
fering from an identity crisis, In fact, a common question adolescents in
our society ask is a straight-forward question of identity: "who am I?"
one of Erikson's suggestions for adolescence in our society is the
psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little "time out." If
you have money, go to Europe. If you iion't, bum around the phirippines.
Quit school and get a job. Quit your job and go to school. Take a
break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. we tend to want to get to
"success" as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the
time to figLrre out what success means to us. A little like the young
Oglala Lakota. perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is suclr a thing as too much "ego identify," where a person is
so involved in a particular role in a particular society or subculture that
there is no room left for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive ten-
dency fanaticism. A fanatic believes that his way is the only way. Ado-
lescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency
to see things in black-and-white. These people will gather others around
them and promote their beliefs and life-styles without regard to others'
rights to disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers
to the malignant tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject.
They reject their membership in the world of adults and, even more,
they reject their rreed for an identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to
groups that go against the norms to form their identity: religious cults,
militaristic organizations, groups founded on hatred, groups that have
divorced .themselves from the painful demands of mainstream society.
They may becorne involved in destructive activities- drugs, or arcohol-or
they rnay witlrdraw into their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being
"bad" or being "nobody" is better than not knowing who you are!
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the viitue
Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by
societies standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness and
inconsistencies. we are not talking about blind loyalty, and we are not
talking about accepting the imperfections. After all, if you love your
community. you will want to see it become the best it can be. But
fidelity rneans that you have found a place in that community, a place
that will allow you to contribute.
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learnere at Different Life Stages

Stage Six
Tho malignancy
isolate oneself from
certain hatefulness in

Virtue
Too much oo much If you successful
you for the rest of y
calls love. Love, in I
aside differences and
includes not only thr
between friends and tl
as well.

$age Seven

Psychosocial Crisis
If you have made'it this far, you are in the stage of young
adulthood, which lasts from about l8 to about 30. The ages in the adult
stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and p€ople may differ
dramatically. The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed
to remaining in isolation.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and
as a participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you
are, you no longer need to fear "losing" yourself, as many adolescents do'
Tlre "fear of commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an example of
immaturity in this stage. This fear isn't always obvious. Many people today
are always putting off the progress of their relationships: I'll get married (or
have a family, or get involved in important social issues) as soon as I fin-
Psychosocial Crisis
ish school, as soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon
as.... If you've been engaged for the last ten years, what's holding you The seventh stage
back? it, but it would includt
Neither should the young adult need to prove him- or herself anymore. A raisins children. For m
teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through between the niiddle tw
"couple-hood." Who am I? I'm her boyfriend. The young adult relationship the proper balance of 1

should be a matter of two independent egos wanting to create something Generativity is ar

larger than themselves. We intuitively recognize this when we frown on a the next generation and
relationship between a young adult and a teenager: We see the potential "selfish" than the intin
for manipulation of the younger,'member of the party by the older. lovers or friends, is a I
generativity. the indir i<
Maladaptation/Malignancy love he gives to his cl
"return on their investn
Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly
to the tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any them as very good par
depth to your intimacy., This can be true of your relationsh'ips with friends Although the ma-
and neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers. raising children, there i
 Part I Unit I Module 7 - Erikson's Psycho-Sociat Theory of Development .

The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to

kolate oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop a
certain hatefulness in compensation for one's loneliness.

Srtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with
1ou for the rest of your life the virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson
cells love. Love, in the context of his..theory means being able to put
tide differences and antagonisms through "Jnutuality of devotion." It
hcludes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the love
Letrveen friends and the love of one's neighbor, co-worker, and compatriot
rs well.

trge Seven

rutlf,
r&rf Too much oo much
titu
osGa

ad
!'a
i&.
xrdry"
d(c
ttu hychosocial Crisis
soor
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to
L but it would include the period during which we are actively involved in
oiting children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere
hween the middle twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate
tb proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for
tie next generation and all future gerrerations. As such, it is considerably less
-:elfish" than the intirnacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between
ht'ers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mr:tual. With
lEnerativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the
b,r'e he gives to his children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a
tetum on their investment" from their children; If they do, we don't think of
&em as very good parents!
Although the ma.jority of people practice generativity by having and
aising children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teach-
ChiE and Adolescent Derrelopment Looking at Leemers at Difierent Life Stages

ing writing invention, the arts and sciences, social activism, and generally Stage Eight
contributing to the welfare of future generations to be generativity as well
anything, in fact, that satisfies that old
"need to be needed."
-Stagnation, on the other hand, is seff-absorption, caring for no:one. The
stagnant person stops to.be a produqtive member of society.

il al ad aptat io nl il a lig na ncy

It ii perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any "stagnation" in
our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension
illustrates the problem: Some people try to be so generative that they no
longer allow time for themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who
is overextended no longer contributes well. I'm sure we all know
someone who belongs to so many clubs, or is devoied to so many causes,
or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they no longer
have time for any of them!
More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Psychosocial Crisis
Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer
partici-pating in or contributing to society. And much of what we call 'the
This last stage. r
meahing of life" is a matter of how we participate and whai we
or less delicately as ,

the kids have gone, :

contribute.
protest and say it onl;
This is the stage of the "midlife crisis." Sometimes men and women effect of our youth-\
take a look at their lives and ask that big, bad question "what am I doing avoiding any acknowk
all this for?" Notice the question carefully: Because their focus is on stage is a good thing
themselves, they ask what, rather than whom, they are doing it for. In retarded your developl
their panic at getting olddt and not having experienced or accomplished
what they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to The task is to d
despair. This stage, v
recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant examples:
detachment from socie
They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some
"hip" new clothes, and start hanging around singles' bars. Of course, they our culture. Some ret
seldom find what they are looking foq because they are looking for the
their duties as parents
wrong thing!
no longer requested or
Then there is a
Virtue longer does everythir
But if you are successful at this stage, you' will have a capacity for dramatic menopause.
caring that will serve you through the rest of your life. occasion." Then thert
diabetes. heart problen
cancers. There come
before * the flu. for
illnesses come conce
spouse dies. It is, of r

Faced with all this. it

In response to thi
 Part I Unit I Module 7: Eriksoh's Psycho-Social Theory of Developmsnt

Stage Eight

Too much oo much

Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage. referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity.
or less delicately as old age. begins sometime around retirement, after
the kids have gone, say somewlrere around 60. Some older folks will
protest and say it only starts wlren you feel old and so on. but that's an
effect of our youth-worshipping culture, whiclr has even old people
avoiding any acknowledgement of age. ln Eriksorr's theory. reaching this
stage is a good thing, and.not reaching it suggests that earlier problems
retarded your development!
The task is to develop ego integrity witlr a minimal amount of
despair. This stage, seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a
detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in
our culture. Some retire from jobs they've held tbr years: others find
their duties as parents coming to a.close; most find that their input is
no longer requested or required.
Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as tlre body no
longer does everythirrg it used to. Women go through a sometimes
dramatic menopause. Men often find they can no longer "rise to the
occasion," Then there are the illnesses of old age, such as arthritis,
diabetes. heart problems, concerns about breast and ovarian and prostate
cancers. There come fears about things that one was never afraid of
before - the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the
illnesses corne concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives die. One's
spouse dies. lt is, of course, certain that you. too. will have your turn.
Faced with all this. it might seern like everyone would feel despair.
In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

with the past. After all, that's where things were better. Some become
preoccupied with their failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret
that (unlike some in the previous stage) they really don't have the time SnrrrKAnot
or energy to reverse them. We find some older people become
depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developirig the patterns l. Write your ou
of senility with or without physical bases. ment as framr
you (most pro
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby parents and o
coming to terms with the end of life. lf you are able to look back and baby books ar
accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as you lived it, questionnaire
as beirrg necessary, then you needn't fear death. Although most of you stage.
are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by
considering your life up to now. We've all made mistakes, some of
them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn't made these mistake.s, you
wouldn't be who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you
had played it safe and made very few mistakes, your life would not
have been as rich 'as is.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption.

This is what happens when. a person "presumes" ego integrity without
actually facing the difficulties of old age. The person in old age be-
lieves that he alone is right. He does not respect the ideas and views
of the young. The maligrrant tendency is called disdain, by which
Erikson means a contempt of life, one's own or anyone'sl The person
becomes very negative and appears to hate life.

Virtue
Someone who approaches death witho.ut fear has the strength
Erikson calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children. because "healthy
children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death." He suggests that a person must be somewhat gifted to be truly
wise, but I would like to suggest that you understand "gifted" in as
broad a fashion as possible. I have found that there are people of very
modest gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by their wise words,
but by their simple and gentle approach to life and death, by-their
"generosity of spirit."
 Unit I Modub T - Eritsont Psycho.Social Jheory of Development

$mnKAnoN
l. Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial develop-
ment as framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to
you (most probably, stages I -5 or 6). Ask information from your
parents and other significant persons in your life. Look at old
baby books and photo albums. Also, include the results of your
questionnaire in the activity section. Write a narrative for each
stage.
Child and Adolescenl Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

ffi;#
@ sYilAPst slntilcrnEiltRs ii**18
RESEARCH C

Read a rcss
l. Read the bok, Healing the Eight Stages of Llfe by Dennis Linn, matix below.
Mathew Linn and Sheila Fabricant-Linn. This is a classic book
that uses the Eriksonian stages for personal healing. A lot of people
have been changed by this book. Have a reflection diary to write
your thoughts and insighti about each stage.

2. Read on Erikson's ideas about the work he did with the Sioux
lndians and his research on Gandhi.
 Unit I i,lodul6 7- Erilconl Pqrcho-SocialTheory ol Development

,, *i

,qI.
{ RESEARCH CO}INECTIOII
#r
Read a research that is related to Erikson's theory. Fill out ttre
matrix below.

Research Methodology

Sourcr: (bibllographlcal entry fomat)

 Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

RTTLTCilOII

monulE I
From the Module on Erikson's Stages of Psycho-social Theory of Development
I learned......

CHAI.TTNGE

In this Module,
. explain the su
. analyze a pe
. responses to tr
. cite how the d
work as teach

Wil{TRoDUc
Individuals, wt
need to make moral
use moral reasoning
studying the develop
tlreory on the finding
ment. Our abilrty to
ability to understand

.ffi&^cTrvrTY
Read the moral dilem
Ryan, 17, has b
this concert of rock
ftom going as the co
The band is notoriou
somehow manages to
Ryan agreed not to
concert, Nic, 15-yea
what appeared to be
Ryan's bag. Nic exa
 Part I Unit I ModuleS-Kohlberg's Stagesof Moral Development

I
Kohlherg's Stages of Moral Development
nrorluH - Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D,
;T
:..

(HALI.TNGE

In this Module, challenge yourself to:

. explain the stages of moral development.
. analyze a person's level of moral reasoning based on his
. responses to moral dilemmas.
. cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your
work as teacher later on.
,Ykeffi
INTRoDUCTIoN
Yfi%
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they
need to make moral decisions, exercise their own ability to
use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in
studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his
theory on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive develop
ment. Our ability.to choose right from wrong is tied with our
ability to understand and reason logically. Lgwrenca
Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was such
an interesting, il not intriguing
ffi&ACTrvrTY person. He was born
weallhy, but chose to be
Read the moral dilemma below. sailor and began to be
interested in moral reasoning.
Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for He helped smuggle Jews
this concert of rock band. His parents have discouraged him through a British blockade in
Palestine during World War ll.
from going as the concert will surely be with a rowdy crowd. Kohlberg is known for his
theory of moral development
The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who which which was influenced
somehow manages to get drunk and stoned during the concert. by Piaget and Dewey's
lheories. He believed that
Ryan agreed not to watch anymore. But a day before the people progressed in their
concert, Nic, l5-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a corner of ability to reason morally
through six stages, with
what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of three levels largely by
Ryan's bag. Nic examined it and confirmed it was indeed a social interaction.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

ticket. l,ooking at Ryan's bag, Nib also found an extra shirt and 2 sticks trouble and hi.
of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert after atl. That "No. bec
night, Ryan told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a
decision not t(
classmate's house for a school requirement. Then later that evening, he
told Nic of his plan to go to the concert. Nic didn't say anyhing, but Stage6-"Yes,I
want to be lru
he found it difficult to sleep that night, thinking whether to telt their
parents or not. "NO, becr
l. lf ypu were Nic, what would you do? I-f he trusted n
soy anYthing. "

2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you In what level
considered in deciding what to do? dilemma fall? Refl
reasoning in this mor

As you contint
about the different l

Examine the answers you gave. Compare it with the responses

provided below. In which of these responses is your answer most similar? pmsrnAcrcr
Stoge I - "Yes I will tell our parents. Because if they found out
later that I knew, for sure they will get ongry and most likely Lawrence Kol
punish me." the groundwork for
No, I will not tell because Ryon will make my life dffi- lopment. Like Piagt
cult and also punish me for telling. " through their experie
such as justice, rigl
Stoge 2 - "Yes. I will tell my parents because they will reward me
the development of
for it. I will subtly ask for that new I Pod that I'm wishing to Piaget, and found c
have."
longer and occurred
I will not tell. Rydn 'will surely grant me o lot of
"No.
If Piaget desi
favors for not telling. He'll not also squeal on me." the cognitive develo
Stage 3 - "Yes. I will tell so my parents will think I qm such an (Kohlberg dilemma
honest boy. module was writtet
No I wtll not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool wrote his dilemma
brcther!" individuals in his n
Stage 4 - "Yes I will tell because we should follow the rules that to judge whethet
our parents soy. interested in analyzi
No. because it's been our rule to keep eqch others' From his n
secrets. " reasoning grouped
Stage 5 - "Yes. I wil.l tett because"he might be hurt or get in
significant change
penion.
 Patt I Unit I Modulq 8 - Kohlbcq's Stagcs of Moral DevelQrlont

trouble and his welfare is top most priority.

"No. because he 'is big enough to question my parents
decision not to let him go."
Stage 6 - "Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong and I
want to be true to what I bqlieve in.
"NO, because I believe brothers watch out for each othen
If he trusted me with this, I should stay true to him and not
say onything. "

In what level of moral development did your response to the

dilemma fall? Reflect about what this indicates about your moral
reasoning in this moral dilemma.

As you continue to read this Module, you will get to know more
about the different levels of moral reasoning espoused by Kohlberg.

$ msrnAfi rcil /cElt tRAuzATtolt

Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget's work, and set
the groundwork for the present debate within psycholory on moral deve-
lopment. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking
through their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts
such as justice, rights, equality and hirman welfare. Kohlberg followed
the development of moral judgment and extended ,the ages covered by
Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity took
longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to Ieam about
tlre cognitive development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas
(Kohlberg dilemmas). The case you read in the Activity part of this
module was written for this module but was based on how Kohlberg
wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to the
individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim
to judge whether the responses were right or wrong. He was
interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral
reasoning grouped into three major levels. Each level represents a
significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of the
person.
 Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six
Level
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the
consequence/result of the act, not
on the whether the act itself is
good or bad.
Conventional
Moral reasoning is based on the
conventions or "norms" of society.
This may include approval of
others, law and order.
Post-conventional
Moral reasoning is baseU on en-
during or consistent principles. It
is not just recognizing the law,
but the principles behind the law.
stages: $nrnrcATtot
l. Identify the
Stage Description following:
Punishment/Obedience. One is I.
I
motivated by fear of punishment.
He will act in order to avoid
punishmgnt. 2.
Mutual Benefit. One is motivated
2 to act by the benefit that one may
obtain later. You scratch my back, I'll 3.
scratch yours.
Social Approval. One is motivated
J
by what others expect in behavior - 4.
good boy, good girl. The person
acts because he/she values how he/
she will appear to others. He/she
gives importance on what people will 5.
think or say.
Law and Order. One is motivated
4 6.
to act in order to uphold law and
order. The person will follow the
law because it is the law.
7.
5
Social Contract. Laws that are
wrong can be changed. One will
act based on social justice and the 8.
common good.
9.
6
Universal Principles. This is asso-
ciated with the development of one's
conscience. Having a det of stan-
10.
dards that drives one to possess
moral responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of cons.equences
to oneself. Examples of persons are
Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King,
Jr.
 Part Lunit I Module 8 - Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

$nnrrrcAnolt
l. Identify the stage of moral development shown in the
following:
l. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so
that they will think she is kind and will like her to
be their friend.
2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades
his Mom will take his play station away if
because
he gets bad grades.

-r. A civic action group protests the use of pills for

family planning, saying that although the govemment
allows this, it is actually murder because the'pills
are abortifacient (causes abortion).
4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test
because Hannah agreed to let her copy during their
sibika test.
5. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the
canteen so that people will praise her honesty and
think she's such a nice girl.
6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the
canteen because he believqs it's the right thing to
do.

7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she

likes to follow the school rules and regulations.

8. A jeepney driver looks if there's a policeman around

before he u-turns in a no u-tum spot.
9. Liza volunteers to tutor children at-risk children in
her community for free so they will learn to love
school and stay in school.
10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp.
from her teacher.
Child and Adolescenl Dwelopment Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

ffi sYlrAPsE STRTNGTHTNERs MRtFucTrolr

1. Read the Moral Dilemma Discussion guide found in
(http://
tigger.uic.edu/-lnucci/IVloralBVpractices/practice3lindtext.htrnl). Try out
these guidelines with a moral dilemma.
From
2. Research on the views of Eliot Turiel @omain Theory) and Carol leamed...
Glligan Moral Reasoning and Gender). Relate ttrem with Kohlberg's
Theory.

f
t+i RESEARCH (ON}ITCTION
,$:#*
Read a research that is related to Kohlber'g Theory. Fill out the
marix below.

Research Methodology

Source; (bibliographical entry format)

 Part I Unit I Module 8 - Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

ffiRttucTtoN

From this module of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Develo.pment, I

leamed...
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

moDuLE I Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory

- llaria nila D. Lucas, Ph.D.

Q mnrYsrs
l. Form

2.
l-4.
grouy

What facton

CHAtttl{GT
Did the pr
In this module, challenge yourself to scaffolding?
. Explain why Vygotsky's theory is called "Socio-cultural" theory
o Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on cognitive development.
. Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill
Lev Vygotsky
was born in
Russia in 1896.
His work began W rNrRoDUCnoN f msrnAcno
when he was The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction When Vygot
studying learning
a yery important role in cognitive . He believed that teacher who used
and developmenl
lo improve his ividual development could not be undentood without looking into tlrc question and answ
own teaching.
ial and cultural context within which development happens. thinking and prac'
ln his liletime, he
wrote on is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance grven by together with his ir
language,
thought, the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. I*arn more about to recognize socia
psychology of
it as you do the activity. Read on! cognitive developn
art, learning and
development, and
Theory of Devel,
educating
students with ACIIVIil Pinget and Vygot
special needs.
Vygotsky's Vygotsky wor
ideas about 1. As a child, recall a skill
that you wanted to learn and between the 192(
language, culture,
and cognitive
eventually learned well, through the help of another person. views about cognil
development (like swimming, riding a bike, playrng the piano, skating, etc.
have become
the preceding mo
major inlluences compare with Vyg
in psychology
and education
loday.
,"".."......".'"-:.\ 2. What made you interested to learn the skill? Piaget
Watch a video
' about his More individual
theory at http:// Believed that thr
3. Who taught or assisted you? universal stages
development
Did not give mu

language
Describe how you went about leaming the skill. Describe what
steps or actions the person did in order to help you learn.
 --
-----
Difierent
Lile Stag Part I Unit I Module 9 - Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
,3 t llamers at

wn 'j4'- llaia bups of three members each. Share your answers

the environment influeneed you to learn

Derson who taught or assisted you make use of

? If yes, How?
rqlEt"Stl:. ce11ed "Soci

#-:iT:t*::m;*
ilf, .r._Fky was a young boy he was educated under a
*-J L
tcd*Ygo'-.kv':jl::1"1"Jir*l-'1i131111'.J.":?:.::nll::::l:o-:::-:,Y^':,T:::
deveruP";-rr approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current
fJ'J'i';Jq"^q.s,f;iT:,ii;j$:diyi:1il:t[1i:Tii:rr
".rsni6ve
ice higher levels of understanding. This experience,
llcu --'
f#,.11*Y-Tl# in a
terest
=H"-*"..",T':I'##-::'ql'Lil*:I,'l*:::i'*"i*;:':::"?::
interaction pproPflat?
two
literature and his work as
and lanuuase as central factors in
teacher, led him

:nt. His theory became"known as the Socio-Cultural

T-kamer 11*
-rfrh, Read on! pment.

ky
:d on his theory around the same time as Piaget in

ila Gca,l " :o\":lll ilJ#::,]ff

*":;;,j:
:::'J;:.Tl-:l'il,'[r;'ff: ["ir'X
wourd be easier now to see how his views
##1" ocr"r*r

561*"u'n*T ;ocus
are
More social in focus
Did not propose stages but
;ognitive emphasized on cultural factors
in cognitive development
pmphasis on Stressed the role of language
in cognitive development
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

i
I

Q aualsts
I
i
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
firroDULE ilaila Bita D. Lucas, Ph.D. l.
I

- Form grou
t-4.
2. What factor

CHATTT}IGT
3. Did the p

In this module, challenge yourself to scaffoldingl

o Explain why Vygosky's theory is called "Socio-cultural" theory
. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on cognitive development.
. Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill
Lev Vygotsky
pnmrnAcn(
was born in
Russia in
1896.
His work began
when he was
ffi l*rRoDucrro*
The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction When Vygo
studying learning
plays a very important role in cognitive development. He believed that teacher who used
and development
lo improve his individual development could not be understood without looking into tlre question and ansv
own teaching.
ln his lifetime, he social and cultural context within which development happens. thinking and pra<
wrote on is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance grven by together with his
language,
thought, the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. I-eam more about to recognize socir
psychology ol
art, learning and
it as you do the activity. Read on! cognitive developr
development, and Theory of Devel
educaling
students with
special needs.
Afitvtil Piaget and Vygc
Vygotsky's Vygotsky wo
ideas about 1. As a child, recall a skill
that you wanted to learn and between the 192
language, culture,
eventually learned well, through the help of another person.
and cognilive views about cogni
development (ike swimming, riding a bike, playrng the piano, skating, etc.
have become the preceding m(
major influences compare with $1
in psychology
and education
today.
2. What made you interested to learn the skill? Piage
Watch a video
' about his More individual
theory at http://
Believed that th
3. Who taught or assisted you? universal stages
development
Did not give mr

Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what language
steps or actions the person did in order to help you learn.
 Part I Unit I Module 9 - Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory

annlsls
Q
l. Form groups of three members each. Share your answers in
t-4.
2. What factors in the environment influeneed ybu to leam the skill?

3. Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of

tRAu zAno
I. nosrnAcTrou /cE N N

When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a

teacher who used the Socratic method. This method was a systematic
question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current
thinking and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience.
together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher. led him
to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in
cognitive developrnent. His theory became'known as the Socio-Cultural
Theory of Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in
between the 1920'and 30's but they had clear differences in their
views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was taken up already.in
the preceding module, it would be easier now to see how his views
compare with Vygotsky's.

Piaget Vygotsky

More individual in focus More, social in focus

Believed that there are
universal stages of cognitive
development
Did not give much emphasis on
language
Did not propose stages but
emphasized on cultural factors
in cognitive development
Stressed the role of language
in cognitive development
 Ghild and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Social Interaction. Piaget's theory was more individual, while Tnne of Proximal
Vygotsky was more social. Piaget's work on Piagetian's tasks focused When a child a
heavily on how an individual's cognitive development became evident immediately proficien
through the individual's own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, on the of competency. We
other hand gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed However, with the
to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social (MKO), competent
ehvironment or the community takes on a major role in one's perform at a higher
development. the child can accom
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through guidance of another
participation in social activities, making the social context of learning development. The
crucial. Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners' environment all knowledgeable adult
contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist give directions and peer can assist the <
provide feedback to the leamer. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and page.
collaborate and enrich the leaming experience. The support or
Cultural factors. $gotsky believed in the crucial role that culture cannot accomPlish ir
played on the cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that as about doing the tas
the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of doing shortcuts for d
cognitive development that allows him to move from simple explorations container and putting
with senses and muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other scaffolding. Scafloldi
hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would ttre adult or peer so
give to a child. For instance, one culture's view about education, how the zone of proxima
children are trained edrly in life all can contribute to the cognitive inch or two, and tt
development of the child. continue to unzip 1

Language. Language opens the door foi learners to acquire container lid just a
knowledge thbt others atready have. Learners can use language to scaffolding. Leading
know and understand the world and solve problems. Language seryes a straw through the tt
social function but it also has an important individual function. lt helps The exampleE 1

the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to can allow the child
themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, "Gagawin la in such a way thal
itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport skill levels and th
(holding two long blocks)." For $gotsky, this "talking-to-oneself is an proficient, able to
indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will initially do without
eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of called scaffold an
self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action. appropriately can
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. ziccomplish the task
Children learn best through hands-on activities than when listening
passively. Leaming by doing is even made more fruitful when children
interact witfu knowledgeable adults and peers.
 Paft I Unit I Module 9 - Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory

T,one of Proximal Development

When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be
immediately proficientat it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level
of competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development.
However, with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can
perform at a higher level of competency. The difference between what
the child can accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the
guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal
development. The zone represents a learning opportunity where a
knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced
peer can assist the child's development. See the illustration on the next
page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he
cannot accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not
about doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about
doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food
container and putting straw in the child's tetrapack juice for him is not
scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by
the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to
the zone of proximal development. When the adult unzips the zipper an
inch or two, and then holds the lunch bag still so that the child can
continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening the food
container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is
scaffolding. Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the
straw through the tetra pack hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance
can allow the child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold
in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner's current
skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners become more
proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not
initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is
called scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding, when done
appropriately can pake a learner confident and eventually he can
dccomplish the task without any need for assistance.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

MRtFLtc,oN
TllIODUTE

From the module on Vygotslry's Socio-cultural thedry, I learned that...

cHAu.tl{Gt

In this Module, clu

. describe ea
Model.
. identiff frc
developmen
. use the bir
factors that

ffiNrRoDU
Bronfenbrenr
showing the differe
development. It poi
Explain why? that shape every in
neighborhood, the o

*-&ACIrvril
Read the follor
ask your parents fc
graphic organizer be-

Answer the foll

l. When I wz
2. As a chil4

When I wa
show _
When I wa
 Pan I Unit I Module l0- Bronfenbrenneds Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

rl,roDurE l{l - Maria Rita D, Lucas,.Ph.D.

CHAI.ttNGt

kr this Module, challenge yourself to:

. describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological
Model.
. identify factors in one's own life that exerted influence on one's
development.
. use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the
factors that affect a child and adolescent development.

INIRODUCIION

Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm

showing the different factors that exert influence on dn individual's
development. It points out the ever widenin! spheres of influence
that shape every individual, from his/her immediate family to the
neighborhood, the country, even the world!

B*Ei S*

ffiffiACTrvril
"looking BacK'
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also
ask your parents for some information. Write your answers on the
graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
l. When I was 5 years old, my parents
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were

3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television

show
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in
r
t
t

Child and Adolescent Developmsnt: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

5. I cannot forget my teacher who

pmsrmarox
6. When I was growing up, I was away from
Bronfenbrenner't
theory presents child
7. When I was in high school, I was close to
systems that compris
layers of environmer
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about
child. Each layer is t

"bioecological" points
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was as a key factor in on
Through the ch
10. The most important thing that I leamed from my elementary between his immediat
school was landscape fuels and s
one layer will ripple t
ment then, we must
environment, but alsr

Q nrarYsrs well.

Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle where Bronfenbrenner's B
it belongs.
The microsyst
child. It comprises s
includes structures su
such, the microsystem
tions that d-Afrna has
have strong and nurfir
his/her needs met? I
directions - both awal
that the child is affect
these people are also
deep afflection for her
and keep the bab.v-
mother feelings of wa
mother. The qhild is r
however, the child al
Bronfenbrenner calls I
they occur among all
what Erikson termed
Bronfenbrenne
structures within a
layers. At the micro
bi-directional influer
 Part I Unit I Module 10 - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

?,mstmcnt
c
Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the Bioecological Systems
theory presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that comprise the child's environment. It describes multipart
layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the
child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
"bioecological" points out that a child's own biological make-up impacts
as a key factor in one's development.
Through the child's growing and developing body and the interplay
between his immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any
one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child's develop-
ment then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as
well.

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Vlodel: Structure of Environment

The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the

child. It cornprises structures which the child directly interacts with. It
includes structures such as one's family, school and neighborhood. As
such, the microsystem covers the most and interac-
tions that d-cliild hasln his/her immedi
have strong and nufturing relationships with the parents and family? Are
his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects happens in two
directions - both away from the child and toward the child. This means
that the child is affected by people with whom he interacts, and in tum
these people are also affected by the child. For example, a mother's
deep affection for her child moves her to answer to'the baby's needs
and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby's smiles and coos bring the
mother feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a good
mother. The qhild is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents,
however, the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent.
Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows how
they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to
what Erikson termed as "mutuality" in his psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner"s theory looks into the interaction of
structures within a layer and interactions of structures between
layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these
bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers still
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

influence the structures of the miscrosystem. Effect can also be

within the dbveloping
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between As children get old
the structures of the child's microsystem. For example, the mesosystem
changes. The childn
will include the link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or and decide to what
the parent and health services or the community and the church.
affect them.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in No longer Nanr
which the child does not function directly. This includes the city govem-
The long debart
ment, the workplace, and the mass media. The structures in this layer
for centuries, there
may influence the child's development by somehow affecting sorne impact on child devel
structure in the child's microsystem. This includes the circumstances of is, is it heredity or er
the parents' work like the location, schedules. We see a change in the More and .more r€sea
children's routine when for example the mother works in a call center. his environment plal
That was seen in that burger chain commetcial where the mom and the Devblopment theories
children meet up at the fastfood for breakfast just before the children go extent to which they
to school and the mom going home from work in a call centdr. The
The ecological r
child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem, but he is
of the child's environ
likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it develops, the interp
interacts with the child's own system
becomes more comple
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in meantime, while the r
the child's environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, and mature. This bic
customs, and laws. The belief system contained in one's macrosystem d ifferent c ircumsknce:
permeates all the interactions in the other layers and reaches the the child as he or s
individual. For example, in western countries like the US, most of the sequence of natural. g
young people are expected to be more independent.by the time they end
their teen-age years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are The Role of Schools
expected to support or at least want to support their children for a
longer period of time. It is not uncommon to see even married children Bronfenbrenner c

still living with their parents. ln China and also in other parts of the childhood program in
world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may pose unpredictability of fan,
challenges for girls as they are growing up. Because of differences in deyelopment." Resea
beliefs and customs, children from different parts of the world experience constant mutual interac
different child-rearing practices and therefore differences in their development. Acr
development as well. strips in the imrnediate
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time tre tools to explore od
the affirmations that sh
as it relates to a child's environments. This involves "patt€ms stability
"of important adulQ relatir
and change" in the child's life. This involves whether the child's day is
characterized by an orderly predictable pattern, or whether the child is These deficiencies sl
sub.iected to sudden changes in routine. W,e can also look into the anti-social behavior: lar
pace of the c:hild's everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This direction."
system can affect or influerqco the child.externally, like the timing of Bronfenbrenner's
other siblings coming or the tirning of parental separation or even death. treir very important ro
 Pail I Unit I Module 10 - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily changes that occur
within the dbveloping child, like the timing of menstrual onset for girls. *t
As children get older, they may react differently to environmenlal .t*
changes. The children may have also acquired the ability to cope
t
and decide to what extent they will allow changes around them to r{L

affect them.
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature!
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not
for centuries, there was a long drawn debate.on which had more
impact on child development, nature or nufture. Another way of putting it
is, is it heredity or environment that influences child development more.
More and .more rcsearch now point out that both a child's biology and
his environment play a role in the child's groMh and development.
Devblopment theories now stress on the role played by each and the
extent to which they interact in ongoing development. (See Module 3).
The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context
of the child's environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child
develops, the interplay within the layers of environment systems
becomes more complex. This dynamic interaction of the systems happeni
meantime, while the child's physical and cognitive structures also grow
and mature. This bioecological theory helps us determine how the
different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect
the child as he or she goes through the more or else predictable
sequence of natural. growth and development.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the
publicly-funded early
childhood program in the US. He concluded that "the'instability and
unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child's
deyelopment." Researches tell us that absence or lack of children's
constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on
their development. According to the bioecological theory "if the relation-
ships in the imrnediate microsystem break down, the child will not have
the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for
the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other
important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places.
These deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as
anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-
)'
direction."
Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teacherS of
their very important role. lf there is a lack of support. care and affec-
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leainerc at Different Life Stages

tion from the home, if there is a serious breakdown of the basic relation-
ships in a child's life, what can the school, the teachers in particular RESEARCH
do? This theory helps teachers look into every child's environmental
Read a res
systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and needs
Fill out the nianix
of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can
contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only to suppoft and not
replace the relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner believes that, "the
primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a sense
of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be
fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child's
influence."
to replace the lack in the
Schools and teachers' crucial role is not
home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an
environment that welcomes and nuftures families. Bronfenbrenner also
stressed that society should value work done on behalf of children at all
levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family,
mentors, work supervisors, legislators.

$mnrrcATur
Lookihg at your answers in the ACTIVITY phase of this Module,
describe how these people or circumstances have influenced your
attitudes, behavior and habits.

From the graphic organizer that you filled out it is clear that there
were people situations and circumstances that shape who you are now.
Even the things happening in the govemment or even in America like
the 9-ll terrorist attack could have influenced your own circumstances
and therefore your own development as a unique person. As a future
teacher we can see our students from this perspective in mind. Every
child had different people, different situations and circumstances that
influehced his/her growth and development.
As you read through Bronfenbrenner's model you will see the
widening systems,that affect child and adolescent development.
 Part I Unit I Modub 10-Bronbnbrenne/s Ecological Theory

RTSIARCH CO}INTCIIO}I

Read a research or study related to Bronfenbrenner's theory.

Fill out the mhtix below.
 Development of the Learners
at Yarious $tages
P*nrll
ffi&ACTrvrw
Group I. Read
groups of not more
UI\IIT Pre-ftatal Period questions:
1
* Erenda B, Carpuz, Fh,D, 1. What are yo
2. Do you agre
Pre-natal Development mere 'blob o
rrlroDulE 11 Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
Share your e
-
Life Before Bir
The der

fficHnu.ENGE
]aisffil

At the end of this Module, you are expected to:

. fface the course qf the pre-natal developmental process that you
went through.
. explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
. become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an
anti-abortion stand.
ffi
W TNTRoDUCTToN

All the developmental

theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt
on the developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned
with what development went on before birth. To make the description of
human development complete, it may be good to understand the begin-
nings of the child aqd the adolescent. In Unit 1, Module 1 you met
Naschielle and Kenn. You were asked what they were before they have
become what and who they are at present. This is the concern of this
Unit and Module - pre-natal or antenatal development.
Surc e : http : //www. mccl. o rg/
120 Document.Doc?id=159
 Part ll Unit 1 Module'11 - Pre-Natal Development

ffi"&ACTrvrTY
Group I. Read the article "Life Before Birth" then form into small
groups of not more than six and share your answers to the following
questions:

1. What are your feelings and reactions about what you read?
2. Do you agree that that which is developing in the womb is a
mere 'blob of tissue' or 'uterine contents' as abortionists claim?
Share your explanation.

Life Before Birth

The development of the unborn child

The development bf human life

Sourc e : http : //www. mc cl.
Document.Doc?id=159
in the womb was once a mystery,
but science and medicine have
changed that. Abortion advocates
still try to dehumanize the develop-
ing baby in the womb by speaking
of the child as "a blob of tissue"
or "uterine contents. " Bltt ultra-
sound images, prenatal surgery and
other advances in obstetrics are
shattering the btob-of-tissue myth.
Dr. Paul Rochuell, a New York
physician, made these profound
observations after his amazing
encounter with a tiny unborn baby
boy: "Eleven years ago while I was
giving an anesthetic for a ruptured
ectopic pregnancy (at two months
gestation), I was handed what I
believe was the smallest living
human ever seen. The embryo sac
was intact and transparent. Within
the sac was e tiny human male
swimming extremely vigorously in the
amniotic fluid, while attached to the
o rg/ wall by the umbilical cord.
Child and Adolescent Dovolopment L@king at L€smor8 at Different Life Stages

This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering nnawsls
finger.s, .feet and toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin, and Q
the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the ends of the Here are qr
fingers. "The baby was extremely alive and swam about the sac facilitates.)
approximately one time per second, with a natural swimmer's stroke.
This tiny human did not look at all like the photos and drawings l. Is it more re€
and models of 'embryos' which I have seen, nor did it look like a the mother's '
few embryos I have heen able to observe since then, obviously 2. What are pro
because this one was alive!
is a living hu
"When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its
3. Has any reali
life and took on the appearance o.f what is accepted as the on abortion?
appearance of an embryo at this stage (blunl'extremities, elc.)
"It is my opinion that if the lqwmakers and people realize that 4. What are thr
developing en
this very vigorous life is present, it is possible that abortion would
befound more objectionable than euthanasia."
The. point at which Dr. Roclmtell witnessed thi.s unborn baby -
eight weelcs after conception - is during the period that. a majority ffmsrmogil
of abortionists describe as most desirable for performing an
abortion' Human life begins
That which is i
source: http://wwwmccl.org/Document.Doc?id=159
being. An unborn br
from one of eightee
conception the zygotr
i. Why are pregnant mothers advised not to smoke, not to drink life.
alcoholic drinks, not to take in any medication without doctor's
Human life be1
advice? Share your answers with your small group.
have and all that we
The fact that you ha'
2. Why did countries including the Philippines strongly protest the fact that you u'i
against China regarding impofted children's toys which were found the moment of conce
to have high lead component? ment is nutrition.
I remember th,
Scream'i The mother
in her third month
scalpel into th wom
clearly in that film.
screaming for help a
That's why the film r
means that the develc
a conglomeration of
Based on thex
supposed to be the s
tunatel,y, however, wi
 Part ll. Unit 1 Module 11 - Pre-Natal Development

Q annlss ']rI,
Here are questions for further discussion. (Teacher rrd
:

facilitates.) t1 ?
',* I

l. Is it more reasonable to believe that that which is developing in ,.

the mother's womb is a human being?

2. What are proofs that which is developing in the mbther's womb
is a living human being?
3. Has any realization from today's discussion changed your stand
on abortion? Explain your answer.
4. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the
developing embryo / fetus?

l, ABSfRAOt0il
f
Human life begins at conception
That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human
being. An unborn baby of eight (8) webks is not essentially different
from one of eighteen (18) weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From
conception the zygote, the embryo and the fetus are undeniably human
life.
Human life begins from the.moment of conception. All-that we
have and all that we are have been there at the moment of conception!
The fact that you hav brown eyes and black, straight or curly hair and
the fact that you will turn bald at age 50 have been there already at
tte moment of conception. What were ad.ded in the process of develop-
ment is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw. "The Silent
kteam". The mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion
in her third rnonth of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his
scalpel into th wornan's womb to crush the head of the fetus, very
clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her mouth open like he was
screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist.
That's why the film was given the title "The Silent Scream", This only
means that the developing being in the womb is a human being not just
a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb i[
supposed to be the safest of all places for huiman development. Unforl
tunatel"y, however, with the scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb!
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

The devqlopment that takes place in 3 stages proves that the de- As the zygote
veloping embryo in a mother's womb is truly a human being. of cells are formed.
develops into the di
The Stages of -Pre-natal Development cells is divided intr
It may be good to watch the video on High Tech Photographs of ectoderm is the out,
Fatal Development/Pro-life Anti-Abortion Video at YouTube before you sensory receptors ((
read these notes on stage of pre-natal development. mesoderm is the mi
muscular, excretory
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods-germinat,
formation during t
embryonic and fetal.
called organogenesi
l. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) - This
As the threr
includes the a) creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division
and c) and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
systems for the
systems are the pla
The following are the details of development during this period:
placenta is a life-suy
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization-the male (sperm) and tissues in which smi
ft.al. (egg) chromosome unite
intertwine but do no
b) 36 hours-the fertilized ovum, zygote,'divides into two Q); 2 one vein that conne
cells or an'envelope tha
c) 48 hours (2days) - 2 cells become 4 cells embryo floats. All tl
d) 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact ball fertilized egg and nt
of 16-32 cells 3. Fetal perbd
e) 96 hours (4 days) - hollow ball of 64-128 cells and develop
details of th
0 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the
2N2):
uterus
g) 0-l days - to the wall of uterus
blastocyst attaches
a) 3 months
weighs at
h) ll-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and arms and
becomes implanted 'in it (implantation) head; the
ln the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as distinguisl
inner and outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the and lower
inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops or female.
later into the embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that de-
b) 4 months
velops also during the germinal period" later provides nutrition and support
and weigl
for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics, lTth ed., 2004). lower part
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) - In this and leg n
stage, the name of the mass cells. zygote, beoome embryo. The
c) 5 months
following developments take place:
weighs cl,
a) cell differentiation intensifies toenails) I
b) life-support systems for the embryo develop and d) 6 months
c) organs appear wpighs or
fgrmed; fi
 Part ll Unit 1 Module 11 - Pre-Natal Development

As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers
of cells are formed. The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer of cells, rt

develops into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of
cells is divided into two parts - the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The lr

ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system.

sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The
mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory skeletal,
muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ
formation during the first two months of pre-natal development is
called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support
systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These life-support
systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the 'amnion. The
placenta is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of
tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring
intertwine but do not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and
one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag
or an'envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing
embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems develop from the
fertilized egg and not from the mother's body.
3. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) - Growth
and development continue dramatically during this period. The
details of the developmental process are as follows (Santrock,
204):
a) 3 months after conception -
fetus is about 3 inches long and
weighs about I ounce; fetus has become active, moves its
arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its
head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be
distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands,
and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identified as male
or female.
b) 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long
and weighs 4 to 7 ounces; gromh spuft occurs in the body's
lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother. feels arm
and leg. movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after conception - fetus'is about 12 inches long;
weighs close to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails,
toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and
wpighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids ard completely
fgrmed; fine layer of head covers the head; grasping reflex is
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

present and irregular rnovements occur. Fetal

e) 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long mothers. fi
and weighs 3 pounds lower birthrr
l) 8 and 9 months after conception - fetus grows longer and et al, 2000
gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds On th,
than avera
premature s
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
after birth.
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital curriculum/r
(birth) defects. A teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It coines
3) Environmen
from the Greek word "tera" which means "monster".
X-rays, ent
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development: exposure t0
l) Prescription and nonprescription drugs - These include prescription Reseat

I as well as non-prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a among the

I prescription drug that can be harmful. Examples of harmful tion in the
i
nonpreicription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee. Santrock. .
developing
Remember the thalidornide tragedy in 196l? Many pregnant
being the f
women took in thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their
not yet kr
morni4g sickness that gave rise to several deforrned babies.
Resea
Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is monoxide,
associated with reduced birthweight, length and head circum-
to high do
ference (Hurt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired
children's
motor development (Arendt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
Santrock. I
irnpaired - inforrnation processing (Singer, et al, 1999 cited by
children's tr
Santrock, 2002) and poor attention skills (Bandstra, 2000 cited by
Prolor
Santrock. 2002)
tubs raises
2.) Psychoactive drugs - These includ'e nicotine, caffeine and illegal
endangers
drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.
interfere wi
Researches found that pregnant women who drank more fetal death
caffeinated coflee were more likely to have preterm deliveries of tirne (Sa
and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counter-
4) Other mat,
parts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi. et at, 1999
syphilis, ge
quoted by Santrock, 2002).
age, (too e
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so-called
Arub
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormali- pre-natal ar
ties that appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol
affected inl
heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial
retardation.
deforrnities and defective limbs. face and heart (Santrock. 2002).
2002).
Most of these children are below average in intelligence and
SYPhi
some are mentally retarded (Olson. 2000 and Burgess. 1996
quoted by Santrock, 2002). damages in
 Pail ll Unit I Module 11 - Pre.Natal Developornl

Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking

mothers. There are also higher incidences of pieterm births and
lower binhweights among children with smoking mothers (Wang,
et al. 2000 quoted by Santrock,2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller
than average size babies with more incidence of toxemia,
premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging
after birth. and. breech deliveries. (http://www.yale.edu/.vnhti/
cunicu lum/unitV I 980/5/80.05.03.x.hrn l#fl
3) Environmental hazards - These include radiation in jobsites and
X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged
exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher
among the offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radia-
tion in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also can affect the
developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time
being the first several weeks after conception when women do
not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002).
Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon
monoxide, mercury and lead caused defects in animals exposed
to high doses. For instance, early exposure to lead affects
children's mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by
Santrock. 2002). Remember the action of the U.S.A. for the
children's toys with high lead content manufactured in China?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot
tubs raises the mothers' body temperature creating fever that
endangers the fetus. The high temperature due to fever may
interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even
fetal death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods
of tirne (Santrock, 2002).
4) Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles),
syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress,
age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)
A rubella (Cerman measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000
pre-natal and neonatal (newborn) deaths and more than 20.000
affected infants were born with malformations. including mental
retardation, blindness, deafness and heart problems (Santrock,
2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These
damages include eye lesions, which can cause bli'ndness, and skin
r-

Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

lesions. When syphilis is present at birth, other problems sperm that

involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract, can
cancer.
develop.
About one+hird of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth
As in the cr
their offsprin
canal die: another one-fourth become brain-damaged.
A mother can infect her child in three ways; l) during gestation
across the placenta, 2) during delivery through contact with maternal
blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum (after birth) through breast-feeding. SnrrurcAflor{
Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to pre- l. Croup Project
mature birth and reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that As a gror
increased stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia
shop for the n
later in life. (familyanatomy.com/2009/04/20lthe-effects-of-stress-during-preg- cooperating sch
.,
n4ncU) 'ln this st
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and pre-natal devel
stress needs to be conducted for more conclusive findings.
ensure normal
It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may fetus.
result to inadequate growth in the fetus. .... If a fetus does not receive
Come up
enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An
presentation by
extremely deprived fetus may have 20%o fewer brain cells than normal.
what have yor
If an infant has been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain availability of I
may be as much as 60Yo smaller than that of the normal child. (Vore,
human pre-nata
David. Prenatal Nutrition and Postnatal Intellectual Development, Menill-
for "a picture i
Palmer Quarterly, 1973, 19:253-260 cited in http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/cur-
riculum/unitV I 980/5/80.05.03.x.htm l#f)
2. Pretend you art
is concentrating
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce
that you are a
the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and
other pro-aborti
spinal cord, called the 'neural tube'. A baby with spina bifida, the most
that has alread
common neural tube defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The
on pre-natal de,
exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees of
paralysis and sometimes mental retardation. (http://www.squidoo.com/
folicacidpregnant)
As maternal age for numerical
increases, the risks chromosomal
abnormalities increase. ftttp:fen.witipeOia. )
The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double
that of infants born to mothers in their twenties.
A.baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother an under
age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40,
the probabiliry is slightly over I in 100, and by age 50 it is almost I in
10. The risk is also higher before age 18. (Santrock.2002)
5) Paternal factors - Fathers'exposure to lead, radiation,
certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in
 Panll Unit 1 Module 11 - Pre-Natal Development

sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood

cancer.
As in the case of older mothers, older fathers also may place
their offspring at risk for certain defects. (Santrock, 20A2)

SnrrrrcAilolr
l. Group Project
As a group, you are asked to give a one day seminar-work-
shop for the mothers and fathers of children enrolled in your
cooperating school.
'ln this seminar for mothers and fathers, teach them how 'tl
t' $
pre-natal development takes.place and what they should do to
llt
ensure normal and healthy development of the embryo and tlae
fetus.
Come up with training modules, complete with materials for
presentation by the use of powerpoint or OHP or Manila paper or
what have you. In the preparation of materials, consider the
availability of facilities in schools. Look for a pictorial timeline of
human pre-natal development. This serves as an expellent material
for "a picture is worth a thousand words."
2. Pretend you are "Junior", 4 months old in the womb. Your Mother
is concentrating on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her
that you are a human being developing contrary to what she and
other pro-abortionists are t[inking. Describe to her the development
that has already taken place in 4 months. Reflect what you leamed
on pre-natal development in this Module.
 Child and Adolesoent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

:'
il
'$ sra DrAs Concept
I
Related
Concept Characteristics/Desc ri ptions Teratology
Processes/Ideas

l. The Course of The Germinal . lt is divided into 3 stages - germi-

Prenatal Period nal, embryonic and fetal periods.
Development . The geiminal period is the period of
prenatal development that takes Hazards to
place in the first 2 weeks after Prenatal
conception. Development
i . This period includes the ff.:
ir a) creation of the zygote,
i;l
,t
rf b) continued cell division and
il c) the attachment of the zygote to
3
the uterine wall.

The Embryonic The embryonic period is the period

Period of prenatal development that occurs
2 to 8 weeks after conception.
In the embryonic stage, the name
of the mass cells, zygote, becomes
embryo.
The following developments take
place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) life -support systems for the
embryo - the placenta, umbilical
cord and amnion-develop and
c) organs systems appear (organo-
genesis).

The Fetal . This period lasts frorn about 2 months

Period after conception until 9 months when
the infant is born.
. CroMh and development continue
their dramatic course and organ
systems mature to the point at which
life can be sustained outside of the
womb.
 z unrt 1 Module Pre-Natal Development

13

Related
Concept Characteristics/Descriptions
Processes/Ideas

Teratology Meaning of . This is the field of study that investi

teratology gates the causes of congenital
(birth; defects.
. That which causes birth defects is
called teratogen.
Hazards to Prescription and . Thalidomide when taken in by
Prenatal non-prescription pregnant mothers has a negative
Developmen{ drugs effect on the.developing fetus as
proven by the thalidomide tragedy in
the 1960s.
. Prescription drugs that can be harm-
ful include antibiotics. il'rj

. Diet pills, aspirin and coffee are

examples of non-prescription drugs
that can be harmful.
Psychoactive Researches found that pregnant
Drugs wornen who drank more caffeinated
coffee were rnore likely to have
preterm deliveries and newborns with
lower birthweight compared to their
counterparts who did not drink
caffeinated coffee.
Heavy drinking by pregnant women
results to the so-called fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster
of abnormalities that appears in the
children of mothers who drink alcohol
heavily during pregnancy. These
abnormalities include facial deformities
and defective limbs. face and heart.
Most of these children are below av-
erage in intelligence . and some are
rnentally retarded.
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher
among srnoking mothers. There are
also higher incidences of preterm
births and lower birthweights among
children with smoking mothers.
On the average. maternal heroin
 (;nlld and Development: LOOXrng aI Learners at Different Life Stages

132

Related
Concept C ha racteristics/Descriptions
Processes/Ideas Concept

addicts deliver smaller than average

size babies with more incidence of
toxemia, premature separation of pla-
-centao
retained placenta, hemorrhaging
after birth, and breech deliveries.
Environmental These incJude radiation in jobsites
Hazards and X-rays, environmental pollutants,
toxic wastes,and prolonged exposure
to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
Research found that chromosomal
abnormalities are higher among the
offspring of fathers exposed to high
levels of radiation in their occupa-
tions.
X-rays also can affect the developing
embryo and fetus, with the most dan-
gerous time being the first several
weeks after conception when women
do not yet know that they are
pregnant.
Researchers found that toxic wastes
such as carbon monoxide, mercury
and lead caused defects in animals
exposed to high doses. For instance,
early exposure to lead affects
children's mental development.
Prolonged exposureof pregnant moth-
ers to sauna or hot tubs raises the
mothers' body temperature creating fe-
ver that endangers the fetus. The high
temperature due to fever may interfere
with cell division and may cause birth
defects or even fetal death if the
fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged
periods of time.
Other maternal . Rubella (German measles) can be
factors harmful.
 Paft ll Unit 1 Module 11 - Pre-Natal Developmeht

Related
Concept C ha racteristics/I)escriptions
Processes/Ideas i*

Syphilis, genital herpes and AIDS arc

other teratogens.
A developing fetus depends entirely
on its mother for nutrition. is lt
recognized that matemal malnutrition
during pregnancy may result to inad-
equate growth of the fetus. If a
fetus does not receive enough nou-
rishment, the rate of cell division is -d
seriously hampered. c
One aspect of matemal nutrition that
;I
ft
has emerged is folic acid. Lack of {
folic acid in the mother's diet leads
to a birth defect of the brain and the
spinal cord.
High anxiety and stress in the mother
are linked with with less than optimal
prenatal and birth outcomes.
TWo matemal age periods can lead to
problems before the offspring's
development: adolescence and 30 or
older.
Paternal factors . Paternal factors that can adversely
affect prenatal development include
exposure to lead, radiation, certain
pesticides and petrochemicals.
. Older fathers also may place their
offspring at risk for certain defects
(Santrock, 2002).
 Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

I Test Your Understanding RTSEARCH

t
t
l.
1. Here are the 3 stages of pre:natal development. Label ttrem. Read at least
i
each research by st
I
a.) problem
i;
b.) research m
I

c.) findings
d.) conclusions
e.) recommend
f.) reference

2. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given

ffinrruorcil
graphic organizer.
l. Read and reflect <

The hean
fertilization, a.
binh!
At 6 wer
movements. Tbt
At eight ,

in adults are
structures!
The chiW
fingerprints hc
So

Write down yo

, Look at yourself. )
at your lips, your
normally. Did it evr
Write down your r
 Partll Unitl llodule 1f -PrpffiGiffie@mont--

RTSEARff

Read at least 2 rcsearches on causes of birth defects. Summarize

each research by stating the:
a.) problem
b.) research method
c.) findings
d.) conclusions and
e.) recommendation
f.) reference

ffinrrunrcil
1. Read and reflect on these lines:
The hearrbeat is observed three weela and one day after
fertilization, and the heart will beat 54 million times before
binh!
At 6
weeks the embryo begins making spontaneous
movements. Tbuch his mouth and he will withdraw his head.
At eight weelcs, 90Vo of the anatomical structures found
in adults are present - that's 4000 distinct anatomical
structures!
The child has unique fingerprints at I0 weelcs - the same
fingerprints he or she keeps throughout lde.
S ource : htE : /r1tww.p rie stsforlife.o rg/columns/doamentlaspxid=2 go

Write down your reflection.

2. Imk at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cells of your lips are
at your lips, Your mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe
normally. Did it ever occur to you that it could have been ottrenrise?
Write down your reflections here.
 tJl\IIT Infancy and Toddlerhood
7
-- Brenda B, Corpuz, Ph,D,

of tnfants
fifloDu rE 12 :x,;f:Ji:l:topment

tt.

lt
Source: Santruck. J.W. L

fficHAtttNGt
This Module challenges you to: ffi, nuntYsts
. trace the physical development that you have gone through as
Guide Questions
infants and toddlers.
t
. draw implications of these principles and processes to parenting
and caregiving.
L What do y
other parts
2. Does physi
W tilTRoDUCTroN
the side tc
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We Explain yo
shall continue to trace the developmental process by following the
infant or the baby who is just born up to when he reaches age 2. The
period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in
# nasrnAcTror
T'
tum, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first
two years of life.
Cephalocaudal an
As you learn
ffi&AcTrvrTY the posftratal growd
more than the bod
Take a leaming partner and together study the Figure on the next the development oI
in the sizes of the human body parts
page. Look closely at the changes hfants learn to use
as a person grows. pattern occurs in tl
eyes and the brain
The proximo
136 to birth when the
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 1 2 - Physical Development of lnfants and Toddlers

,'
iS
,F
t
l, l'rr,
trl-{
Source: Santrock. J.W. Lifu-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002.

ffi nualYsrs
Guide Questions

1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the
other parts of the body as a person grows older?
2. Does physical development begin from the top or below? from
the side to the center?
Explain your answer.

r lgstRACTroN
&

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

As you leamed in Unit 1, Module 1, the cephalocaudal trend is
the posfiratal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows
more than the body. This cephalocaudal frend of growth that applies to
the development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth.
krfants leam to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same
pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of the head - the
eyes and the brain - grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months
to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards.
 child and Adolescent Devalopment: Looking at Lebmers at Different Life stages

This also applies in the first months after birth as shown in the earlier
revealed thr
maturation of muscular control of the trunk and arms, followed by that
environmer
I of the hands and fingers. when referring to motor developmeni, the
i reared in s
proximodistal. trend refers to the development of motor skills from the
'enriched' a
center of the body outrvard.
neuronal c<
activity. Sur
Height and Weight who live ir
changes in
o It's normal.for nqwbom babies to drop 5 to l0 percent of their
body weight within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to Depressed brair
the baby's adjustment to neonatal feeding. once they adjust to a depressed en
sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
o Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies Motor developme
through the first six months. After six months, breastfed babies Along this aq
usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies. from reflexes, to gT

. In general, an infant's length increases by about 30 percent in Reflexes

the first five months.
o A baby's weight usually triples during the first year but slows . The newborn
down in the second year of life. automatic, and
o Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants opportunity to
progress along n natural curve of steady development. generally subs
matures.
Brain Development
. There are ma
' Among the most dramatic ihanges in the brain in the first two reflexes that b
years of life are the spreading cOnnections of dendrites to each
other. Remember neurons, dendrites, axon, synapses? you Sucking ReIk
discussed them in your General psychology class. (you may touches the ror
wish to review on them.) ing reflex whi
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are breast. The sur
covered and insulated by layers of fat celts, begins prenatally and. may need to s
continues after birth. The process of myelination or myelinization Rooting Reflr
increases the speed at which information travers through the nervous ' infant's cheek i
system. head in the di
feeding.
' At birth, the newbom's brain is abgat 25 percent of its adult
weight. By the second birthdry, the brain is about 75o/o of its Qripping Relle
adult weight. palm. The stn
'o Shortly after birth, a baby's brain produces trillions more support their er
connections between neurons than it can possibly ube. The brain Curling Refler
eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, the infant res
2002). The infant's brain is literally waiting for expdriences to sole of a bab
determine how connections are made. spreadlng out t
o d study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969
Startle/Moro l
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 12 - Physical Dwelopment of lnfants and Toddlers

revealed that the brains of rats that greW up in the enriched

environment developed better than the brains of the animals
reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains of the
'enriched' animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more
neuronal connections and had higher levels of neurochemical
activity. Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants
who live in impoverished environments ean produce positive
changes in their development (Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who gew up in
a depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock. 2002).

Motor development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin
from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.

Reflexes
. The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course
automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms before they have'the
oppoftunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will
generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and
matures.
. There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common
reflexes that babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something
touches the roof of an infant's mouth. Infants have a strong suck-
ing reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or
breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they
may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an
' infant's cheek is stroked. The baby responds by turnipg his or her
head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for
feeding.
Qripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their
palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can
support their entire weight in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked,
the infant respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer
sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will respond by
spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants witl respond to sudden sdunds. or
I
i

Child and Adolescent Developrnent: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their Fine Motor Skills
t heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed Fine motor sk
I to pull their limbs back into their bodies.
f muscles controlling
t Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle these skills allows
J
ii
or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will drawing and buttoni
:, respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being The ability to
ij
stroked. precise eye-hand cor
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated. in becomes more refin
infants who are placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the show only crude sl
! child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while wrist movements, h
t
the opposite limbs will curl. (http://www.mamashealth.com/child/ finger.
i inreflex.asp)
I Sensory and Perq
t

Gross Motor Skills The newbom

Study the Figure below. See how you developed in your gross hiVher senses of vi
motor skills. she advances physi
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness develop.
dramatic changes in the infant's flrst year of life. This dramatic motor What are sor
development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to perceptions? Can n
being able to grab things off the cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk . The newbor
away from parent. normal adult
and by the I
an adult. (&
. Infants look
an experimr
Santrock, 20(
at patterns s
color or bri
"pattem perc
the first few
face, as mot
Can newborns hear'
The sense
birth of the
mother's h,
mother's voi
you to listo
Infants' sen
adult which
a nEwhm '

Source: Santrock. l.W. life-Span Development, \th Edition, 2002.

 Part 2 Unit 2 Module 12 - PhFical Oevelopment of lnfant3 and Toddlers

Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the smatl
muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of
these skills allows one to be'able to complete tasks such as writing,
drawing, and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve
precise eye-hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping
becomes more refined during the first two years of life. lnitially, infants
show only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show
wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of the thumb and fore-
finger.

Sensory and Perceptual Development

The newborn senses the world into which he/she is.bom through
hiVher senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. ldeally, as he/
she advances physically his/her sensory and perceptual abilities also
develop.
What are some research findings regarding newborns' visual
perceptions? Can newborns see?
. The newborn's vision is about l0 to 30 times lower than
normal adult vision. By 6 months of age, vision becomes better
and by the first binhday, the infant's vision approximates that of
an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002)
. lnfants look at different things for different lengths of time. ln
an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by
Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants prefened to look
at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than at
color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that
"paftem perception has an innate basis" (Santrock, 2002\. Among
the first few things that babies leam to recognize .is their motheCs
face, as mother feeds and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
. The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the
birth of the baby. When in the womb, the baby hears his/her
mother's heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her stomach, the
mother's voice and music. How soothing it must have been for
you to listen to your mother's lullaby.
. Infants' sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than' those of
adult which means that stimulus must be louder to\be heard by
a nqybgm than by an adult.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Can newborns differentiate odors?

il . In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) "young SnrntcAn(
'l' infants rarho were breastfed showed a clear preference for Come up w
t smelling their mother's breast pad when they were 6 days old. various aspects of
I
{
This preference did not show when the babies were only two pattems, height an
i
days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience refer to the Questi
to recognize their mother's breast pad odor." ment Standards in
Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch? of each milestone
. They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of l SIi
cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than prior to tI: ; BIG IDTAS
!l
the surgery (Thddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock,2002).
. Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on Fill this Tabl
motor development, you learned that a newbom automatically
sucks an.object placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek Physical
makes the newborn tum his/her head toward the side that was
touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
Can newboms distinguish the different tastes?
. In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies
made different facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour,
and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1988, cited by
Santrogk, 2002).
. When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term
fetus, increased swallowing was observed.
. This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before
birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are
infants capable of intermodal perception?
. Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and
integrate information about two or more sensory modalities such
as vision and hearing.
. In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was
found out that as early as at 3 ll2 months old, infants looked
more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer
at their father when they also heard his voice.
. This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect
information coming through various modes gets sharpened
considerably through experience.
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 12 - Physical Developrnent of lnfants and Toddlers

SnrrucAnon
Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestones of the
various aspects of physical development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal
pattems, height and weight during infancy and toddlerhood). For details,
refer to the Questionnaire on the Philippine Early Leaming and Develop-
ment Standards in the Research phase of this Module. Cite irnplication/s
of each milestone to parenting.
i, nllrl
\::.] . BIG IDEAS
r1
Fill this Table with the Big ldeas learned from this Module.

Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Concept Processes/Related Ideas Characteristics/

Descriptions
Cephalocaudal and Cephalocaudal

Proximodistal Pattems Pnrximodisal

Height and weight Nature of change/s

The Brain Dendrites and myelination

Motor development Reflexes

Gross motor skills

Fine motor skills

Sensory and perceptual Msion

development

Hearing

Touch and pain

Thste

Smell

lntermodal perception
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamerc at Difierent Life Stages

MOTOR SKILLS DE\

..
\ ilt
RESTARCH Standards 1: The chitd s
)
f;
' muscle groups.

t'
The class shall be organized to: o Based on your e
I
T
l. conduct a research with mothers or babysitters on the status of performed by a r

: the development of their babies and toddlers. Find out the status 0 - 6 months
!
of babies and toddlers' physical development by the use of the o Holds head stea

list of what infants and toddlers can do physically. This list is o Moves arms and

based on the Philippines Eaily Learning and Development

o Rolls over
o Bounces when h
Standards (ELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council
i
o Sits with support
i now merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development o Starting to crawl
! . Council.
7 - 12 months
I
2. Present reseatch findings in class. o Sits alone steadlr
t, Your research and research presentation will be graded with the o Creeps or crauds

lr use of the Scoring Rubrics given in Part I, Unit Module 4 of l, o Stands witrout sl
this book. o Stands from a sifl
o Squats from a sb
What lnfants and Toddlers Can Do Physically? o Stands from a $a
Domain: Physical Health, Well.Being and Motor Development o Bends over ecil1
PHYSICAL HEALTH o Stands from a bs
Standards 1: The child'demonstrales adequate growth (weight, height, head
o Walks sideways t
circumference).
o Walks with one h
Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily acfivlfres.
13 - 18 months
0 - 6 months o Walks witrout s4
o Starfles to loud sounds
o Walks backwards

o Visually follows a moving object from side to side

o Walks up the std
o Visually follows a moving object up and down
o Walks down he s
o Reacts to pain by crlng o Jumps in place

o Withdraws or cries when in mntact with something hot o Climbs onto a sb

o Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact witlr something cold o Kicks a ball but wi

o Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/sh6 tastes something o fhrows a ball hrt
delicious o Throws a ball hrt
o Reacts by making a face/ frowns/grimaces when he/she tastes something he/she does o fluns without bipp
not like o Maintdins balance
7 - 12 months assistance
,o Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice o Moves with music
o Reacts by making a face when he/she smells something foul o Can move body to
Standards 3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities. o Can move body h
o Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.9., chairs, large boxes) ' 19 -24 months
o Walks without tiring easily o .Walks up the stah
13 - 18 months o Walks down the st
o Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates o Kicks a ballwitr cr
o Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises o Throws a ballwitr
19 - 24 months o Throws a ball witr
o Sustains physical activity (e.9., dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for at least 3-5
mhutes
 ll 2

L
Part Unit Module 12 - Physical Develppment of lnfants and Toddlers

MOTOR SKTLLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKTLLS)

Standards 1'. the chitd shols confrol and coordination of body movements involving large
muscle groups

o Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or

performed by a child on the specified age?

0 - 6 months
o Holds head steadily
o Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object
o Rolls over
o Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs
o Sits witr support
o Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this

7 - 12 months
o Sits alone steadily without support
o Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
o Stands without support
'.,"{
o Stands from a sitting position without any help
o Squats from a standing position with ease
o Stands from a standing position with ease
o Bends over easily without falling
o Stands fom a bent position without falling
o Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or fumiture (cruises)
o Walks with one hand held

13 - 18 months
o Walks without support
o Walks backwards
o Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
o Walks down the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
o Jumps in place
o Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.9., bed, adult chair or bangko, etc.)
o Kicks a ball but with litUe mntrol of direction
o Throws a ball but with little confol of direction
o Throws a ball but with little conbol of speed
o Runs without tripping or falling
o Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without
assistance
o Moves with music when he hebrs it
o Can move body to imitate familiar animals
r Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19 -24 months
o .Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help
o Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help
o Kicks a ball with mntrol of direction
o Throws a ball with control of direction
o Throws a ball with control of speed
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELoPMENT (FINE, MOTOR SKILLS) o Takes a bath wi0r

i
I 'sfandards 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements. o Brushes teeth afr
ir Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed o Washes.and drie
it o Washes and drie
by a child on the specified age?
:( 19 - 24 months
t' 0 - 6 months
',I o Hands open most of the time o Gets drink for sefr
o Brings both hands together toulards dangling objecUtoy o Removes loose s
t o Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects o Removes socks
o Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface o lnforms caregiva
o Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging) o Goes to the desg

t
7 - 12 months o Goes to the des(y
1
o Pulls toys by the string pants
't o Bangs 2large.blocks together o Goes to the desrg

l o Picks up objectswith thumb ahd index fingers washing

ili o Grasps and transfers objecti from hand to hand o Brushes teeth afte
o Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference established) o Washes and dries
JI 13 - 18 months LANGUAGE (EXPRESI
it o Puts small oblects in/out of container
Standards 1 : The chitd is i
t
o Unscrews lids
Based on your exper
o Unwraps candy/food by a child on the specified i
o Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped around pencil) 0 - 6 months
o Scribblesspontaneously o Makes gurgling; co
19 - 24 months
Uses gestures (e.g
o Colors with strokes going out of the lines 7 - 12 months
PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING) o Repeats sounds prr
'.
Standards 1 The child yarticipates in basic personal care routines. o Says meaningfulx
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed o Uses animal sound
by a child on the specified age? o Uses environmentd
0 - 6 months for thunder)
o Sucks and swallows milk from breast/bottle 13 - 18 months
o Begins to take complementary or semi-solid,foods by the end oJ 6 months o Speaks in single u,o
o Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while diaper is being o Says "yes" and,no,
changed
o Uses words accomp
7 - 12 months
o Holds a feeding bottle by himself
. . Responds to simole
19 - 24 months
o Helps hold cup for drinking
o Uses pronouns
o Chews solid foods well o Uses possessive prc
r Feeds self with finger foods
o Says what he/she wz
o Scoops with a spoon with sPillage o Attempts to converse
13 - 18 months
PRE.READING AND PRI
o Feeds self with assistance
o Feeds self using fingers to eat rice/viands with spillage $ardards 1.1 : The .child is
o Feeds self using spoon with spillage Based on your experia
o No longer drinks fom feeding bottle I a child on the specifiedpgt
o Drinks from cup unassisted 7 - 12 months
o Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs o Able to match 2 ident
o Pulls down gartered Short pants/underpants or panties E - 24 months
o Removesshoes/sandnls o Matches identicaloge
o lnforms caregiver of the need to move his bowels so he/she can be brought to comffi o Matches identical prctt
fOOm i
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 12 - Physical Development of lnfants and Toddlers

o Takes a bath with assistance

o Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult
o Washes and dries hands under adult supervision
o Washes and dries face with the assistance of an adult
19 - 24 months
o Gets drink for self unassisted
o Removes loose sando
o Removes socks
o lnforms caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can be brought to the comfort room
o Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her pants
o Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still soils his/her
pants
o Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but needs help with wiping and
washing
o Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision
o Washes and dries face under adult supervision

LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)

Standards 1 : The child is able to use words and gestures lo express hrs fhoughts and feelings.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
. Makes gurgling; cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
o Uses gestures (e.9., stretching his/her atms, pointing).to indicate what hE /she wants
7 - 12 months
o Repeats sounds produced by others
o Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
o Uses animal sounds to identifo animals (e.9., meow-meow for cat)
o Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment (e.g., boom
for thunder)
13 - 18 months
o Speaks in single words
o Says "yes" and "no" appropriately
o Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
. . Responds to simple questions with single words
19 - 24 months
o Uses pronouns
o Uses possessive pronouns
o Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
o Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE.READ|Nc AND PRE.MATH (MATCHtNG)
Standards 1 .1 '. The .child is able to match identicat objects, colorg shapes, symOo/s.
Based on your experience, are these indicators geneially observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specifiedpge?
7 - 12 months
o Able to match 2 identical objects (e.9., 2 spoons, 2 balls)
19 - 24 months
o Matches identical objects
o Matches identical pictures
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

MRffuctolr flIODULT
l. Having leamed the physical development of infants and toddlers, as
a future panent or as caregiver of childrne, reflect on:
. what you should do more often for infants and toddlers

ffi.HAL'ENGE
In this Module, yor
. trace your
. draw implir
. what you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and !Fhl*.aa
development. rNTRoDt"
ffifr%
Cognitive dev
2. Reflect on the quotation below the title of this Module. a baby thinks. Th
exploration skills. E
remembering learnir

ffi&ACTrvm
You will be
assigned a task to

For Group I
Jacqueline, th
children's obs
summary outlir
Don't forget to
in the next act

Laurent, Lucienne, i
The following
children's cognitive
Iifted from Santrock
 Cognitive Development of lnfants
MoDuLE 13 and Toddlers
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
-

fficHALr.rNGr
In this Module, you are challenged to:
. trace your own cognitive development as infants and toddlers.
. draw implications of cognitive development concepts to parenting.

ry,ffi rNTRoDucTroN

Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way

a baby thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and
exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention,
remembering leaming to talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.

ffi&AnrvrTY
You will be divided into four groups. Each group will be
assigned a task to do.

For Group I - Group I Read the story of Laurent, Lucienne and

Jacqueline, three children of Piaget whom he observed for
children's observation. After reading and re-reading, make a
summary outline of the behaviors of the three children separately.
Don't forget to indicate the age of each child. This can help you
in the next activity.

Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline

The following provide a glimpse of Piaget's observations of his
children's cognitive development in infancy (Piaget, 1952). These are
lifted from Santrock QmD.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

. At 21 days of age, Laurent .finds his thumb after three then picks
attempts; once he .finds his thumb, prolonged sucking ronge of n
\,,
I' begins. But, when he is placed on his back, he doesn't
tl know how to coordinate the movdment of his arms with that For Group Il
( the following q
of his mouth; his hands draw back, even when his lips seek
f
!i them.
l. Do your rt
. During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less impor- two years c
tant to Laurent because of new visual and auditory
interests. But, when he cries, his thumb goes to the rescue. 2. At what ag
with your s
,"

. Toward the end, Lucienne's thrusts her .feet at the doll and
makes it move. Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot
q
for a second, then kicks at the doll again. She has no For Group I
ir visual control of her foot because her movements are the I. Based on y
t; same whether she only looks ot the doll or it is placed sisters/nieces
over her head. By contrast, she does have tactile control of of an infant
ilrt
her foot; when she tries to kick the doll and misses, she
slows her foot movements to improve her aim.
2. It is said th
this so? Giv
At I1 months, while .seated, Jacqueline shakes a littte bell.
She then pauses abruptly so she can delicately place the
bell in .front of her right foot; then she kicks the bell hard.
Unable to recapture the bell, she pyasps a ball and ploces it
Q mmvss
in the same location where the bell was. She gives the ball For Group I
a firm kick. l. There are four :

At I year, 2 months, Jacqueline holds in her hands an - the sensorimot

object that is new to her: a round, .flat box that she turns the formal open
over and shakes; then she rubs it agoinst her crib. She 2, Module 6 <

lets it go and tries to pick it up again. She succeeds only sensorimotor sta
in touching it with her index .finger, being unable to fully 'toddler's cognitir
reach and grasp it. She keep.s trying to grasp it and Here are thr
presses to the edge o.f her crib. She makes the box tilt up, stage (Santrock,
but it nonetheless .falls again. ,lacqueline shows an interest
in this result and studies the .fallen box. Sensorimotor st
At I year, 8 months, Jacqueline arrives at a closed door The sensot
with a blade o.f grass in each had. She stretches her right cognitive devel
hand tow'ard the doorknob but detects that she cannot turn understanding ol
it without letting go o.f the grass, so she puts the grass on (such as seeing e
the floor, opens the door, picks up the grass again, and gain knowledge c
then enters. But, u,hen she wants to leave the room, things on it. An infant I
get complicated. She put.s the gra.ss on the .floor and gtrasps to the beginning
the doorknob. Then She perceives that, hv pulling the door Piaget divided th
tro*ard her she simultaneously chase.t away the gross that
she had placefl betweeri the door and the threshold. She
 Part ll tJnit 2 Module 13 - Gognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers

then picks up the grass and place,e it out o.f the door,s
range of movemeit.
For Group II - With your small group, share your answers to
the following questions:

L Do your remember anything about yourself when you were

two years old?
2. At what age were your first memories? Share those memories
with your small group.

For Group III - As a group, answer the following:

l. Based on your observations or experiences with your others/

sisters/nieces/nephews, as a group trace the language development
of an infant until he/she grows into a toddler.
Z. It is said that children leam language faster than adults. Why is
this so? Give your hypothesis.

numvsls
Q
For Group I
l. There are four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget
- the sensorimotor, the preoperational, the concrete operational and
the formal operational stage. These were discussed in Part I, Unit
2, Module 6 of this book. This Module will focus on the
sensorimotor stage, Piaget's stage that covers the infant and the
'toddler's cognitive development.
Here are the 6 substages of the sensorimotor developmental
stage (Santrock, 2002):

Sensorimotor stage
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of
cognitive development. "ln this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the. world by coordinating sensory experiences
(such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants
gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform
on it. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at binh
to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages:
 chilcl and Adolescent ueve opment: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages
152
Sub-Stage
I Simple ReJlexes
2 First habits and primary 6
circular reactions phase
3 Secondary circular
reactions phase
Age Description Sub-Stage
Birth-6 Coordination of sensation and action
weeks through reflexive behaviors.. Three pri-
mary reflexes are described by Piaget:
sucking of objects in the ntouth,
following moving or interesting objects
with the eyes, and closing of the hand
when aR o5fect makes contact with
the palm (palmar grasp). Over the first
six weeks of life, these reflexes begin
to become voluntary actions; for
example, the palmar reflex becomes
intentional grasping. (Remember the
other reflexes discussed in Module
t2?)
weeks-4 Coordination of sensation and trvo
months types of schemes: habits (reflex) and 4 Coordination o
primary circular reactions. Primary reactions stage
reaction because the action is focused secondary circula
on the infant's body. Circular reaction
because it is a repetition of an action
that initially occurred by chance. As an
example of this type of reaction, in-
fants might repeat the motion of pass-
ing their hand before their face. Also
at this phase, passive reactions, caused
by classical or operant conditioning,
can begin. Infants tend to repeat in-
teresting sensations.
4-8 months Development of habits. Infants become tary ctrc
more object-oriented. mbving beyond reactions, novelty.
self-preoccupation repeat actions that and curiosity
bring interesting or pleasurable results.
This stage is associated primarily with
the development of coordination be-
tween vision and prehension. Three
new abilities oocur at this stage: inten-
tional grasping for a desired object,
secondary circular reactions, and diffe-
rentiations betwe'en ends and means.
 Part 2 Unit 2 ltlodukg 13 - Cognitive Development of lnfants ano Toddlers

15i

Sub-Stage Age Description

At this stage, infants will intentionally
grasp the air in the direction of a
desired object, often to the amusement
of friends and family. Secondary circu-
lar reactions,or the repetition of an
action involving an external object
begin; for exarnple, moving a switch to
turn on a light repeatedly. This means
that a secondary action is focused on
an ob.iect outside the body of an
infant. The differentiation between
means and ends also occurs. This is
perhaps one of the most important
stages of a child's growth as it signi-
fies the dawn of logic.
4 Coordination of 8-12 months Coordination of vision and touch-
reactions stage hand-eye coordination; of schemes
secondary circular and intentionality. This stage is associ-
ated primarily with the development of
logic and the coordinati.on between
means and ends. This is an extremely
imporlant stage of development, holding
what Piaget calls the "first 'proper
intelligence. Also. this stage marks the
beginning of goal orientation, the delib-
erate planning of steps to meet .an
objective. The action is directed
towards a goal.
5 Tbrtiary circular l2-t 8 Infants become intrigued by the many
reaclions, novelty, months properties of ob.iects and by the many
and curiosity things they can make happen to
objects; they experiment with new
behavior. This stage is associated
primarily with the discovery of new
means to meet goals. Piaget describes
the child at this .iuncture as the "young
scientist." conducting pseudo-experi-
ments to discover new metho$ of
meeting challenges. i
 Dlfrerent Life Stages
GhiE ano Adolescent gh,Glopmsd: Looldltg et Lcamers at

154
stage in lar
Age Description
Sub-Stage 3. Do infants
they are n<
6 Internalization of t8-24 lnfants develoP the abilitY to use
that langual
Schemes (lnvention of months primitive symbols and form enduring
New Means Through mental representations. This stage is
associated PrimarilY with the
Mental Combination
(lS-24 tnonths) beginnings of insight. or true creativ-
ity. This marks the passage into the
preoperational stage. Sensorimotor sta
I Euidrn". of an internal representa- . An analysit
I tional system. Symbolizing the prob Piaget's cog
I lem-sotving. sequence before actually from refler
I responding. nated activ
orientation l
separate from
ing object
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both to one tha
that
the self and permanent. Object permanence is the understanding involve mu
be seen' heard' or
objects continue to exist even when-thty cannot intentionali
touched. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piageto/o27s-theory-of-cognitive- that is pur
deve lopment#Sensori motor-stage) . Piaget's sut
behavior to
2. co back to Piaget's children - Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacquelinc' tions are a,
Determinethe-substageofsensorimotordevelopmentthatwas Circular rear
demonstratedbyeach't.ito.Dothiswithalearningpartner.Widr (Pasek,\P ar
your teach", u. facilitator, you will share and defend
your
yout
. Primary circ
answem with the whole class'
erved body, wheru
3.Basedonyourexperienceswithchildren'shareobserved environment
behaviors that illusirate any of the substages of sensorimotot
motor
circular reacl
developmental stage.
At first, b1,
But she doe
For Group 2 'Learning and Remembering around and,
Guide Questions: again. Cradu
l.Basedontheexperiencesshared,isitmorecorrecttosayttu R. Colinkoff
aninfantdoesnotrememberanythingduringinfancy? . Secondary ci
2. Is it safe to say that memory begins at age three? recreating evr
their own
For GrouP 3- Language DeveloPment b<

kickiirg their
Guide Questions: . Tertiary circ
l.Do atl toddlers learn language at the same pace? months. is w
2,Aretheretoddlersthatengageintelegraphicspeechimmt Iittle differen
two'wot
diatelv without passing through one-word stage and
diately
 Part 2 Unit 2 Modub 13 - Cognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers

stage in language development?

3. Do infants have an innate capacity to learn language? Even if ,,1 {
they are not taught a language, can infants and toddlers learn
that language?

*msrnAcnon
f=
Sensorimotor stage
An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of
Piaget's cognitive development shows that development begins
from reflexive behaviors to more refined and more coordi-
nated activities. Cognitive development of infants evolves in
orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becom-
ing object or world-oriented, from one that is action-based
to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not
involve much of coordination of schemes to one involving
intentionality, novelty and curiosity and fi'om a thinking
that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic onei
Piaget's substages are termed circular because the adaptive
behavior to the world involves repeated actions. Circular reac-
tions are attempts to repeat an event that the baby likes.
Circular reactions serve as the building blocks for intelligence
(Pasek) P and Golinkofl R, 2003).
Prirnary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant's own
body, whereas secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the
environment including others. Here is an example of a primary
circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth.
But she doesn't know how to do it again. She waves her hand
around and, after many attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it
again. Gradually, she learns how to do it at will (Pasek, K and
R. Golinkoff, 2003).
Secondary circular actions that involve
reactions are repetitive
recreating events which 4-10 month old babies observe outside of
their own bodies, such as making their mobile crib shake by
kickitrg their legs (Pasek, K and R.Golinkofl 2003).
Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately l0 to l8
months. is when a baby does things over and over again, just a
little differently each time. e.g. When a baby seems.to enjoy
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

dropping the spoon over and over again in many different have recalled their
ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events. back as age 2 year
Piaget described the baby at this stage as "the scientist" When be recalled from as
parents don't understand their child's behavior, they see this act
I have vivid
as abu$ive and get frustrated. remember the deat
. From dropping the spoon many times in many.different ways, Before age 3, I har
the baby discovers a pattern "objects fall down --- not up". his arms after he
They create the patterns with their repetitive actions and then fever in my grandn
evaluate them. Babies are born pattern seekers (Pasek, K and
R. Golinkoff, 2003). Language Develol
. Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the From'day one
- infant?s most important accomplishments, according to Piaget." linguistic environmer
Object pelrnanence is the understanding that objects continue to clearly have rema*
exist even when the objects are not immediately perceptible early age (Marcus.
through the senses. Before the infant's acquisition of the sense 1999 cited by Sten
of object permanence, the principle that applies is "out of sight, Within the fin
out of mind".
the following stages
There are some criticisms of Piaget's theory on cognitive develop-
ment. One crilicism from other developmental theorists is his fundamental
l. Cooing, wh
assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of
2. Babbling, v
discontinuous spurts across task domains, tasks, and contexts. Many to most pe(
speakers frc
theorists (e.g.'Brainerd, 1978) believe that cognitive devetopment occurs
as a continuous process rather than in discontinuous stages of develop- 3. One-word r

ment. Recent studies in the cognitive development of infants supporl the vowels and
view that Piaget underestimated young infants' cognitive ability. Further-. Sternberg, 2

morc, Piaget's methods of research were said to be quite loose, the fact 4. TWo-word r

that he simply observed his three children and a few others which 5. Basic adult
were limited only to European children. with contint
The infant ut
Learning and Remembering more, and soon aftr
Do infants learn and remember? utterances termed I

Yes! Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant condition- mands. Usually, the
ing have been proven to apply to infants. We'll ask you to research on child observes (e.g.
researches that prove this. By 18 months
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events 100 words (Siegler.
that happened when we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally, we Iimited at this poir
can remember little or nothing that has happened to. us before the age the meaning of wo
of about 5 years, and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many ideas for which a n
memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood memories usually for any kind of four
involve memories of significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the death is called overexten
of a parent; Fivush and Hammond, I99l). For example, some adults ' Gradually betv
 Part ll Unit 2 todule 13 - Gogniiive Development of lnfants and Toddh.s

have recalled their own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far

back as age 2 years, and the death of a parent or a family move may
be recalled from as far back as age 3 years (Usher and Neisser, 1993).
I have vivid memories of my childhood as early as age 3. I
remember the deaths of a baby brother and a baby sister in a row.
Before age 3, I have a vivid picture of my father carrying me home in
his arms after he was informed that I was chilling due to very high
fever in my grandmother's house.

Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their
linguistic environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants
clearly have remarkably acute language learning abilities even from.an
early age (Marcus, Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton,1999; Pinker, 1997,
1999 cited by Sternberg, Rpbert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through
the following stages in producing language (Stemberg, 2003):
l. Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vbwel sounds;
to most people's ears, the babbling of infants growing up among
speakers from diffbrent language groups sounds very similar
3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the
vowels and the consonants they utilize (lngram, 1999 cited by
Sternberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence dtructure (present by about age 4 years)
with continuing vocabulary acquisition
The infant utters his /her first word- followed by one or two
more, and soon after, yet a few more. The infant uses these one-word
utterances termed holophrases-to convey intentions, desires and de-
mands. Usually, the words are nouns describing familiar objects that the
child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama, Dada)
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to
100 words (Siegler, 1986). Because the young child's vocabulary is very
limited at this point in the development process, the child overextends
the meaning of words in his/her existing lexicon to cover things and
ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example the general term
for any kind of four-legged anirnal may be "doggie". In linguistics this
is called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combi-
 child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

ning single words to produce two-word utterances. These two-word or

three-word utterances w.ith rudimentary syntax but with articles and
prepositions missing are referred to as telegraphic speech. Snrrucmr
r',,
Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 l. Arganize a
I
tr words at about 2 years of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years roles of exp
Ir
t. of age. At about 4 years, incredibly children acquire the foundations of
It and languag
l. adult syntax and language structure (Sternberg, 2003). cussants. Al
t
i' It is clear that nq toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one serve as m(
t. capable of telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acqui- What are
[, sition of language comes in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling,
Fr child care ,

I
to one-word utterances, to two- or three-word utterances or even more
t; but without articles and prepositions thus called telegraphic speech. 2. Several psyt
challenged ir
cific activiti
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
cognitive gn
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972). noted linguist, claims that humans wise:
have an innate language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a
"metaphc-ical organ that is responsible for language rearning. Just as a On the
hea.t is designed to pump blood this language acquisition device is stimulation i

preprogrammefl to leam language, whatever the language community chil- units used tr
dren find themselves in." sounds. Scie
i This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured the neonatal
I

to be ready to acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack attention de

for acquiring an implicit understanding of the many rures of language and softener
structure, as well as for applying those rules to new vocabulary and new the environn
contexts. This may partly explain why children are said to leam language and R. Golir
fast. What i
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth college in Hanover, New may want t
Hampshire and her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded references ir
that "by 5 months of age, babies are already specializing by using the
3. You have k
left side of their brains for language sounds and the right side for
those that h
expression emotion.... we all speak out from the right side of our
2? What do
mouths....Babies babble out from the right side of their mouths.
your future
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the
brain while the left side of the body is controlled by the right side of 4. Language le
I the brain (connections in the brain are contralateral or crossed). Babies
Studies shor
iil use the right side of their mouths for babbling, rhen babbling is a
I'i to children i
language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
t
guage envin
you give to
ments? You
 Part ll unit 2 Module 1 3 - cognitive Development of lnfants and roddlers

S.mrurcATnu
organize a talk show. Three of your classmates who will play the
roles of experts in sensorimotor development, memery development
and language development during infancy wiil serve as panel of dis-
cussants. After each expert has delivered his/her piece one will
serve as moderator. A question that should not be forgotten is:
what are some applications of these concepts /theories in
child care and parenting?
Several psychologists claim that babies need to be stimulated and
challenged in order to grow and develop on a cognitive revel. Spe-
cific activities, practiced on a regular basis, stimulate an infant's
cognitive growth. However, the following experiment proves other-
wise:

on the increasingly prevalent cultural assumption that more

stimulation is better and that it is never too early to start, feonatal
units used to be filled with bright lights and soothing but stimulating
sounds. Scientists later found, however, that the sounds and lights of
the neonatal care units were actually contributing io problems of
attention deficit and hyperactivity. So now the units are darkened
and softened to'resemble the dark and muffled place, the womb,
the environment thlt nature had intended for these babies (K.pasek
and R. Colinkofi 2003).

What is your stand on the issue of brain stimulation? you

may want to review "pruning" of the brain discussed in several
references including intemet to arrive at more informed stand.

You have learned that past events recalled as earry as two are
those that had personal significance. Does this appry even after age
2? What do you think? If you think yes, what does this imply to
your future teaching?
Language leaming

Studies show that when parents, .teachers and caregivers talk more
to children and ask any questions, they create more stimulating lan-
guage environments for their children. what recommendations can
you give to parents for them to provide stimulating language environ-
ments? You may want do do some further research on this.
 Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

ri tW'l nate langua

:,., BIG IDIAS humans see
[)' language.
rflr
i.l l. The infant's and the toddler's development fall under the sensorimo-
,t
tor developmental stage of Piaget's cognitive developmont theory.
Chaiacterize each substage.
I/
at'
RISEARCH
i
The class *'ill
Substages of Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage Characteristics fteir babies and toc
I Simple Reflexes krfant and toddler.
behaviors of what i
2 First habits and primary circular Ptrilippine Early Lez
reactions phase b fte Child and S
C-ae and Developn
3 Secondary circular reactions phase
fusical developmen
4 Coordination of secondary circular enough work to do
reaclions stdge With the assist
5 krtiary circular reactions, novelty, methodology. Condu
and curiosity md toddlers using
refer to Unit I. Par
6 Internatization of Schemes(Invention
of Nefr Meitns Through Mental What lnfants and I
Combinotion (18-24 months)
DOMAIN: LANGUAGE,
7 Object permonence UNGUAGE (RECEPTT\
Based on your experiat
by a child on the specil
We do not have the ability to recall events that happened
0'6 months
when we were very young. This is called infantile amnesia. o Watches primary
Many psychologists believe that people remember experiences 7 - 12 months
beginning age 3. Some, however, remember significant events at o Understands'Nt
age 2. o Points to family r
13 - 18 months
Within the first years of life, development in the production of
o Points to 5 body
language include the following stages
i Follows one-step
Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds 19 - 24 months
I

Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel o Points,to 5 name

IANGUAGE (EXPRESS
I

sounds; to most people's ears, the babbling of infants

ll
rl growing up among speakers from different language groups Sandards 1: The chil
tse/rngs.
sounds very similar
Based on your ex
One-word utterances, these utterances are limited in both the performed by a child on
vowels and the consonants they utilize
0 - 6 months
Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech o Makes gurgling,
Noted lingu
linzuist Noam Chomsky claims that humans have an in- o Uses gestures (e
 Part 2 Unit 2 Module 13 - Cognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers

nate language acquisition device (LAD). This means that we,

humans seem to be biologically primed to be ready to .acquire
language.

.iw r nrsrARCH
1,.

The class will

be grouped for another research with parents on
their babies and toddlers, this time on the cognitive development of the
infant and toddler. Make use of the cognitive list of standards and
behaviors of what infants and toddlers can do cognitively based on the
Philippine Early Leaming and Development Standards (ELDS) formulated
by the Child and Welfare Council now merged with the Early Childhood
Care and Development Council. Those who were assigned research on
physical development may no longer included in the grouping. They have
enough work to do for the research on physical development.
With the assistance of your mentor, formulate the research problem,
methodology. Conduct a research on the cognitive development of infants
and toddlers using the questionnaire on page 164. For Scoring Rubrics
refer to Unit I" Part I, Module 4.

What lnfants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively?

DOMAIN: LANGUAGE, PRE.READING AND PRE.MATH
LANGUAGE (RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE)
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or perfofmed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
e Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her
7 - 12 months
o Understands "No"
o Points to family member when asked to do so
13 - 18 months {t'
o Points to 5 body parts on himiherself when asked to do so
o Follows one-step instructions without need for gestures
19 - 24 morithd
i
ss
o Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
t
Standards 1. The child is able to use words and gestures fo express his thoiughts and I
feelings.

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or

performed by a child on the specified age?

0 - 6 months
o Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
o Uses gestures (e.9., sketching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what he /she wants
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

7 - 12 months
o Repeats sounds produced by others 13 - 18 months
), o Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons o May be distracte

ll, o Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.9., meow-meow for cat) o Resists intenupt
t
o Llses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment (e.g., boom
for thunder) HIGHER.ORI
13 - 18 months Standards 1. The child ,

o Speaks in single words quantity, seriation, etc ,

o Says "yes" and "no'appropriately categorized in his/ her

o Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
Based on your t
o b
Responds simple questions with single words
performed by a child u
19 - 24 months 0 - 6 months
o Uses pronouns o Experiments wtU
o Uses possessive pronouns o Looks in he dire
o Says what he/she wants wittrout accompanying this with gestures
7 - 12 months
o Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
o Looks for partid
PRE.READTNG AND PRE-MATH (MATCHTNG) o Looks for mmpl
Standards 1.1: The child is able to-match identicaloblects, colors, shapes, symbo/s. 13 - 18 months
Based on your experience, 6re these indicators generally observed on and/or o Can tell whethet
performed by a child on the specified age? o Hands over 1 d
19 - 24 months
7 - 12 months
o Can tell which is
o Able to match 2 identical objects (e,9,, 2 spoons, 2 balls)
o Can tell which is
19 - 24 months o Can tellwhich is
o Matchesidenticalobjects o tellwhidt is
Can
o Matches identical pictures HIGHER.ORDERED
PRE.READTNG AND PRE.MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING) (CAUSE- EFFECT R
Standards 1.2: The child is abte to recite the alphabet and numbrs in sequence. Sfandards 7:Thechild
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or Based on your eq
performed by a child on the specified age? by a child on the specrfie

19 - 24 months 0- 6 months
o Counts ftom 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
o Acts on an obje
7 - 12 months
Domain: Cognitive Development o Uses an object I

19 - 24 months
ATTENTION AND ACT'VITY LEVEL
o Asks "Why?'qu
Standards 1 : The child is able to sustain aftention and modulate his activity at age- o Understands re
expected levels. o Understands rei
I
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or play matches)

!
performed by a child on the specified age? o Knows where to

4 0 - 6 months
rl
o Lodks steadily at novel stimuli (e.9., rattle, dangling toy) MEMORY (MEMOR
1:Thechid
Standards
7 - 12 months
o Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.9., pulling apart)
Based on your eq
o Looks with interest at picture books
by a child on the specifie

o Able to sit through an entire meal witrout fussing 0 - 6 months

o Child reacts, like
does not live in
 Part 2 Unit 2 Module 13 - Cognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers

13 - 18 months
o May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
o Resists interruption while engaged in play

HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

Standards 1'. The child deve/ops baslc concepfs pertaining to oblect constancy, space, time,
quantity, seriation, etc. and uses fhese as lhe basrs for understanding how mateials are
categorized in his/ her environment.
Based on your experience, are these indicatois generally observed on and/or
performed bya child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting thein in his mouth
o Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7 - 12 months
o Looks for partially hidden objects
o Looks for completely hidden obiects
13 - 18 months
o Can tell whether something is hot or cold
o Hands over 1 object when asked
',9 - 24 months
o Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
o Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
o Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
o Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES
(cAUSE. EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)
Standards 7 : The child is able to understand the cause -effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators gene:'ally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?

0- 6 months
o Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.9., shakes rattle)
7 - 12 months
o Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.9., spoon to reach an object )
19 - 24 months
o Asks "Why?" questions
o Uhderstands reasons behind daily practices (e.9., washing hands before meals)
o Understands reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.9., why one must not
play matches) (
o Knows where to return most of his/her things "',

MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY) rI

Standards 1 : The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he has been to.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?

0 - 6 months
o Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several ttmes but who
does not live in his/her home
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

13 - 18 months 0 - 6 months
o Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of afamiliar place besides his/her home
o Looks steadily
) 19 - 24 months 7 - 12 months
n o Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before'
o Examines prop
I o Looks with ints
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT.BASED KNOWLEDGE: o Able to sit
r thrcx.
SEMANTTC MEMORY) 13 - 18 months
I
I
Standards 1 : The child is abte fo sfore verbatinformation in short and tong -term memory. o May be diskad
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed o Resists interul
by a child on the specified age? HIGHER.ORDERED I[
19 - 24 months Sfandards 1 :The chih
I
o Hums a recognizable'tune quantity, t
o Memorizes some gestures of actron songs mateials
t HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (LoG|CAL REASONTNG) Based on your ex
by a child on the specifir
Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why these happen)
and draw accurate conclusbn bl evaluating fhe facts presented to him. 0 - 6 months
i Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per-
. Experiments wil

formed by a child on the specified age? o Looks in the din

7 - 12 months
19 - 24 months
o Looks for partia
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABTL|TTES (PLANNtNG AND ORGANTZTNG)
o Looks for comfl
Standards 1 ; The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity. Eased on your 13 - 18 months
experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or peiormed by a o Can tell whetre
child on the specified.age? o Hands over 1 o
19 - 24 months 19 - 24 months
HIGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (CREAT|VE THOUGHT)
o Can tellwhidr h

Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or conceptg or new associallons
o Can tell which is

between ex.stlng ideas or concepts.

o Can tell which is

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or

o Can tellwhidr h

performed by a child on the specified age? HIGHER.ORDERED

19 - 24 months (CAUSE. EFFECT Rl
o Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.9., blocks, clay, Standards 1:Thechitd
sand, paper)
r Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.9., pretends empty milk can is a drum)
Based on your e4
by a child on the specrfie
o Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as house)
0- 6 months
o Acts on an otrier
I
What infants and toddlers can do Cognitively? 7 - 12 months
o Uses an object t
I
Domain: Cognitive Development 19 - 24 months
jlr

rl
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL o Asks "Why?" qx
Standards 1 : The child is able to susfaln attention and modulate his activity at agecxpected o Understands rea
/ercls. o Understands rea
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed play matches)

by a child on the specified age? o Knows where to

MEMORY (MEMORY
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 13 - Cognitive Development of lnfants and Toddlers

0 - 6 months
o Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.9., raftle, dangling toy)
7 - 12 months
o Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.9., pulling apart)
o Looks with interest at picture books
o Able to sit through an entire med wittout fussing
13 - 18 months
o May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
o Resists intenuption while engaged in play
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

Sfandards 1 :The child devetops basic concepfs pertaining to obied constancy, space, time,
quanti$, seiation, etc. and uses liese as fhe bass for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?

0 - 6 months
. Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or pufting them in his mouth
o Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7 - 12 months
o Looks for partially hidden objects
o Looks for completely hidden objects
13 - 18 months
o Can tell whether something is hot or cold
o Hands over 1 object when asked
19 - 24 months
o Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
o Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
o Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
o Can tell which is nearer of 2 items

HIGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES

(cAUSE- EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)
Standards 1 : The child is able to understand fhe cause 'effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?

0- 6 months
o Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.9., Shakes rattle)
7 - 12 months
o Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.9., spoon to reach an object )
rf
19 - 24 months ,t
o Asks "Why?" questions *
o Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.9., washing hands before meals)
o Understands reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.9., why one must not
play matches)
o Knows where to return most of his/her things

MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)

 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

slandards 7 : The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he has been
i

f, b.
)A Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or perfonnert MRffroro*
fll by a child on the specified age?
rl Go back to the
0 - 6 months
this Module. Rel
*
I o Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several times but

I who does not live in his/her home L What struck ,

! 13 - 18 months infants and todd
i o Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her home development of
I 19 - 24 months reflections here.
t Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before
i
{
+ MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT .BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTTC
h MEMORY)
t

h, Standards 1 : The child is able lo store verbal information in short and long -term memory.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per-
lfl formed by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
o Hums a recognizable tune
o , Memorizes some gestures of action songs

HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (LOGICAL REASONTNG)

Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why these
happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or perfonnert
by a child on the specified age?

19 - 24 months
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABtLtTtES (PLANNING AND ORGANTZING)
Standards I : The child is able to plan and organize a simpte, familiar activity.
Based on your experiencb, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per-
formed by a child on the specified age?

19 - 24 months
HTGHER.ORDERED MENTAL ABILtTtES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The chitd is able to generate new ideas or cotncepts:, or neyy associafbns
between existing r'deas or concepts.
t'
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per-
tl
formed by a child on the specified age?
,,i 19 - 24 months
rll

o Enjoys conskucting objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g., blocks, clay,
sand, paper)
o Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.9., pretends empty milk can is a drum
o Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as
house)
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 1 3 - Cognitive D,ewlopment of lnfants and Toddlers

ffinnECTlor{
Go back to the quotation from Kahlil Gibran beneath the title of
this Module. Reflect on it.
What struck you most in the cognitive development of
infants and toddlers? Remember cognitive development includes
development of memory and acquisition of language. Write your
reflections here.

*
I
I
 child and Adolescent Developmen[ tooking at Leamels at Different Life stages
Pat

Socio-emotional Development of If a child lives wt

I!l ||rorlulr 14 lnfants and Toddlers If a child lives wt
If a child lives wt
Brenda B. Corpuz, ph.D,
i1, - But...
If a cfuild lives wi
If a child lives wi
If a child lives wi
If a child lives wi
If a child lives wi,
If a child lives wi,
If a cl1ild lives wit
those about hi
lr. If a child lives witt
Fi
id
in which to lit
llith what is your
lfl

nunrvss
Q
In this Module, challenge yourself to: I. Based on I
' describe the socio-emotional development prooesses that you went the socio+
through as an infant and toddler. 2. From what
'state well
' the implications of research findings on infants, and adjuir
todhlers' socio-emotional deveropment to parenting and child care. children?
a
J. Statd in a
ffi rnrRoDucrrou
'simply put, socio-emotional
development has something to do with
socio-emoti

the development of a person's ability to master one,s emotions and the

ability to relate to others. It necessarily includes temperament, attach- $ nosrnncirox
ments and social skills.
The Fofmative Yea

Much has been

ffi&A.rrvw in human developme
Read Nolte's poem then answer the ff. questions: why, parents and oth
1. Do you agree with D. Nolte's poem? play a significant role
2. [hich line of the poem is most meaningful to you? Explain. As the poem ..
kind of hpme and scl
Children l*arn What'They Live
determines to a very
If a child lives with criticism, he leams to condemn... ctrildren.
If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight... Let us discuss tl
If a child lives with fear; lu learns to be apprehensive... wtrolesome socio-emot
 Part ll Unit 2 Module.14 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and Toddlers

If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for. himself...

If a child lives wi.th ridicule, he learns to be shy...
,'*
If a child lives with jealousy, he learns to feel guilt... I

But...
If a cfuitd lives with tolerance, he learns 7o be patient...
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns tb be con/ident...
If a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative...
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love...
If a chitd lives with honesty, he learns what truth'is...
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice...
If a cl1ild lives with security, he leorns to hove faith in himself and
those about him...
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place
in which to live.
Wh what is your child living?
Dorothy L.Nolte, Trained Family Counselor

nunlsrs
Q
l. Based on Nolte's poem, which plays a very important role in
the socio-emotional development of children?
2. From what kind of home environment do chilfen who are
well adjusted most probably come? What about maladjusted
children? :
3. State in a sentence what the poem is saying about a child's
socio-emotional development.

fr nssrnncinr
^"
The Fotmative Years }u

Much has been said about the impoftance of the first three years iil
in human development. They are so-called the formative years that is t
I
why, parents and other caregivers at this stage of human development
play a significant role in the developm6nt of infants and toddlers.
*
As the poem "Children Leam What They Live" expresses, the I
kind of hpme and school environment that parents and teachers produce
determines to a very great extent the quality of the development of
I
children.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the
wholesome socio-emotional development of children.
 Chitd and Adolescent t cucloptnfit Looking at tcamers at Different Life Stages
Pan

Attachment
o Parents anr
. For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs .to estab- working w
h
l,t
lish an enduring emofional bond characterized by a tendency to seek
!
and maintain closeness to a specific figure, particularly during Temperament
i

stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon of attachment.

. According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory the l. Another factor
beginnings of attachment occur within the first 6 months of a temperament
baby's life with a variety of built-in Signals that baby uses to keep that people di
her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her mother's reactions, acti
eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develo;is in her regulate their
degree of attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at baby expressel
them than at any stranger whom she seldom sees. This is what responds emot
l,' Bob Greene must have experienced. (See quote below the title of his individual
F'
i,i this Module). 2. Researcheis T

m
. The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is perament cate
a lot of responsive interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and Infant-Toddler
RGolinkofr 2003). Babies thrive on social interaction when it is in These include:
response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know when . Activi0
they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver's
response to the baby is important.
' Mood
. Thresh
. Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K.Pasek . Rhyftn
and R. Golinkoff,.(2003) in their book "Einstein Never Used
Classcards" are giien below: . Intensil

What is absolutely cenffal to babiesl emotional well-being is not

. Approa
so much feeding but the consistent involvemenl of caregivers. . Distrag
Being fed by your mother is not what attached you to her. It ' . Adaptaj
is consistent, close nurturing that matters in early relationships. . Persistt
Childrrn who have good attachment relationships as infants make To determint
better adjustments in a number of areas in future life. But re-
tions:
member, having a good attachment in infancy gives you a
Activity levr
great start but can't carry you through life. You have to be
thrash about a lot
treated sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you are to
stage, they must t
develop favorably.
The mood,
lnfants attach to more than one caregiver and they are
Although securety
developing emotional relationships with muttiple caregivers at
low-key mood and
once.
Child'sthrcx
Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours
They becomt
per week, the family contributes more to child's social and cog-
more comfortr
nitive well-being than does the child care arangement. Parents
The rhythmir
matter and children are attached to parents even when children
a fairly reguk
are in child care.
times, urinate
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 14 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and Toddlerg

o Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by

working with them and by serving as their models. ,,t
tU

Temperament

l. Another factor related to the infant's socio-emotional development is

temperament. Temperament is a word that "captures the ways
that people differ, even at birth, in such things as their emotional
reactions, activity level, atteqtion span, persistence, and.ability to
regulate their emotions" (K. Pasek and R. Golinkofi 2003). Every
baby expresses personality traits we call temryramenf. How a child
responds emotionally to objects, events, and people is a reflection of
his individual temperament.
2. Researcheis Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different tem-
perament categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing
Infant-Toddler Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
. Activity level
. Mood
. Threshold for distress
. Rhythmicity
. lntensity of response
. Approach-Withdrawal
. Distractibility
' o Adapability
. Persistence
To determine a child's temperament, make the following observa-
tions:
Activity level.. Sorne babies are placid or inactive. Other babies
thrash about a lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this
stage, they must be watched carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful.
Although securely attached emotionally to their teachers, others have a
low-key mood and look more solemn or unhappy.
Child's threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive.
They become upset very easily when stressed. Other babies can
more comfortably wait when they need a feeding or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children.- Some babies get hungry or sleepy on
a fairly regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying
times, urinate or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages Par

get hungry at different times. They are hard to put on a "schedule." 80 % of the l
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby's threshold are capable o1
for distress has been reached, some babies act restless. Others act have a sense
cranky or fret just a little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or . Children wt
howl with despair when they are stressed. They shriek with delight description dor
and re.spond with high energy when reacting to happy or challeng- and remorse.
ing situations. recognize the
Approach to new'situations. Some infants are very cautious. evaluated aga
They are wary and fearful of new teachers, being placed in a dif- 200.3)
ferent crib, or being taken to visit a new settiqg. Other infants ap- r It is. not then
proach new persons, new activities, or new play possibilities with have done sor
zest and enjoyment. other tirnes wi
Distraction. Some children can conoentrate on a toy regardless of bad babies. It
surrounding bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted. standard in mir
Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or 'The
development
difficult situations with distress, byrt recover fairly rapidly. Others ad-
just to new situations with difficulty or after a very long period. Here are the
development and so
Child's attention span. Sbme children have a long attention span.
They continue with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit Early infancy (birt
from one activity to another. . It is not clear
. Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists . Alexander adults, using ad
Thomas and Stella Chess studied babies' temperament and pose their own
clustered temperaments 'into 3 basic types : l) the casy child; sions.
2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow-to-warm -up child and . Between six an
those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The panied by othe
"easy child" easily readily bstablishes regular routines, is cooing and mor
generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new experiences. The
-
smiles and inter
"difficult child" is irregular in d4ily routines, is slow to accept
As. infants becor
new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to
-in;response to
new things while the "slow-to warm-up-child" shows mild, i

low-key reactions to environmental changes, is negative in mood.

they. see a toy I
and adjusts slowly to new experiences
at around threr
development be
. incongruity. Thr
The Emergence of the Moral Self deviate from the
e I sense of .morality presupposes awareness of the existence of caregiver playin
moral standards and the ability to evaluate oneself against standards actions with othr
Once children can recognize themselves as entities, they become
capable of self-evaluation and self-description against a set of stan- Later infancy mont
dards. In the research conducted by Professor Deborah Stipek and . During the last I

her colleagues at the University of Califomia. Los Angeles. (Pasek disgust,'and ang
K and R. Golinkoffl about 50% of the 19- to- 24 month olds and Anger, often ex;
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 1 4 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants' and Toddlers

80 Yo of the 25-to-29-months old and almost all 30-to-40-month-olds

are capable of self-evaluation. These age groups of babies therefore
have a sense of morality.
Children who aren't capable of self-evaluation and self-
description don't have the capacity to experience a sense of shame
and remorse. Moral behavior cannot occur when cl;rildren do not
recognize themselves as social beings whose behavior can be
evaluated against some standard." (P?[sek, K and R. Colinkoff,
2003)
It is. not then surprising why some babies show their parents they
have done something wrong sometimes even with laughter or at
other times with no particular emotion. It is not because they are
bad babies. It is simply because they are not yet able to hold a
standard in mind and evaluate situations in terms of these standards.

The development of emotions

Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddley's emotional
development and social development:

Early infancy (birth-six months)

. It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if
adults, using adult facial expressions as the standard, simply superim-
pose their own understanding of the meaning of infant facial expres-
sions.
. Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accom-
panied by oth'er pleasure-indicative actions and sounds, including
'. cooing and mouthing. This social smile occurs in response to adult
smiles and interactfons.
As infants bqcome more aware of their environment, smiling occurs
-in;rcsponse to a *iaer variety of contexts. They may smile when
they, see a toy they have previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins
at around three or.'four months, requires a level of cognitive
developmenl because it demonstrates that the child can recognize
incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that
deviate from the norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a {
caregiver playing peek-a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal inter- *
x
actions with others, laughter promotes social development.
-i
Later infancy months (7-12)
. During the last half of the first yeaq infants begin expressing feaq
disgust, and anger because of the maturation of cognitive abllities.
Anger, often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed
 Part ll
Child and Adolescent Developmenf Loolting at Learners at Different Life Stages

emotional state. Sp
by infants. Although some infants respond to distressing events with
soothing language to
sadness, anger is more common.
h,
I'rr
, . Empathy, a
I lLr Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to
appears in tc
1iil
compare an unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situ-
empathy reqr,
ations or objects often elicit fear responses in infants. One of the
stand that od
most commpn is the presence of an adult stranger, a fear that
take the pen
begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this
position of a
stage is called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months
old may cry in fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an
unfamiliar place. Erikson's Psychosor
of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this
Socialization The first two :
;
processis significant in the infant's acquisition of cultural and social development) apply at
lr
codes for emotional display, teaching them how to express their they are discussed be
i,
h{,
emotions, and the degree of acceptability associated with diflerent Hope: Trust vs
hi types of emotional behaviors. . Psychosocial
Another process that emerges during this stage is social .
Vftue: Hope
referencing. Infants begin to recognize the emotions of others, and The first stage
use this infoirnation when reacting to novel situations and people. As needs being met by
infants explore their world, they generally rely on the emotional especially ihe mother
expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety relative understanding
or appropriateness of a particular endeavor. their interaction witl
I warmth, regularity, ar
ln Toddlerhood years (1-2) world will be one of
lrr During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or environment and to m
II embarrassment. and pride. These emotions mature in all children and rcsult. According to Er
i, adults contribute to their development. is to learn whether ol
:'l
regularly satisfi basic
'i Emotional understanding comfoft, and affection.
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are and reliable. tf they a
leaming to verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is instead leams mistrust-
during early toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional able, and possibly danl
self-regulation skills. Will: Autonomy
.rl In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate . Psychosocial C
.tj
their emotiorral states. If they are uncomfortable they may be able to . Main Question
communicate this state by crying, but have little hope of alleviating the
f,

{t on others?"
tl discomfort on their own.
I . Mrtue: Will
I
i In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate
i
i their emotions with the emergence of language providing an important tool As the child gair
i abilities, they begin to r
i to assist in this.process. Being able to articulate an emotional state in
I
I

itself has a regulatory effect in that it ehables children to communicate a strong base of securil
their feelings to a person capable of helping them manage their their will. The parer
 Part ll Unit 2 Mo<tule 14 - Socio+motional Development of lnfantg and Todcllers

emotional state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using

soothing language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
. Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also +

appears in toddlerhood, usually by age wo. The development of

empathy requires that children rcad others' emotional cues, under. ,;

stand that other people are entities distinct from themselves, and
take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the
position of another). (Source: http://psychologydrank.org)

Eriksoh's Psychosocial theory

The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person's psychosocial
development) apply at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why
they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to I year)
. Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
. Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson's centers around the infant's basic
needs being met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents,
especially ihe mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child's
relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and
their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to
warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the
world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure
environment and to meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will
result. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy
is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers,
regularly satisfr basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food,
comfoft, and affection, an infant leams trust- that others are dependable
and reliable. tf they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant
instead leams mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredicr
able, and possibly dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years) *
. Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt -t
. Main Question: "Can I do things myself or must I always rely rf
on others?" t
. t
Mrtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor
I
abilities, they begin to explore their sunoundings. The parents still provide
a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to asseft
their will. The parents' patience and encouragement help foster
 Child and Adolescent Development Looking at tcamer at Difierent Life Stages
Par

autonomy in tlre child. Highly resfictive par€nts, however, are more likely
to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new
)-
L,
r;
challenges. '
all As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobirity, toddrers
become capable of satisfring some of their own needs. They begin to
feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathrooin. If
caregivers encourage. self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of
autonomy- a sense of being able to handle many problerns on their own.
But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to ret children
perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at
self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their
I
ability to handle problems (en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Erikson's- stages-of-
t,i psychosocia I deve lopment-)
T

I
Hl

h $nrnrcArnr Toddler and Adulr

l. "The hand that rocks the cradle rocks the world." How does this
relate to an infant's and toddle/s development?
2. Compose your own version of Nolte's "Children Leam What They
Live". Rap it or sing it."
3. (This should be assigned in advance.) S Observe the
interaction of an adult caregiver (parbnt, grandparent, Day care
ir worker) with:
,
$
a) an infant
i, b) a toddler
$ Don't let them know that you are observing them. In other words,
observe them unobtrusively. Record what the adult. says or does and
what the infant and.the toddler do in return
Interpret your observations in the context of Erikson's psychoso-
cial theory (particularly trust vs. mistrust and autonomy vs. shame and
doubt) of human development. Be sure that the ones you observe do
not know that you are observing them.
For your Observation Notes, follow this format:
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 14 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants ano loddlers

I
ln
My Observations
Baby and Adult Caregiver

Toddler and Adult Caregiver

My Interpretations in the context of Erikson's theory

i
I

I
t
I
 Part I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Differont Life Stages

0 - 6 months
4. Guide Questions for Ideal Parenting and Caregiving o Cries in different r

t You must have experienced babysitting or serving as one at present. o Shows excitemen

hr Determine if your child care was is ideal: the face lighting u1

f 'r' o Smiles or laughs

How ideal are you as a parent or caregiver? Try to answer these her)
guide questions to find out. Rate yourself from I to 4, I as the o Amuses self by si
:
i lowest and 4 as the highest. and forth)
o Amuses self by si
I
I
o Hkes playing witt
I o Enjoys going to t
I
l. Are you generally in good spirits and encouraging when o Shows fear and h
I
I ins with the child? 7 - 12 months
l
t
2. Do you smile often at the child?
o Has a favorite toy
ir
I 13 - 18 months
[,,
Hi
3. Do you hug the child, pat the child on the back or hold o Smiles/laughs wtr
the child's hand? . Cries when sad, r

n
I 4. Do you comfort the child? o Shows varying de

j. Do your repeat the child's words, comment on what the Standards 1.2 : The clt
folbws schedules as mel
child says or tries to say and answer the child's questigls? 0 - 6 months
Do you encourage the child to talk or communicate by o Stops crying dmo
asking questions that the child gan answer easily, such.as o Eventually gets ur

"yes" or "no" questions, or asking about a family member 13 - {8 months

o Able to stop an ur

7. Do you talk in other ways, such as praising or sncourag- . out to street)

t ing; teaching by having the child repeat phrases or naming

. Can calm down o
I o Can follow simple
f; shapes; singing songs; and telling stories? 19 - 24 months
t
o Can wait his/her t
i i; , RESEARff
o Shows ability to o

I
a* removed
4
The class will be organized to research on the socio-emotional o Shows ability to o
when asked by p
development of babies and toddlers using the list of standards and
I

behaviors lifted from the Philippine Early Learning and Development

o Tries to control hl

Standards (PELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council now Standards 1,3 : The fi,
merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development Council. pride, guilt)
7 - 12 months
Schedule time for research presentation in class. Use the scoring
rubrics presented in Part l, Unit l, Module 4 for the research and.
o Smiles or claps hr

open)
research presentation.
13 - 18 months
What Infants and Toddlers can do socio-emotionally? o Recognizes and x
envy, jealousy
Domain: Social and Emotional Development o Willdo somehirg
19 - 24 months
suB.DoMA|N: EMOTIONAL (EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION) o Shows interest in
Standards 1.1.'. The chrld expresses different basrb erno0ons' o Says "sorry" wher
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per'
formed by a child on the specified age?
 Part ll Unit 2 Module 14 - Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and Toddlers

0 - 6 months
o Cries in different ways to express different needs (e.g., hungry, sleepy, wet)
o shows excitement or pleasure by moving arms, kicking, moving the entire body and
i4
the face lighting up
o smiles or laughs in response to a pleasant experience (e.g., caregiver singing to him/
he0 .;

o Amuses self by simple repetitive musde movemenF without objects (e.g., rolling back
and forth)
o Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements witr objects (e.g., shaking, rattle)
o fikes playing with water
o Enjoys going to the park
o Shows fear and hesitation towards unfamiliar persons
7 - 12 months
o Has a favorite toy
13 - 18 months
o Smiles/laughs when happy or amused
. Cries when sad, angry or scared
o Shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions

Standards 1.2 : The child demonstrates ability to self-regulate feetings/emotions and

follows schedules as wel/ as ru/es and regulations.
0 - 6 months
o Stops crying almost immediately when need is met
o Eventually gets used to an irritating experience (e.9., honking hom) and calms down
13 - 18 months
o Able to stop an undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so (e.g., going
out to street)
o Can calm down or stop tantruming with help from adults
o Can follow simple rules
19 - 24 months
o Can wait his/hef turn
o Shtiws ability to contain his/her expression of anger or frustration when source is
removed
o shows ability to contain one's expression of anger or frustration in a public place
when asked by parenU caregiver
o Tries to conkol his tears when in pain or scared
t
Standards 1.3 : The child comprehends and displays seff-appmial emotions (shame,
pride, guift).
7 - 12 months
i
o smiles or claps his hands when he/she displays a learned behavior (e.g., close-
open)
13 - 18 months t
o ",1

o
Recognizes and is able to label self appraisal emotions such as shame, pride, guilt,
envy, jealousy
Will do something that gets him/her praised (e.9., doing a task properly, singing, etc.)
i
19 - 24 months
o Shows interest in doing things that are his /her own creation
o Says 'sorry" when he/she has made a mistake or has hurt someone
 Pa
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (RECEPTIVIW TO OTHER'S EMOTIONS) o ls comfortable i

o May play alone
Standards 1 : The child is receptive to the different emotions of other peopte and shows o Hugs or cuddle

'
empathy.
o Enjoys playing
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or 19 - 24 months
performed by a child on the specified age? o Eventually mov
7 - 12 months or adults, but m
r Can mimic peoples facial expressions
SUB-DOMAllr
13 - 18 months Standards 1 '. The clt
o Demonstrates appropriate/acceptable responses to other people's emotions (e.g', does Based on your expeie
not laugh at someone who is crYing) by a child on the spc
19 - 24 months 0 - 6 months
o ldentfies feelings in others o Plays with toys
o ' shows respect for rights and properties of others (e.9., asks permission, does not
o Smiles in respor
deliberately destroy others' things) o Looks at oher c
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (EMERGING SENSE OF SELF) o Displays amuse
Standards 1 : The chitd expresses knowtedge of self and basic roles of people in his/
7 - 12 months
her immediate environment,
o Engages in plal
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the sPecified age?
o Plays with otrer
13-fSmonths
0 - 5 months o Plays cooperath
o Explores own body (e.g., observes hands and toes), often smiles and vocalizes o May hug/kiss u
o Looks at self in the mirror o Shows or share
o Responds to own name by turning to look or reaching to be picked up when called o Asks to play wiU
7 - 12 months 19 - 24 months
o ldentifies self in the mirror or photograph via patting or pointing to hisfter image o Talks to oher dt

lj
13 - 18 months o .Shows preferen
I o ldentifies what part of his/her body hurts by pointing to this
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAI
il, o Refers to self by first or nickname
Standards 1 : Iip
o Calls family members by their name/role (mama, papa, ate, kuya)
Based on your e
o Asks for what he/she needs without hesitation performed by a child on I
o Expresses dislike or disagreement (e.9,, no, ayaw) but in a manner that remains
respectful and polite 0- 6 months
19 - 24 months o Will look at adult
. ldentifies self by first and last name o Listens to verba[
o ldentifies what part of his/her body hurts by naming this o Coos or smiles v

SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (FORMING ATTACHMENTS) o Plays peek-a-bo

Standards 1 : The child forms healthy attachments to primary caregivers and other 7 - 12 months
significant adults and children in his/her life. o Hugs, pats, kisx
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
13 - 18 months
by a child on the specified age?
o Friendly with stre
o Asks adults (otrr
0 - 6 months indicate what he
o Looks for caregiver during times of distress or discomfort o Willingly does wtr
o shows dishess (e.g., inability to eat or sleep, crying) if primary caregiver is absent o Appropriately usr
13 - 18 months kiss)
o ls affectionate towards primary caregivers and other family members
o Goes to primary caregivers for help
 Part ll Unit 2 Module '14
- Socio-emotional Development of lnfants and ToddleG

o ls comfortable in the company of strangers if primary caregiver is present

o May play alone but likes to be near familiar adults or siblings
o Hugs or cuddles toys
(,
o Enjoys playing regularly with significant adults and children
19 - 24 months
o Eventually moves away from primary caregiver when playing with unfamiliar children
or adults, but may look occasionally in his/her direction
SUB.DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN)
Standards 1 . The child plays and has positive interactions with other children.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or peiormed
by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o Plays with toys by himself (e.g , mouths, examines, swipes toys)
o Smrles in response to the facial expressions of other children
o Looks at other children with interest; watches them play
o Displays amusement interacting with other children (e.9., cooing, flailing arms and legs)
7 - 12 months
o Engages in play alongside but not necessarily with other children (i.e., parallel play)
o Plays with other children (i.e., interactive play)
13 - 18 months
o Plays cooperatively wrth other children
o May hug/kiss or hold hands with other children
o Shows or shares food, books, and toys with other children
o Asks to play with other children or invites them to play with him/her
19 - 24 months
o Talks to other children, asks them questions
o Shows preference for some children and interacts more wih them
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH ADULTS)
Standards 1 '. The child has posiflve relations and interactions with adufts.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?

0- 6 months
o Will look at adulls faces and make eye-to-eye contact
o Listens to verbalizations by adult
o Coos or smiles when talked to by a familiar adult
o Plays peek-a-boo interactively with others
7 - 12 months
o Hugs, pats, kisses "familia/' persons
13 - 18 months
o Friendly with strangers but initially may show slight anxiety or shyness
o Asks adults (other than primary caregiver or adult family members) for help or to
indicate what he /she wants or needs
o Willingly does what familiar adults ask him/her to do
o Appropriately uses cultural gestures of greeting without prompting (e.9., mano/bless,
kiss)
Child and Adolesccnt Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages
Pad ll

SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (PAKIKIRAMDAM-SENSITIVITY)

Standards 1
a&oNingly.
: The child takes socla/ cues frcm the environment and adlusts his behavior
M RtEtcTIo

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observet on and/or

performed by a child on the specified age?
l. Based on stori
about your fin
0 - 6 months home environm
o ls shy or more quiet with strangers has it affected
o Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or oblects
13 - 18 months
o Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her 2. One theme of
. Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people around tive. True, in
him/her
19 - 24 months
. horrendous cin
. lf he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until 'caregiver is able to attend to
later stages a
him challenges ear
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPREGIATING DlvERSlrY) weren't held o
Standards 1 : The child recognizes and respecfs similaritie{ and differences in connecting w
people, language, cufture. ' www.leamingrl:
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or per' Do you believe
formed by a child on the specified age?
cite concrete er
19 - 24 months if it can be!
Able to differentiate between boys and girls Sub-domain: Social (Pakikiramdam-Sensitivity)
Standards 1 : The child takes socia/ cues from the,bnvironrnent and adlusts hrs behavior
accordingly.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
o ls shy or more quiet with strangers
o Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or objects
13 - 18 months t

o Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her

o Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people around
him/her
19 - 24 months
o lf he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is able to attend to
hlm

SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSIW)

Standards 1 : The child recognizes and respecfs similarities and differences in people,
language, cufture.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
19 - 24 months
o Treats house help or those less fortunate with respect (e.9., talking to them in a polite
manner)
 Part ll unit 2 Module 14 - socioemotional Dsvelopment of hfants and roddlers

M RE*ECT,N

l. Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents

about your first three years in the world, reflect on the kind of
home environment you have had as an infant and as a child? How
has it affecied you?
.

2. one theme of Erikson's basic philosophy is that fairure is cumula-

tive. True, in many cases an individual who has to dear with
. horrendous circumstances as a child may be unable to negotiate
later stages as easily as someone who didn't have as many
challenges early on. For example, we know that orphans who
weren't held or stroked as infants have an extremely hard time
connecting with others when they become adults. (http:ll
' www.leamingplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson,htm )
Do you believe that there are exceptions? Reflect and, if you can,
cite concrete examples. Don't forget to give yourself as an example
if it can be!

,l

T
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages Part

Unit Summory Age

Milestones of Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional development

Process of the Infant and the Toddler 9 months
The socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers is from
to
intra- and interpersonal relations. Intrapersonal relation is the development
of self, emotion and gender identity while interper$onal relation has l2 months
something to do with the development of attachments., friendship and
peer-relations. Study the details of intra- and interpersonal relations in the
Table below:
I yeor
Milestones
to
From the start, babies eagerly explore their world-and that includes 2 ybors
themselves and other people.
Babies spend a lot of 'time.getting to know t'heir own
bodies. They:
o suck their own fingers
birth o observe their own hands
o look at the place on the body that is being touched
to o begin to realize she is a separate person from others and learn
how body parts, like armS and legs, are attached
3 months
Infants are interested in other people and learn to recognize |ri-
mary caregivers. Most infants:
. can be comforted by a familiar adult
. respond positive.ly to touch
o interact best when in an alert state or in an inactive and atten-
tive state 2 yeors
o benefit from short, frequent interactions more than long. infre-
quent ones l0
o smile and show pleasure in response to social stimulation
3 yeors
a
Babies are more likely to initiate social interaction. They begin to:
3 months o play peek-a-boo
to
. pay attention to own name
o smile spontaneously
a

6 months . laugh aloud

a

Babies show a wider emotional range and stronger preferences fot

a
6 monlhs familiar people. Most can:
. express seveml clearly differentiated emotions
lo . distinguish friends from strangers
9 months
. respond actively to language and gestures
. show displeasure at the loss of a toy
 Part ll nrt Socio-emotional Development oi lnlants and Iodcllers

185

Age Milestones
As they near age one, imitation and self-regulation gain impor-
9 months tance. Most babies can:
. feed themselves finger foods ''
lo . hold a cup with two hands and drink with assistance
. hold out arms and legs while being dressed
l2 months . mimic simple actions
. show anxiety when separated from primary caregiver

Children become more aware of themselves and their ability to

I yeor make things happen. They express a wider range of emo-
tions and are more likely to initiate interaction with other
lo people. At this stage, most children:
. recognize themselves in pictures or the mirror and smile or
2 yeors
make faces at themselves
. show intense feelings for parents and show affection for
other familiar people
. play by themselves and initiate their own play
. express negative feelings
. show pride and pleasure at new accomplishmgnts
. imitate adult behaviors in play
. show a strong sense of self through asserdiveness,
directing others
. begin'to be helpful. such as by helping to put things away
Children begin to experience themselves as more powerflul, cre-
ative o'doers." They explore everything, show a
,}
stronger sense of self and expand their range of self-help
2 yeors skills. Self-regulation is a big challenge. TWo-year-olds are
I
likely to:
lo . show awareness of gender identity f
. indicate toileting needs
3 yeors . help to dress and undress themselves
. be assertive about their preferences and say no to adult
requests
. begin self-evaluation and develop notions of themselves as
good, bad, attractive, etc.
. show awareness of their own feelings and those of
others, and talk about feelings
. experience rapid mood shifts and show increased fearfulness
(for example. fear of the dark, or certain objects)
' display aggressive feelings and behaviors
Sourc e : ht tp : /,/www. rexanne. c om/ baby-deve I op. ht m I
 Early Childhood A day at the z
t UI{IT 3 (The Preschooler)
h'
it

I
-- llaria Rita D, Lucas, Ph,D,
Preschoolers' Physical
MoDUTE 15
Development
Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
-

ir
lir,

11

lI

h fficrlruilct
At the end of this Module, challenge yourself to:
. describe preschool 'children's physical growth,
. identifr the different gross and fine motor skills. Pictures
. draw implications of these concept's on physieal development on
teaching preschoolers
.17'r$n!'rh

fr{,h tNTRoDUCilo}t
\I The preschooler years is commonly known as "the years before
f; formal schooling begins." it roughiy covers 3.5 years of age. Although
Fr it is known as the years beforg formal school, it is by no way less
important than the grade school years. The preschool years is very
important as it lays foundation to later development. At thjs stage,
preschoolers achieve many developmental milestones. As srch, pre-service
teachers who might be interested to teach and care for preschoolers
need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly an intentional and
effective teacher.
This Module on the physical development of preschoolers focuses
on the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression,
proper nutrition and sleep, and what teachers and caregivers should do
to maximize the preschoolers' development.

'eMACrrvrTY
Examine the pictures bolow. Think about the physical characteristics
of preschoolers. Put a caption 'for the pictures.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module '15
- Preschooler's Physical Development

A day at the zoo playground... (photos by Teacher Lot Zamora)

Pictures 1 arici 2

Pictures 3 and 4

Pictures 5 and 6
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

malsrs
Q
From the cap
characteristics of pn
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 15 - Preschooler's Physical Development

Pictures 11 Pictures 12

@ mawsrs

From the captions you wrote for the pictures, what physical
characteristics of preschoolers came out? Write them below.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages
1

I
s rsstRACnoN/ctNtRAuzATroN fully" than the todr
dF
Il years at around 5
, require balance like
From the activity, you were able to see a glimpse of preschoolers'
t
:. il physical dev6lopment. They love to move. They enjoy being active. By the time
They are also interested to work with their fingers, like with blocks. deciduous, or what
They have a more balanced stance than toddlers. Read on and you will place. The perman,
learn more about the typical physical development of preschoolers, the are also developing
important concerns and issues, and how teachers and caregivers can habits of good dent
help maximize the preschoolers' groMh and development.
Gross and Fine I!

.l Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers Gross motor

i.
l{
l. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers. the large muscles.
I locomotor, non-loco
fi 2. The preschoolers' physical development is marked by the acqui-
those that involve
sition of gross and fine motor skills.
llr running, climbing, r

, 3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early Non-locomotor on

;
age.
bending, stretching
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very impor- that involve projec
tant for the preschoolers. bouncing, catching a

5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the groMh

Preschoolers i
and development of preschoolers.
highest around threr
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive. classrooms can older. Preschoolen
thrive well with the appropriate adaptations made in the class-
t}t room, materials and activities.
activities which wi
physical activity he
ft
muscles, and joints,
h;
Significant Changes in Physical Growth delay hypertension, r
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is capacity for leaming
much slower in pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3
Fine motor r
years of age, preschoolers move, from the remaining baby-like features
the smaller muscles
of the toddler, toward a more slender appearance of a child. The
of the skills includec
trunk, arms and legs become longer.
things, holding and
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is
skills like using thr
evenly distributed. Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level,
combing and brushir
about the chest level. This is why they have difficulty doing sudden
t movements without falling down. Preschoolers on the other hand, have Different envi
k
l{l their center of gravity at a lower level. right about near the belly button. motor skills. For ex
This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the toddler. tions technology in
The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a children proficient
more steady bearing. They no longer 'otoddle", that wobbly way that gaming console lik
toddlers walk. This also allows the preschooler to move more o'success- children use their fin
sticks, cans and bor
finger paint.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 15 - Preschooler's Physical Development

fully" than the toddler. Some say that the later part of the preschooler
years at around 5 or 6 is the best time to begin learning skills that dr.
t.l
require balance like riding a bike or skating.
l
By the time the child reaches three years old, all primary or
deciduous, or what are also called "baby or milk" teeth are already in I

place. The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age six
are also developing. The preschooler years ard therefore a time to instill
habits of good dental hygiene.

Gross and Fine Motor Development '

Gross motor development refers to acquiring skillS that involve
the large muscles. These gross motor skills are categorized into three:
locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative skills. Locomotor skills are
those that involve going from one place to another, like walking,
running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping, and dodging.
Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like
bending, stretching, tuming and swaying. Manipulative skills are those
that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking,
bouncing, catching and dribbling.

Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is

highest around three and becomes a little less as the preschooler gets
older. Preschoolers should be provided with a variety of appropriate
activitiss which will allow them to use their large muscles. Regular
physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain healthy bones,
muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or
delay hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase
capacity for leaming.

Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use

the smaller muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully, Some
of the skills included here are picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening
things, holding and using a writing implement. lt also involves self-help
skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping,
combing and brushing.

Different environments provide different experiences with fine

motor skills. For example the availability of information and communica-
tions technology in largely urban areas makes younger and younger
children proficient in keyboarding and manipulation of the mouse or
gaming console like the Play Station Portable (PSP). While other
children use their fine motor skills in digging in soil, making toys out of
sticks, cans and bottle caps. Still others, enjoy clay, play dough, and
finger paint.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold Also import
a pencil with their thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use tions or drawings
scissors, do stringing and threading activities. They can also do self-help tive skills. Childr
skills like eating and dressing up independently. Significant progress in fine understand themse
motor skills can be expected of preschoolers especially if they are aptly
supported and appropriate activities are provided for them.
Preschoolers' Nut
Handedness; or the preference of the use of one hand over the The kind of
other, is usually established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this, his physical grov
preschoolers can be observed to do tasks using their hands interchange- status is the res
ably. We can observe a preschooler shifting the crayon from left to checked against tt
,i

I
right and back again while working on a coloring activity. having too much
1r,
our country, we ci
Preschoolers' Artistic Development
food and those
H
preschoolers who
l{ At the hean of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and the Nutrition mont
make other forms of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor Each year a ther
activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and while govemment
came up with the sfages of dmwing in early childhood: noodles aim to ad
Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lirrcs
It is import
which later become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. and sleep. Presch,
The child may start to name his/her drawing towards the end of this day. It is when th
stage.
physical and'cogri
Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representa- the dream state I

\, tions (This also becomes very significant when we discuss about cogni-
,t released. Blood r

r tive development). At this point adults may be able to recognize the preschoolers regain
t:i, drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the same names to their activity is also atu
drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head
with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial features
are included.
A Quick Look at
This bulleted
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted.
Physical Domain
Children usually draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may
Development Stan
include houses, trees, the sun and sky and people. Initially, they may
study commissione
appear floating in air but eventually drawings appear to follow a ground
This is now a
line.
Development Coun
Everyone who observes a preschooler go through these stages of
Gross Motor
drawing would surely say one thing: that the preschooler drew the same
drawing maybe a hundred times! Repetition is the hallmark of early
. Hops I to
drawing. One wonders if the supply of scratch papers, crayons and pens
. Skips (wit[
. will ever be enough. Adults should remember to have a neat supply of ., Jumps and
these or they will find the preschoolers' drawings on the fumiture and . Stands on
walls! This affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of . Throws a I
the fine motors skills irwolved.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 15 - Preschooler's Physical Development

Also important to remember is that the preschoolers' representa-

tions or drawings does not only involve fine motor skills, but also cogni- lr,

tive skills. Children's drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they l:r

understand themselves and the world around them.

\

Preschoolers' Nutrition and Sleep

The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on
his physical growth and development. The preschooler's nutritional
status is the result of what nutrients he or she actually takes in
checked against the nutritional requirement for his her age. Obviously,
having too much or too little both have their negative effects. Here in
our country, we can see the extreme of preschoolers not having enough
food and those on the other end of the extreme where we find t-

preschoolers who are not just ov6i weight but obese. The celebration of
the Nutrition month every July is aimed at advocating for proper nutrition. ,,J
Each year a theme is put forth to advocate good nutritional habits
while govemment programs on giving out fortified bread, milk and even
noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest
and sleep. Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each
day. It is when they are asleep that vital biological processes that affect
physical and cognitive development take place. During sleep, especially in
the dream state (rapid eye movement stage), growth hormones are
released. Blood supply to the ;muscles are Iikewise increased helping tr, il
preschoolers regain energy. At this state while dreaming, increased brain '.,*
activity is also attained.

A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do: (physical skills)

This bulleted list of preschoolers' physical skills is lifted from the
Physical Domain component of the Philippine Early Learning and
Development Standards (ELDS). This set of standards was based on a
study commissioned by UNICEF and the Child Welfare Council (CWC)
This is now adopted for use by the Early Childhood Care and
Development Council.
Gross Motor: 36-48 months I
. Hops I to 3 steps on preferred foot
. Skips (with altemating feet) t
. Jumps and turns
. Stands on one leg without lalling for at least 5 seconds
. Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
child and Adolescent Developnrent: Looking at Leamers at Different Life stages

. Throws a ball overhead with control of speed

. Kicks a ball with control of speed and share the follow
Lesia Oesterreich.
Fine-motor Skills:
Development and Fi
36-48 Months
. Consistently tums pages of a picture or story book one page at For all preschoolers:
a time, looking at pictures with interest a. Engage pn
. Purposefully copies diagonal lines and walkir
. Purposefully bisects a cross Provide th
. Purposefully copies a square large balls
. Purposefully copies a triangle c. Have bala
. Cuts with scissors following a line beams an
49-60 months Montessor
. Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes classroom
. Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs, Allow opp
etc.) without prompts area or s(

'. Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms course exl
Colors with strokes staying within the lines e. Ensure tha
routine for
Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills) Model gor
3648 months fruits, vegt
. Pours from pitcher without spitlage foods, suq
. Feeds self using spoon without spillage 3-year-olds
. Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces g. Encourage
large buttc
. Puts on socks independently h. Play ball. !
49-60 months ' different si
. Feeds self using fingers without spillage i. Show chil,
. Prepares own food waddle lik
. Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying j. Encourage

. Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement children ar

but simpll
' Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told k. Provide a
. Washes and dries face independently without having to be told Create coll
. Takes a bath independently without having to be told newsprint.
like wire a
The Role of caregivers in the Growth and Development of the
to mix difl
Preschooler 4 year-olds

optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced l. EncoUrage

Pretend to
by the supportive caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a
stimulating environment and appropriate activities.for the children. If
m. set up an
you have fi"iends and relatives who are responsible for preschoolers, read crawling.
stepping str
n. Encourage
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 15 - Preschooler's Physical Development

and share the following tips: (This collection includes those suggested by
Lesia Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human it,

Development and Family Studies, Iowa State University)

For all preschoolers:

a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running
and walking.
b. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft
large balls and bean bags.
c. Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance
. beams and lines on the classroom floor or playground.
Montessori schools have blue or red lines on their preschool
classroom floors.
d. Allow oppoftunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy
area or soft mats. Keen observation and monitoring is, of
course expected to keep them safe from iniury.
e. Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a
routine for bed time is ideal.
f. Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more
fruits, vegetables, water and fresh juices, rather than processed
foods, sugary snacks and sodas.
3-year-olds
g. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing
large buttons or old beads to string on a shoe lace.

'h. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of
different sizes.
i. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird.,
waddle like'a duck, slither like a snake, and run like a deer.
j Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking "what"
children are drarving. Three-year-olds may not know or care,
but simply enioy the process of drawing.
k. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough.
Create collages from magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and
newsprint. Encourage children to experiment with new media
like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yam. Teach children
to mix different colors with paint.
l
I
4 year-olds ,}

l. EncoUrage physical development. Play follow the leader. I

Pretend to walk like various animals.
m. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as
crawling, climbing, leaping, balancing, and running across
stepping stones.
n. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

5 year-olds
o. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing
ffi,aPucATlot
"Follow the Leader" with skipping. galloping, and hopping. Skip
or .iump rope to music, teach folk dances and games, provide l. Make your
a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted rope preschoole
suspended from a sturdy frame. pictures. D
p. Teach sack-walking and "twist-em," "statue," or "freeze,, them do.
games to provide an outlet for their drive for physical activity.
' q. Play games that can teach right and left directions, like
2. Examine th
"Hokey-Pokey.," "Looby-Loo," and "Simon Says."
Identify thr
r. Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them appropriate
cut out coupons. may. surf tl
teachers or
WM RESEARCH CO}IIIT(IIOil
iffi
Read a research that is related to one of tlie big ideas on the
physical development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.

Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

 Part ll Unrt 3 Module 15 - Preschooler's Physical Development

S?;,
arrttcATtoN
t
ir
l. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of
preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take their
pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw
them do.
2. Examine the skills found in the physical domain of the ELDS.
Identify the skills in a parlicular sub age group and put an
appropriate activity that can help develop the each skill. You
may surf the net fbr suggested activities, interview preschool
teachers or simply be creative yourselfl

Physical Domain Skill Proposed Activity 1.

I
r.l

,l
'r
i
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

1l
|l
ffi sYNAPsr STRTNcTHENTRs
I
t l. Research on the recommended food guide for preschoolers or young
I
f children. Interview a mother about what her preschooler eats in a
d
week. Write down the types of food and compare it with the
recommended food guide.
2. Surf tlre net. Make a collection of gross motor and fine motor
activities for preschoolers that caregivers and teachers can use to
suppoft their development.

rl

r
I

Lr
,_

b.,

Ai
i

i
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 15 * Preschooler's Physical Development

From this Module on the Physical Development of Preschoolers, I leamed

that...

Explain why?
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Cognitive Development ls

MoDUTE of Preschoorers 3. "T

16 - Ma. Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D. 4.A
sa)

- fitl
asl
sa)
thir
trtr
i
I'
I
the
lit', fficHaruilcE on(
r 5. Ch
h, In this Module, you arg challenged to: 6. Ch
. describe the cognitive developmbnt that takes place among tha
preschoolers. 7. Ch
. apply concepts on preschoolers' cognitive development in pre- the
school teaching and in child care. on
. take an informed stand/position on current preschool teaching 8. Jun
practices. por
TWTNTRoDUCTToN 9. Mil
yor
con
Someone once wrote in his journal: "Childhood is a world of
miracle and wonder; as if creation rose, bathed in lighq out of. darkness,
utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end of childhood is when things Q nnalsrs
cease to astonish us. when the world seems familiar, when one has Form small
got used to existence, one has become an adult." questions below. Gi
Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of child- experiences as yor
hood. Do you remember how you were as a preschooler? What
do you remember most as a preschooler? What did you enjoy doing? l. Which ite
2. Which iter
. ;** &.. .

#,'ffi
Hs.: :ffif
ACTtvlil
Answering

I
Below are behaviors or remarks from children. your early views or assumpti
childhood experiences may help you arrive at the correct answer. put You were also onct
hl a check (r') on the item that is TRUE of preschoolers and an I on about the world ar
i
the itern that does NOT apply to preschoolers. surely understand
learn about how
l. "Someone switched on the thunder," a child remarked. contribute to the pr
2. Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his Father
who is on the other side of the phone inquiring if Mom
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

is around.
)- "That tree pushed the leaf off and it fell down,"
[:
says a child. (
4. A child is presented with two identical beakers each
filled to the same level with liquid. The child is
asked if these beakers have the same amount and she
says YES. The liquid from one beaker is poured into a
third beaker, which is taller and thinner than the first
two. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid in
the tall, thin beaker is equal to that which remains in
one of the original beakers. The child says YES.
5. Child asks a series of 'owhy" questions.
6. Child is strongly influenced by the features'of the task i.

that stand out, such as the flashy, attractive clown. t.'

7. Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of rJ
the task such as directions for solving a problem and not
on the prominent clown, for instance.
8. Jun does not realize that the juice in 'each glass can be
poured back into the juice box from which it came.
9. Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his
younger sister. Mike's younger sister was sick. Mike
concludes that he made his younger sister got sick.

aualsrs
Q
Form small groups of 5 to 6. Compare your answers to the
questions below. Give reasons for your answers. Bring in your childhood
experiences as you share your answers. Try to arrive at a consensus.

l. Which item/s is/are TRUE of preschool children?

2. Which item/s is/are NOT TRUE of preschool children?
:
;
Answering the items above made you think about your own
views or assumptions about the preschoolers' cognitive development.
You were also once in that world of bursting curiosity wanting to know *
about the world around you. Read through the module and you will 1
surely understand the way preschoolers think and learn. You will also
learn about how as a future teacher or parent, you can best
I
contribute to the preschoolers' cognitive development.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

e lgstRAcnoru
beakers.
A
rl thought
.l
the third
i
Preschoolers' Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
a beaker r,
ii
All the behaviors and the remarks above except ltems #4 and drawn to
i
#7 are true of preschool children. They are considered immature
' thinner
I

aspects or limitations of preschool children's preoperational thought beaker. T

according to Piaget. the prescl
There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought, or on cel
exclusion
namely, symbolic substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic
,,,
stage, preschool children show progress in their cognitive abilities by only on
width of
!t
being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic
be taken
increase in their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive
t, mension:
substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a
I litany of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates
children's
propert)'
their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit consi-
changed
derable cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still
I (Santroclq
show some aspects of immaturity or limitations.
I *Child asks
Items # I (Someone switched on the thunder.) and # 3 (That tree a
I
I

I
pushed the leaf off and it fell down.), for example, indicate children
:

limitation on preschool children's symbolic thought process. gence of

i
The remarks indicate that preschool children believe that in figurin
i
inanimate objects have 'lifelike' qualities and are capable of asking qt
T coupled
n action. This is referred to as animism (Santrock, 2002).
k, Preschool children who use animism fail to distinguish the Items # 6 and
h appropriate occasions for using human and nonhuman attention.
perspectives. However, the fact that they attribute the falling
influenced
of the leaf and the thunder to a "cause" proves that the flash1
preschool children realize that events have causes, although the Because
perceived causes are not correct strikingly
Item # 2, "Child silently nods on the telephone as to answer his and mor€
Father who is on the other side of phone inquiring if Mom is task perfor
around", is another limitation in preschool children's symbolic two wraF
thought. Piaget calls this egocentrism, the inability to distinguish other wi'
t between one's own perspective and someone else's prominent
perspective (Santrock, 2002). The child thinks that his father
hi can see him .iust as he can see himself. Item #8 (Chil(
Item # 4, should apply to preschool children had the child be poured
answered NO when asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, . cates irner
thin beaker was equal to that which remained in the original failure to
more dire
state of th
will realizr
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolec

beakers. Preschool children are quite limited in their intuitive

thought process. The amount of liquid that was ffansferred to
the third beaker which was taller but thinner than the original
beaker remains unchanged. However, preschool children are
drawn to only to the height of the liquid when seen in the
' thinner an taller beaker and fail to consider the width of the
beaker. This'is a clear evidence of centration, one limitation of
the preschool child's preoperational thought. which is the focusing
or on centering of one's attention on one characteristic to the
exclusion of others (Santrock, 2002). In this case, the focus is
only on the height of the beaker to the exclusion of the
width of the beaker which is clearly another factor that should
be taken into consideration. This is also referred to as unidi-
mensional thought. This is also an evidence of preschool
children's lack of conservation, .the awareness that the basic
property of a.n object or a substance is conserved (is not
changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed.
(Santrock, 2002).
"Child asks a series of "why" questions (ltem # 5). Preschool
children ask a barrage'of questions. These signal the emer-
gence of the preschool children's interest in reasoning and
in figuring out why things are the way they are. Their
asking questions is a function of their unsatiable curiosity
coupled with the dramatic increase in language.

Items # 6 and # 7 have something to do with preschool children's

attention. Between items # 6 and #7, item # 6 (... strongly
influenced by the features of the task that stand out, such as
the flashy, attractive clown) applies to preschool children.
Because the preschool child pays more attention to the
strikingly conspicuous peripherals, they miss the more relevant
and more . important features needed in problem solving or in
task performance. This is obviously manifested when between
two wrapped gifts, one with a big, colorful ribbon and the
other without, a preschool child chooses the one with a
prominent ribbon.
J
,.|
Item # 8 (Child does not reatize that the juice in each glass can
be poured back into the juice box from which it came.) indi- I
, cates irreversibility, Piaget's term for a preoperational child's
failure to understand that an operation can go in two or
more directions. Once .lun can imagine restoring the original
state of the water by pouring it back into the other glass, he
will realize that the amount of water in both glasses must be
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

the same. Unfortunately, however, in his developmental stage All these fa

he is not yet capable of reversible thinking. He is ngt yet preschooler's brain l
capable of working backwards. almost countless cc
ways to leam lang
Item # 9 (Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his
people, grow in his
younger sister. Mike's younger sister was sick. Mike concludes
art. As such, a pres
that he made his younger sister got sick,) shows that pre- has transformed fr,or
school children do not use deductive or inductive reasoning; preschooler who car
instead they jump from one particular to another and see his own stories amr
cause where none exists. This is transductive reasoning.
his jacket all by hir
While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as
Brain research
you have seen in the Activiry they are making significant advancements
ment. Experts havt
in their cognitive abilities like the acquisition of symbolic thought. Symbolic
li to environmental stir
thought is shown in preschool children's ability to mentally represent an
,I
tions (synapses) that
object that is not present. They do not need to be in sensorimotor con-
connections depends
tact with an object, person, or event in order to think about it. Johann
by the environmenl
asks his Mom about the girafle they saw in the zoo five months ago. environment is that '
Moreover, preschool children can imagine that objects or people have
senses (multi-sensoria
properties other than those they actually have. Mark imagines that his
one-foot ruler is a saw while he pretends to saw a piece of wood. ine and breate is b
good combination ol
Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading, and writing quality preschool pr
when, for instance, children pretend that one thing represents another yes... expose...expl
such as a wooden block used as a microphone in a magic sing and
exponential brain der
when they pretend to be dog Bantay while in a sociodramatic play. tn
reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for events in a story Just as an enr
t,
and that letters represent sounds used in language. development, strong
ments marred by fu
I High le
preschoolers.
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
ir
q
diminished brain gr
Because of fascinating developments in
neuroscience, brain emotional attachment
development of young children have been of great interest to the field impulsive behavior. l

of early childhood. Brain research findings point us to more effective ment that negatively
ways to care for and teach preschoolers. From science lessons you lacks the proper st
had in high school or even in elementary you will remember that our Preschools who mak
brain is composed of numerous cells called neurons that connect to pictures instead of r
each other to function. Cell connections are what we call synapses, good. As future teac
i

lr .sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections. Did you know providing a quality er
h;
that: ment for preschooler
l a the human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at bifth?!
by age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connec- Language Developl
tions that will be made during one's lifetime?
around 6 years of age the brain develops fer more sophisticated Young childrer
thinking pattems? speech.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

All these facts point to the enormous potential that the

preschooler's brain has. The child's billion cells have the ability to make
il'
almost countless connections that prepare the child for intricate path-
ways to leam language, acquire logical-mathematical skills, interact with
people, grow in his feelings and emotions, and even express himself in
art. As such, a preschool teacher would often observe how a child now
has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud and independent
preschooler who can now eat more neatly, enjoy "reading" a book, tell
his own stories among friends, build beautiful block structures and wear
his jacket all by himself.
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environ-
ment. Experts have shown specific areas of brain activity that respond
to environmental stimulation. Therefore, the brain forms specific connec-
tions (synapses) that are different for each person. The quality of these
connections depends on the quality ofstimulation and expostge provided
by the environment. In the preschool years, a supportive and stimulating
environment is that which offers many experiences involving the different
senses (multi-sensorial), and that which allows the child to
think, imag-
lne and breate is best. This envirohment can be provided for by a
good combination of a healthy and functional family environment and a
quality preschool program. What did that milk commercial say? Oh
yes... expose...explore...experience. May we add, all these lead to
exponential brain development!
Just as an enriching environment favors the preschooler's brain
development, strong evidence also show that highly stressful environ-
ments marred by trauma and chaos affect the cognitive development of
preschoolers. High levels of stress hormones such as cortisol may lead to
diminished brain growth in areas needed for memory, learning and
emotional atLachment. It may also lead to anxiety and hyperactivity and
impulsive behavior. It's not only the extreme form of negative environ-
ment that negatively affects the preschooler's brain. An environment that
lacks the proper stimulating experiences can also cause damage.
Preschools who make children work with. nothing but work sheets and
pictures instead of real life, hands-on experiences do more harm than
good. As future teachers, always be aware of your defining role in
providing a quality environment that will lead to optimum brain develop- ,J

ment for preschoolers. 't

l'Ii
Language Development
Young children's understanding sometimes gets ahead of their
speech.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Language and Se
As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of
tI language increases (morphology, semantics, pragmatics). [gotsky belit
,;
4L
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. nicate socidlly and
)ll
ti, Children rapidly conclude that sounds link together to make words and regulatory fashion
{n
!,
words represent ideas, people, and things. Throughout the preschool 2W2).
l'
ll years, children's language development becomes increasingly complex in For Piaget, p
t'

the four main areas: phonolog, (speech sounds), semantics (word mean- fgotsky it is an ir

ing), syntax (sentence construction), and pragmatics (conversation or so- cognitive developmr
cial uses of language). As they advance in age and as they conti- must use language
nuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their their own thoughts
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb interaction of preri
the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversa- Vygotsky asx
tion. Preschool children combine syllables into words and words into ttreir highest cogniti
sentences in an increasingly sophisticated manner. their own and that
It is not uncommon to hear preschool children using "goed" use of scaffolding
for "went", "foots" for "feet", "childs" for "children", "runned" for the term Znne of l
"ran" an overextension of the rules. A thee-year old laughing with difficult for a chil<
delight as an abrupt summer byeeze stirred his hair and tickled his guidance and assis
skin, commented, "lt did winding me!" Another child said, "My father 2002). In short, thr
hatches the wood", meaning his father chops the wood with a hatchet. skills that are in
Many of the oddities of young children's language sound like mistakes to and an upper limitT
adult listeners, but from the children's perspective, they are not. development reache
In asking questions, preschoolers tend to cling to a consistent word limit is the level ol
order and so they form questions not by following the pattern assistance of an abl
b,
"subject-verb-object" order but by simply saying with a rising intonation -losely
ll linker
nii the sentence in the natural order such as "Mother is coming?" Like-
development is the
wise, preschool children tend to have difficulty with the sentence in the
"changing support o
passive voice. When told, "The car was pushed by a truck". skilled person adjus
preschoolers demonstrate a car pushing a truck.
level" (Santrock, 20
From an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool Knowledgeable Otl
children learn to use language successfully in social contexts preschoolers to help
(pragmatics). With an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar. &velopment develop
preschool children become skilled conversationalists and often initiate
Information Procs
conversation.
[,. The lnformaticr
h:,
Parents, teachers, and caregivers can monitor a child's languagc understanding how cl
ti development in these four areas to identifo where some children may
children's mental pro
i
i struggle. Children with mild to severe speech difficulties can be referred
i ing, encoding, storing
I
to a specially trained professional called a speech pathologist in order to
The preschoole
work with the child or suggest helpful strategies for caregivers to
;

I
The child's ability '
improve language proficiency.
preschool years.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

Language and Social Interaction

$gotsky believed that young children use language both to commu-

nicate socidlly and to plan, guide, and rnonitor their behavior in a self-
regulatory fashion - called inner speech or private speech (Santrock,
2W2).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for
Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during early childhood. Full
cognitive development requires social interaction and language. Children
must use language to communicate with others before they can focus on
their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies the importance of
interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve
their highest cognitive development (language development included) on
their own and that they can improve their cognitive development through
use of scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults. He introduced
the term 7.one of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too
difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the
guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock,
2002). [n short, the ZPD captures the preschool childrens' cognitive
skills that are in the process of maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit
and an upper limit.The lower limh of the ZPD is "the level of cognitive
development reached by the preschool child independently. The upper
limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor." (Santrock, 2002)

dlosely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language

development is the concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the
"changing support over the course of a teaching session, with the more
skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance
level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled petson is also called More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Can you think of ways of scaffolding
preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and language
development " development?

Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory

.:
The lnformation Processing model is another way of examining and
',
understanding how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes .J

children's mental processes through the metaphor of a computer process-

ing, encoding, storing, and decoding data.
I
The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of tod<Jlers.
The child's ability to pay attention changes significantly during the
preschool years.
 Child and Adolescent Developmenl: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

i
But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention During this age, chi
II+ is focused only on aspects that stand out at the expense of those become better organ
,i, that are relevant to solving a problem to performing well on a task . In early childl
t,i
)ll Preschool children recognize previously encountered information, recall old memory becomes ir
[1'
.lt information, and reconstruct it in the present. Try asking a preschooler great deal of infornu
what she did on Christmas vacation when she returns to preschool
I

i
Sometimes, however
I

after the holiday. She will be able to. but these inconsisten
iti'tr
ll
Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool prompts and cues. I
years are those involving short-term memory. In short-term memory, rate mental activities
i
ii, (STM) retain information for up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no information. Young
i:l
t, rehearsal; which can help keep information in STM for a much longer organization.
fr,
i period (Santrock, 2002).
Fr
l,
Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: The Young Childn
i,i a) rehearsal and b) speed and efficiency of processing information. Theory of mir
H Older children rehearse items more than younger children. On this processes work (San
count, preschool children may have shorter memory span than primary By the age ol
and intermediate pupils. The speed with which a child processes informa- exists. They refer
tion is an important aspect of the child's cognitive abilities. preschool child says-
Between the ages of 2 and 5, long-term memory also begins to imply that he/she is
form, which is why most people cannot remember anything in their child- lmow, remember and
hood prior to age 2 or 3. terms, but are used
of long-term memory involves storing information about the
Part As their repret
sequence of events during familiar situations as "scripts". Scripts help and solve problems
I children understand, interpret, and predict what will happen in future
scenarios. For example, children understand that
thought processes. T
[:,
entering the classroom set of ideas about I
!,1 as a class after the flag ceremony involves a specific sequence of ment, 2007). This d,
steps: one bell means put cross your hands right over left on your five. It includes aw
chest, two bells mean pass quietly and follow the line until you reach nition, understanding
your seat. Children ages 2 through 5 also start to recognize that are ability to distinguish e
often multiple ways tO solve a problem and can brainstorm different fantasy from reality (
(though sometimes primitive) solutions.
How do childn
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to fbcus and young age? Various s
use their cognitive abilities for specific purposes. For example, children experience is very iml
t! can leam to pay attention to and memorize lists of words or facts. This communication, 2) il
[:
F skill is obviously crucial for children starting school who need to learn 5) social interaction.
new information, retain it and produce it for tests and other academic
hi activities. children of this age have also developed a larger overall ca-
pacity to process information. This expanding information processing ca- A Quick Look at r
pacity allows young children to make connections between old and new Below is a list
information. For Example, children can use their knowledge of the alpha- Philippine Early Lean
bet and ietter sounds (phonics) to start sounding out and reading words.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

During this age, children's knowledge base also continues to grow and
become better organ ized. (http I lwww. m i estonece nte rs i nc.org)
: I

ln early childhood, as information-processing increases in speed,

memory becomes increasingly longer. Young children can remember a
great deal of information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts.
Sometimes, however, the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic,
but these inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate
prompts and cues. Rehearsal and organizing information are delibe-
rate mental activities that can be employed to improve the processing of
information. Young children typically, however, do not use rehearsal and
organization.

The Young Children's Theory of Mind

Theory of mind refers to individuals' thoughts about how mental
processes work (Santrock, 2002). I

By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind

exists. They refer to needs, emotions, and mental states. When a
preschool child says, "l forgot my doll", "l want my ice cream"- these
imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive terms such as
lmow remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and emotional
terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
As their representation of the world and ability to remember
and solve problems improve, children start to reflect on their own
thought processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind or a
set of ideas about mental activities (Preschoolers Cognitive Develop-
ment, 2007). This develops markedly between the ages of three and
five. It includes awareness of one's own thought processes, social cog-
nition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to deceive,
ability to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish
fantasy from reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a
young age? Various speculations and research findings suggest that social
experience is very important. Social experience includes l) early forms of
communication, 2) imitation, 3) make-believe play, 4) language, and
5) social interaction. (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
i

A Quick Lcek at what Preschoolers can Do I

Below is a list of preschoolers' cognitive skills lifted from the
Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS).
 Child and Adolesc,ent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

. Prints r
Receptive Language . Prints I
Standards 1: The chiltl is able to understand both verbal and . Prints r
non-verbol .forms of communication. 6l-71 months:
3l-36 months: 3-4 years old . Prints
. Speaks in simple sentences reversal
. Talks about an event and is understood . Prints
3748 months reversal
. Uses some prepositions . Prints r
. Uses plurals
. Uses jrast tense Domain: Cognitir
. Uses newly leamed words appropriately in sentences Attention and Ac
. Uses newly learned words appropriately when in group
conversations
Standards 1: Tht
49-60 months: 4-5 years old his
. Draws and tells a story about his drawing 3l - 36 montl
. Complet
37 - 48 month
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Matching) . May be
Standards l.l; The child is able to match identical objects, colors, . Remain:
shapes, symbols. minutes
3l-36 months: 2-112 to 3 years old . Remains
. Matches identical objects with 2 attributes (e,g., color & for5m
shape)
. Sustains
.Matches identical upper case letters l0 minu
.Matches identical lower case letters
. Can wo
37-48 months: 3-4 years old 49 - 60 monrh
. Copies simple patterns with 2 or more attributes (e.g, color, . Sustains
shape, sequence) and continues this without guidance 15-20 m
. Recognizes familiar logos (e.g., McDonald's, Coke, etc.) .Can wor
. Recognizes signs (e.g., male & female restrooms; stop and 61 - 7l month
go; danger/poison, etc.) Can work c
. Matches identical z-to 4-letter words
. Matches identical single-digit numbers Higher-Ordered IV

Ii!,I . Matches identical 2-digit numbers Standards 1: The

; obje
l;i
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Copying Letters and Numbers) and
motr
H Stantiards l.2z The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers
in sequence. 3l - 36. montht
37-48 months: 3-4 years old . Knows I
. Prints upper-case letters with a model with some reversals happened
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
. Prints complete name without model ' Counts r
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 15 - Preschooler's Physical Development

.Prints upper case letters with a model with no reversals

'Prints lower case letters with a model with some reversals
.Prints numbers I-5 with a model with some reversals
6l-71 months: 5-6 years old
. Prints upper case letters without a model and with no
reversals
. Prints lower case letters without a model and with no
reversals
. Prints numbers l-5 without a rnodel and with no reversals

Domain: Cognitive Development

Attention and Activity Level
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate
I
his activity at age-expected levels.
,, 36 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
: Cornpletes simple tasks without prodding ,,t

37 - 48 months: 3-4 years old

. May be distracted but re-focuses on hi,s/her own
. Remains settled while leafing through a picture book for 5
minutes
. Remains settled while listening to a story using picture books
for 5 minutes
. Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for
l0 minutes
.Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
.a{

49 - 60 months: 4-5 vears old

. Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for I

15-20 minutes
. Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
61 - 71 months: 5-6 years old
Can work on a school assignment independently

Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Concept Formation)

Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to
ob.ject constancy, space, time, quantity, seriation, etc.
and uses these as the basis for understanding how I

materials are categorized in his/ her environment.

3l - 36.months: 2-112 to 3 years old
J
. Knows the difference between a recent event and one that
happened a long time ago
. Counts with one-to-one correspondence
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

. Understands the concept of number-quantity relations from I Memory: (Men

through 5 (e.9., hands over 5 objects when asked) Memory)
. Groups objects by shape Standards 1: Tl,

. Arranges objects by length

a/,
. Arranges objects according to size 37-48 months
. Can tell in what way 2 things are the same . Repeat
. Can tell in what way 2 things are different . Memor
37-48 months: 3-4 years old . Memot
. Can tell which is prettier/nicer of 2 items based on his/her . Remen
criteria 49-60 months:
. Groups pictured objects according to category . Can re
. Can tell which is'left and right on him/herself . Remen
. Understands 'omore" and "less" have p,
. Understands the concept of conservation of matter at a rudi- 6l-71 months:
mentary level . Can re
49-60 months: 4-5 years old . Can re
. Can tell which is the left and right of people facing him/her
. Knows the difference between yesterday, today, and tomor-
Higher-Ordered
Standards l: Tl
row
fet
a Understands the concept of number-quantity relations for l-10 clt
a Demonstrates concept of addition using finger or objects 3l-36 month:
a Demonstrates concept of subtraction using fingers or objects .
t.
,:
Can co
with oc
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cause and Effect Relationships)
37-48 months:
Standards l: The child is able to understand the cause-effect rela- .
[: Can tel
I tionships. .
i,, Relates
31-36 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old . Can ap
.Can complete a simple pattem (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) also fin
! with occasional guidance . Knows
3748 months: 3-4 years old be subs
. Understands reasons behind rules and practices in school gents)
. Understands reasons behind rules and practices in the com- . Can sta
a
munity, like those pertaining to sanitation, environmental pres- . Can gi,
ervation, etc. not
rl
Memory: (Episodic Memory)
. Can ar1
. Can co
hl
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met,
'i without
events, and places he has been to.
49-60 months:
3l-36 months: 2-l/2 to 3 years old . Knows
. Talks about things that happened during a particular event position
that occurred some time back Able to pn
 Paft ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

Memory: (Memory for Concept-Based Knowledge-Semantic

Memory)
Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short
and long-lerm memory.
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
a Repeats 5- to 7-word sentences correctly
a Memorizes the lyrics of a short song
a Memorizes a sho'11 rhyme
a Remembers the gist and many details of stories told or read
49-60 months: 4-5 years old .

a
Can recite the days of the week with sorhe errors
a Remembers lessons leamed in school even after several days
have passed
61-71 months: 5-6 years old
o Can recite the days of the week with no errors
a Can recite the months of the year with some errors

Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Logical Reasoning)

Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e.,
reasons why these happen) and draw accurate con-
clusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.
3l-36 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
. Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes)
with occasional guidance
3748 months: .3-4 years old
. Can tell what is silly or wrong with absurd pictured scenes
. Relates experiences in sequence or as these happened
. Can appreciate humorous stories or jokes that his/her peers
also find funny (e.g., "knock-knock" jokes)
. Knows that certain things are the same and therefore can
be substituted for each other (e.g., liquid and powdered deter-
gents)
. Can state opposite relationships
. Can give substantive reasons why he/she like something or
not
. Can argue a point/stand logically
. Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes)
without guidance
49-60 months: 4-5 years old
. Knows that certain elements remain the same even if their
positions change (e.9., 2 + 3 and 3 +2 equal 5)
Able to predict what will happen next in a story
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Can predict how a story will end half-way through

nt
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Planning and Organizing) m
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, fa- 37-48 montht
,1
.1,
miliar activity. . Modif
t1 31-36 months: 2-112 to 3 years old block
. Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity with adult . Explor
guidance (e.g.. eating. household chores and putting structure option
i in activities) . Is abk
. Has almost everything he/she needs before starting an activity . Is ablr
l;
37-48 months: 3-4 years old and ad
f
r1i

. Can dress following an organized sequence

. Can bathe following an organized sequence
a

:, The Role of Ca
49-60 months: 4-5 y'ears old Development of
lll
il
. Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity without adult Learning ah
guidance that parents and I
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Creative Thought) velop their cogniti'
one can do mor
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, preschoolers is no
or new associations between existing ideas or con- schools is to prep
cepts. elementary schools
3l-36 months: 2-112 to 3 years old demic skills. This
. Pretends to be engaged in "grown up" activities (e.g., play' negative dispositior
ing office)
. Two promirx
Pretends to be a character in a familiar story
o appropriate practit
Creates new words or names for people or objects
National Associat
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
(wwwnaeyc.org) i
. Can make a pun or joke
tional-ACEl (wwu
. Creates some dance moves
. more about the
Creates lyrics of songs using familiar melody
1

. Pretends to be a character in his/her own made-up story

Below are
. Formulates rules to implement in a game
nitive skills of pn
49.60 months: 4-5 years old and teachers by L
. Can draw things or scenes from experience but with no ist, Human Develc
actual model or reference (i.e., from memory)
6l-71 months: 5-6 years old For three year-o
. Can draw or paint things that do not exist in real life (i.e., l. Speak with
H
fantasy or imagination) ask questic
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cognitive Flexibility) 2. Add new i
flower - it'
Standards 1: The child is able to shift to more odaptive cognitive
processing strategies in order to e.ffectively deal with 3. Teach chilc
4. Provide bo,
 Part ll Unit 3 Modrlle 16 - Cognitive Development of preschoolers

new and unexpected conditions in his/her environ-

ment. including problem situations.
37-48 months: 2-ll2 to 3 years old
. Modifies actions based on new experiences (e.g., change
block structure that falls)
. Explores alternative solutions to a problem and selects one
option
. Is able to shift activities without much fuss
. Is able to know when the topic of conversation has changed
and ad.iust accordingly

The Role of Caregivers (Parents and reachers) in the cognitive

I

Development of Preschoolers
Learning about how preschoblers think and learn, one will rearize
,1

that parents and teachers can do a lot either to help preschoolers de- t,

velop their cognitive skills or impede them. with the best of intentions,
one can do more harm than good if the approach to teaching
preschoolers is not appropriate. Some adults think that the role of pre-
schools is to prepare the children to pass the entrance examinations of
elementary schools, and so they "harass" the preschoolers to master aca-
demic skills. This leads the preschoolers to be stressed and to have a
negative disposition about school and about leaming.
Two prorninent organizations that have position statemen8 about the
appropriate practices in the care and education of preschoolers are the
National Association for the Education of. Young children -NAEyc
(www.naeyc.org) and the Association for childhood Education Interna-
tional-ACEl (www.acei.org) Be sure to check out their websiteg to leam
more about the preschoolers.
Below are some appropriate practices that help develop the cog-
nitive skills of preschoolers. (adapted from a list of tips for caregivers
and teachers by Lesia oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Special-
ist, Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa state University)

For three year-olds

l. Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, I
ask questions, and listen.
2. Add new information to your childreh's sentences. "yes that's a I
flower - it's a tall, red flower and it smells so good."
3. Teach children to memorize first and last names.
4. Provide books for children to read, and read the same books to
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

them. Read poetry and nursery rhymes. Encourage a child to For five-year-olds
repeat a story and discuss the ideas and events. Read titles and
point to important words on pages, packages, and street signs.
l. Add drama
voices for
5. Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing .a grooery stop before
list or note for parents. Provide paper, small notebooks, and the story.
markers for use in dramatic play.
2. Ask 5-year-
6. Count objects of interest; for example cookies, cups, napkins, or the wall or
dolls. It is better to use objects that you can rnove one at a story and k
time as you and the children count. Measure, and have children
help measure and count as you follow a recipe.
3. Ask "what
of 3? What
7. Explain why and how things happen with the help of a refer- wolfl
ence book. Help them do simple science activities like magnetic
4. Involve chi
attraction, freezing water, planting seeds, making a terrarium, and
cards, and I

flying kites on a windy day.

dictate a sh
8. Provide sets - toys and other ob.iects that go together. Discuss
5. Give 5-year
similarities and differences. For example, point out sequences in
sequence w'i
booking.
ing the nun
9. Sing simple .songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoe box or swatches. I
milk can drums, rattles of mongo beans in a box, etc. Encourage
6. Thke questio
a variety of body movements and dance to music of many
why. Give :
kinds;. Play musical games such as "London Bridge," "Ring-
around-the-Rosie," and "Farnrer in the Dell."
7. Five-year-ol
courage ther
bells, numh
h For four-yea*olds
irt Encourage il
rl
iri
I. Read a\ud each day and encourage children to look at books on morous stori
',j
their owh. Provide alternati're reading material with a collection of from school,
t,,
f' outdated c\upons, junk mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes.
9. Give opporr
2. Say nurser) rhymes and :iingerplays together. Encourag e 4-year- Teach childn
I
olds to tell stories to younger children. ing of a flor
i

3. Encourage intqrest in writlng and words. Provide children with and laundry
paper and notebooks for w\$ing. Print letters and numerals on
art work, and label toy she\es with pictures and words that
describe objects.
t:
;
4. Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count
h; everything in sight, like silverware, socks, rocks, leaves, etc. Talk
about things being in, on, under, behind, beside, before and afteE
larger than, too far, etc.
5. Teach children the correct use of the telephone.
6. Encourage 4-year-olds to help you plan and plant a garden. They
will love to water plants daily and will enioy measuring plant
groMh.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

For five-year-olds
l. Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different
voices for different characters. While reading a familiar story
stop before the end and ask children to add their own end to
the story.
2. Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on
the wall or refrigerator. You can also record the child telling the
story and let him listen to himself later.
3. Ask "what if' questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead
of 3? What if Little Red Riding Hood saw a rabbit instead cif a
wolf?
4. Involve children in writing "thank-you" notes, holiday greeting
cards, and letters. lf a 5-year-old enjoys copying letters, let him
dictate a short message to you and copy it from your writing.
5. Give 5-year-olds opportunities to sort, group, match, count, and
sequence with real life situations such as setting the table, count-
ing the number of turns, sorting out socks, and matching fabric
swatches. Expose them to games involving matching pairs.
6. Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and
why. Give answers they can understand.
7. Five-year-olds will show an increasing interest in numbers. En-
courage them to count anything of interest - cups, leaves, drums,
bells, number of children absent, etc.
8. Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, and riddles by reading hu-
morous stories, riddles, and nonsense rhymes. Join them in jokes
from school, books, and TV.
9. Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest.
Teach children how to move their bodies to dramatize the open-
ing of a flower, falling leaves, or rain; wiggly woffns and snakes;
and laundry blowing in the wind.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners ai Different Life Stages

play marb,
SmrucAnou he would
When
Questions for
Discussion the headm
I. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler's: Albert hatr
. animism German sr

. egocentrism
could not
. was a da1
centration
,( own specu
,1
l
. lack of conservation unless he
i1
:t1
I
. irreversibility intense.
It
. transductive reasoning His w
awakened
2. Read this excerpt from Albert Einstein's biography. Examine and his fo
Albert Einstein's preschool development in the light of cognitive
him amusr
development in early childhood as discussed. How different vias
he turned
his childhood from the average childhood? (language develop lil'hat cont
ment, Einstein's lifelong memory of that compass, parents' and who had :
teachers' underestimation of his cognitive ability?)
him about
In the public mind, the name Albert Einstein (1879-/955) netic fiela
is synonymous with genius. His general theory of relativity there must
("the greatest revolution in thought since Newton"), his dis- the empQ"
covery of the fundamental principle of quantum physics, and around fot
his other contributions to the reshaping of our knowledge of at the qge
the universe cause him to be considered "one of the greatest and lastin
physicists of all time" (Whitrow, 1967). had to be
:

Yet the young Einstein, who was born in the Germatn That
town of Ulm, hardly seemed destined for intellectual stardom. late:r, whe
He was slow in learning to walk and did not begin talking interest in
until at least his third year. His parents feared he might be Albert sol
mentally retarded. Einstein himself always insisted that he did him and t
not try to speak until after the age of 3, skipping babbling satiable ct
and going directly into sentences. Actually, his sentences may "a furious
have come a bit earlier. When his sister Ma.ja, was born that under
four months be-fore Albert's third birthday, Albert (who had 3. To enhancr
been promised a new baby to play with and apparently
thinking, I
thought it would be,a toy) reportedly asked in disappoint-
what devel
menL "Where are the wheels? "
mend? Wh
Regardless of the exact timing, "Albert was certainly a not recomr
late and reluctant talker" (Brian, 1996). The reasons may
have had more to do with personality thon with cognitive de- 4. Critics arg
he was a shy, taciturn child, whom adults thoughtt
velopment; he and stressfi
backward and other children considered dull. He would not
 Pari ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

play marbles or soldiers or other games with his peers, but

he would crouch for hours, observing an ant colony.
When he started school, he did poorly in most subiects;
the headmaster predicted he would never amount to anything.
Albert hated the regimentation and rote learning stressed in
German schools: he did not have a retentive memory and
could not give clear answers to his teachers' questions. He
was a daydreamef hjs questioning mind occupied u,ith its
own speculations. He would not even try to learn anything
unless he was interested in it-and then his concentralion was
intense,
His wonrler about the workings o-f the univer.se was
awakened at the age of 4 or 5, when he was sick in bed
and his .father gave him a magnetic pocket compass to keep
him amused. The boy was astonished no matter which way
he turned the compass, the needle pointed to N (for 'north,).
What controlled its motion? He pestered his Uncle Jacob,
who had studied engineering, with questions. His uncle told
him about the earth's north and south poles and about mag-
netic fields, but Albert still was not satisfied. He believecl
there must be some mysterious force in what appeared to be
the empty space around the needle. He carried the compass
around for weeks, trying to
"figure out its secret. Years later,
at the Oge of 67, he wrote, "... this experience made a deep
and lasting impression upon rne. Something deeply hidden
had to be behind rhings" (Schilpp, 1970, p. 9).
That sense of wonder was reawakened several years,
later, when Uncle Jacob, noticing that Albert showed an
interest in arithmetic, introduced him to algebra and geometry.
Albert solved every problem in the books his uncle brought
him and then went searching for more. It was that same in-
satiable curiosity and persistence-what. Einstein himself called
"a furious impulse to understand" (Michelmore; 1962, p. 2a)-
that underlay his lifetime quest for scientific knowledge).
3. To enhance the preschoolers' development in his symbolic
thinking, language, attention, memory function, and metacognition,
what developmentally appropriate practices would you recom-
mend? What developmentally inappropriate practices would you
not recommend?

4, Critics argue that too many preschools are academically oriented

and stressful for young children. Do you agree? Explain.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

5. Does preschool matter? Doesn't preschool rob the child of l'.i/ RESIARC!|
his inetrievable childhood? Defend your stand. Y#"
6. Explain the meaning of the quote beneath the title of this Read a resea
(]
Module. cognitive developrn
hr
t,

ijl
i,i
r.l
rr ilJ,?

\]
hr

BtG IDEAS
t;

Big Ideas about Preschoolers' Cognitive Development

l. Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking.
2. Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the
environment.
3. Preschoolers' language development occurs in four areas:
phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics
4. Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very
important to cognitive development.
5. Preschoolers improve in their ability in process information.
6. Preschoolers' cognitive development is ntarked by the emergence
of a theory of mind.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of preschoolers

nrsrARCH coitnEcTtou
[,y
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on
cognitive development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

@ sYNAPsE srRtNGTHElrERs

Cunently there is controversy over whether young children should MRtilECTro

be allowed to testifo in court. Considering their memory functioning would
.t
\ you favor ir?
Fs
I'
Itr'
iil'il
i'4,4
1! !
')itil
l. "Mind'in the Making" by Ellen Galinsky (2010) is a brilliant book
l1 1l
that highlights the best researches about children's cognitive
{t
f,,r
I development, among others. The book discusses in seven chap-
ril
4t
ters about the following seven essential life skills every child
needs:
jlll

Ir.
iJ
A. Focus and self-control
B. Perspective taking
$r
,i, C. Communicating
D. Making connections
fl E. Critical thinking
F. Taking on challenges
G Self-directed, engaged learning
The book also provides valuable and practical suggestions
about how parents and teachers can develop the skills.
Choose one from the seven skills. Read the chapter and
write a reaction paper.

I
f-
frl
(rl

hi

$,
I
 Pad ll Unit 3 Module 16 - Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

MRffHCTto*

Frorh the Module on'the Cognitive Development of Preschooler, I leamed

that...

Explain why?
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Socio-Em otion al Development

of the Preschooler
ffi@A.run
M0DUTE 17 Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
Observe pn
- room. Take a vidr
Note the foll
l. Is there a
.takes pla
talking ab

fficHAtttNGt
In this Module, you are challenged to: 2. Describe '

. explain Erikson's 'brisis" of early childhood, initiative versus guilt

. explain the development of the preschoolers' sense of self and
self-esteem.
. discuss how children develop gender identity. 3. Describe t
. describe the stages of play and how it impacts socio-emotional own, wod
development.
. discuss the different caregiving styles and their effect on
preschoolers.
. describe how significant relationships with parents, siblings and
Bring this to
peers affect the preschooler.

'WFrrNTRoDucTroN Q EunrYsrs
Answer the fol
l. Were the c
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We were with
hear a lot of
parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that
attending preschool is more for "socialization" than for formal academic
leaming. There is wisdom in this. During the preschool years, children 2. Were there
leam about their ever widening environment (Remember Module 1.0 on and roles?
Bronfenbrenner?) Preschoolers now discover their new rotes outside
their home. They become interested to assert themselves as they relate If you obsr
t;
with other people. A lot of very important social skills they will leam they resolvr
bi during the preschool years will help them throughout life as adults. These resolve it t
tr skills can even determine the individual's later social adjustment and
consequent quality of relationships in adult life.
4. Were the cl
etc) or ges
 Pa,t ll unit 3 Modure 'r z - socio-Emotionar Deveropment of preschoorer

ffi,@ACTrvrTY
observe preschoolers playing in the playground or in the class-
room. Thke a video or shoot pictures.
Note the following:
l. Is there a conversatiort going on? Describe the conversation that
takes place among and between the children. what are they
talking about?

2. Describe what they are playing/what the play is about

3. Describe the children's interaction. Indicate if they are on their

own, working together or if there is conflict.

Bring this to class and share in small groups.

@ mnlYsts

Answer the following questions:

l. were the children playing on their own or arone even when they
were with others?

2. were there some children playing together with ageed upon rules
and roles? Describe.

3. If you observed conflicts between or among children, how were

they resolved? Did an adult intervene? Or did they manage to
resolve it by themselves?

I
4. were the children polite? what polite words (Thank you, sorry,
etc) or gestures did you observe?
Child and Adolescent Dewlopmeil: Looking at Learners at Djfferent Life Stages

?,
s
msmAcnon /GtlrERAuzAnoN Preschoolers who
ing a view of tlx
The observation you did provided you a glimpse of the world of
even "walang I
preschoolers. You were once in that world of wonder and fascination.
childhood years r
Read through this Module and you will surely understand more why
have to hit to hur
they manifested the social behaviors that you have observed.
say and the way r
wlnerable stage.
Big Ideas on Preschoolerc' Socio-emotional Development
The key thir
l. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler. ness." This invol
2. A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact safe and respectfi
with others. opportunity to exF
Preschoolers will r
J. Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
encouraging and sti
4. Preschoolers' sobial development is shown through the stages
of play.
Self-Concept and
5. The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the
preschoolers' socio-emotional development. By the end r

6. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships. sense that they are

make representatior
Self-concept refers
Preschoolerst Initiative
one's abilities, strenl
Erikson's view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social mainly focuses on
changes that happen during the preschool years. As discussed in emotions and attitu
Module 7. preschoolers deal with the psychological ionflict of initiative (l can do it),, .,Ak<
yersus guilt. Erikson betieved that healthy preschoolers develop' by myself.) An in
initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to'take action and assert specifically refers t<
themselves. They will yeam to create, invent, pretend, take risks and are naturally positivt
engage in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When and underestimate tl
parents, teachers and other adults support these attempts and provide a they donit succeed r
stimulating environment, the preschooler's sense of initiative will grow. tive because of rep
On the other hand, if the adults show overprotection, extreme restric- a lot of patience an
tion and criticisms, the preschooler will develop guilt.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guil( Environmental Far
they show so much energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every Socio-emotional Dr
place becomes a playground to explore, every single thing an interesting
piece to tinker with. Adults sometimes get exasperated over this As the presch
behavior and begin to see the preschooler as "naughty" br "malaiit". become capable of
Some parents and teachers then become overly restrictive, resortin$ to roles, gender-based
threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler They come to form
just to esablish 'tontrol". Consequently, the child may develop excessive certain things like
guilt. Although a good amount of guilt helps in making children take actions or behaviors
responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt hampers emotional grouttfi- Consequently, they for
as being masculine or
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 17 - Socio-Emotional Development of preschooler

Preschoolers who are always punished and criticized end up construct-

ing a view of themselves as being "salbahe " (bad) "bobo" (dumb) or
even "walang kwenta" (worthless). This is really sad because
childhood years should be happy years. One poster says, .,you don't
have to hit to hurt." The message emphasizes that even the.things we
say and the way we deal with preschoolers can already hurt them at this
vulnerable stage.
The key thing to remember is to apply ,.judicious permissive-
ness." This involves setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers
safe and respectful of self and others, while allowing them greater
opportunity to explore, take risks and to engage in creative processes.
Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an affirming,
encouraging and stimulating environment.

Self-Concept and the Preschooler :

By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear

sense that they are a separate and distinct person. with their ability to
make representations, they can now think and reflect about themselves.
Self-concept refers to the way one sees himselfl, a general view about
one's abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The preschooler's self-concept
mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs,
emotions and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler say, ',Kaya ko na!
(l can do it)" "Ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko." (l wore my shoes all
by myself.) An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which
specifically refers to one's judgments about one's worth. Preschoolers
are naturally positive. Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high
and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if
they donit succeed with something. However, they may ' become nega-
tive because of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need
a lot of patience and. encouragement from adults.

Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers'

Socio-emotional Development
As the preschooler's ability to create schemas develop, they
become capable of gender typing, the process of forming gender
roles, gender-based preferences and behaviors hcqepted by society. T
They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers begin to associate
certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors or even
actions or behaviors as being "only for boys" or "only for girls.,,
Consequently, they form their own gender identiry the view of oneself
as being masculine or feminine.
Child and Adolescent Devalopmsnt Looking at Lcarncrs at Different Life Stages

Gender typing and gender identity are irtfluenced by environmental

factors such as the family, teachers, peers and the mass media. This
is where Bronfenbrenner's model comes into play. Different spheres of
influence determine. the preschooler's development of a gender schema.
Differences in parental expectations and behavior towards daughters and
sons affect gender typing and gender identity. More often, boys are
expected to show more emotional control and be more competitive while
girls are expected to be warrn and soft and demure. Parents also
expect their children to play with toys that are "right" for their gender.
The expectations of other people in the prechoolers' lives also influence
their gender schema. This includes their relatives, teachers, classmates
and other playmates.
Mass media and ICT which include television, movies, the intemet
computer games also offer various images of what it means to be a boy
or girl. In the US, there is growing debate about Lesbian-
Cay-Bi-sexual-Transgender issues which is collectively known as LGBT
issues. Schools are in a tight situation or have to do a "balancing act"
on how to deal with these issues with children so that schools are still
able to be on the side of respect for diversity without necessarily
confusing children who are at a stage of forming their own gender
schemas.
Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present
notions of what boys and girls can do especially in the discussion about
occupations or community helpers.

Parten's Stages of PIay

Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social
dimension. As the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates
increases. Mildred Parten, in the 1930's did a study on children's play
behavior which led to Parten's stages of play. Since then, numerous
studies have followed using these stages as framework. The stages
describe the play development of children and the gradual increase of
social interaction as they go through these stages. lt begins with the
very young child's unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel
play, associative and cooperative play. Play becomes an important venue
for the child's development of social skills like entering or joining a
play situation, taking.:tums, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and working 6. Cooperi
together. Play is indeed the child's major business!
 Peri ll Unlt 3 i,lodule 17 - Socio-Emotional Development of Preschooler

Parten's Stages of Play

Tlrs chlld
appeers not to ho playi6g
1. Unoccupied but directs lris attention on *rrything
that interests him. I

The child spends tirre watchfig othens

2. Onlooker play. He may talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.

3. Solitary Play The child spends time watching otherc

play. lle mey talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.

ThE child- plays with toys simifar to thrxe

4. Parallel Play rear irim, but only plays bsside and not
with them. No interaction ta*es place.

5. Associative The child plays with otfiers. 'There iS

interaction amoflg them, btrt no taslt assign-
Play i$snt, rules and organization are agreed
upon.
;

The child plays with otherE bound by 'i

I
Some agfesd u,pen rules and roleg. Thu
6. Cooperative goal is maybe to make something, pl*y { {
game, or act out something.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Friendships in Preschool Responsiven

expression of affer
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in caring and respectfi
having friends. This should be encouraged in the preschool years as communication and
friendships benefit the preschoolers development by providing stimulation, will understand. X
assistance, companionship, social comparison and affection (Kostelnik, expectations. This i
2010). Through friendships, preschoolers are able to practice different
social roles tike being a leader, a follower, someone who takes risks and
someone who helps out and comforts. Friendships are very important
because they provide added sense of belongingness and security. In the
preschool years, parents and teachers must expose children to expe-
riences that help them leam skills in establishing friendships, maintaining
positive relationships and resolving conflicts. Parents and teachers, when
t,l
seeing preschoolers in a "fight", should not just say "Tama na..ano ba
yan..isa pa h,o.. Tama na, friends na kayo..Say sorry na.. " Responses
like those do not foster social skills among preschoolers. Parents and
teachers need to take time and process with children how to resolve
conflicts.
F
E
Ba

An inteEral part of the preschool curriculum is to teach children

the important social social skills.

Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the
children, Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even
other adults that'care for the child. Baumrind gave a model that
describes the different types of caregiving styles. This was based on a
longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and the develop-
ment of children that Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960's.
Decades later she identified varying degrees of demandingness and
responsiveness as determinants of four styles of caregiving. Marion
(2007) expounded on these determining factors.
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 17 -Socio-Emotional Development of preschooler

Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to

expression of affection and communication. It refers to how warm,
caring and respectful the adult is to the child. It involves openness in
communication and the willingness to explain things in ways that the child
will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and
expectations. This involves discipline and confrontation shategies.

Authoritative Permissive
high demandingness/ low demandingness/
high responsiveness high responsiveness

Negtigent
Authoritarian
low demandingness/
high demandingness/
low responsiveness
low responsiveness

Baumrind's Caregiving Styles and Their

Effects on Children

Authoritative . Expect behavior appro- . Makes the preschooler :

(high demandingness, priate to the age of the feel safe and secure
high responsiveness child . Teaches the child to ,i
. Maintain reasonable take responsibility for
and fair limis hisftrer actions
. Closely monitor the {
activities of the child
. Warm and nurturing
. Have realistic expecta-
tions of the child
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

. Communicate messages . Develops good self- A Quick Look

in a kind, firm and control
consistent manner . Develops a realistic (From the Philipp
. Discipline approach view of oneself Emotional Express
focuses more on . Builds the child's
teachine than ounishinp capaciw'for emoathv E:
Authontanan . Set subJectrve or . Lead to aggressive 37-48 months (3-
high demandingness, unreasonable limits behavior of the child
low responsiveness . Communicate messages . Brings about poor self- ' ExPre
. Strive to have strong contrbl
' Expre
psychological control . Results in poor self-
over the child esteem
. Cant
. Do not supervise he/she
children's activities very
well and then get upset Self-regulatio
if they make a . Willir
mistake
. Use corporal punish-
unsurt
ment, sarcasm, with- . Perset

.
drawal of love, threats
Not able to teach
. Accel
children a better way to . ACceI

.
behave
Permlt the preschoolers . . Ma),
Permrssrve Has difliculty control-
Low demandingness, high to regulate their own ling his/her impulses nervol
responsiveness behavior and make their . Tends to be dependent
own decisions even . Tends to be demanding
' Ma)'
when preschoolers are dePre:
of their caregivers
not yet ready to do so . Tends not to persist or Display of S
. Do not set rules or easily gives up on a
very few if any task
. Pla),s
. Do not demand good . Does not easily follow . plays
behavior or task . Maybe rebellious
accomplishment . Does not handle . Shor*
. May lack confidence in frustration well tempt
their ability to influence . Has inadequate emo-
the child tional control ' Confi
.'Maybe disorganized . Difficulties in school Petitir
and ineffective in performance
managing the family ' Seelc
and household/ class When parents' behav-
. Shows undemanding, ior is to the extreme or Rece
indifferent and rejecting if child experiences this
action towards the child style early, the child 37-48 mont
. Has little commitment to may have: . Feels
their roles as parents/ . attachment problems
caregivers . delayed cognitive forts,
. Maybe depressed or development Emerging S
overburdened by many o poor social and emo-
concerns like poverty, tional skills Knol
marial problems, or . delinquent behavior ronml
absence of support later in adolescence
from others Talks about
. Tallc
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 17 - Socio-Emotional Development of Preschoolet

A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do

(From the Philippine Early Leaming Standards, ECCD Council. 2010)

Emotional Expression
Expression of Basic Emotions
37-48 months (3-4 years)
. Expresses what he/she likes
. Expresses what he/she dislikes
. Can talk about difficult feelings (e.g., anger, sadness, worry)
he/she experiences
Self-regulationof feelings/emotion
. Willing to try something in order to learn more even if
unsure of a successful outcome
. Perseveres when faced with challenging or new tasks
. Accepts brief delays in gratification
. Accepts defeat well; is not a sore loser
. May have some fears but is not overly fearful, anxious or
nervous
. May feel sad at times but not to the point where he/she is
depressed
Display of Self-Appraisal Emotions (shame, pride, guilt)
. Plays to learn a game
. Plays to gain mastery of a game
. Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/her successful at-
tempts or efforts
. Confidently joins small groups especially if situation is com-

. TJ:f from an adult or child to ,o,r. u problem

"ssistance
Receptivity to Others' Emotions
Receptivity to emotions and having empathy
37-48 months
. Feels others' distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, com-
forts, gives, suggestions, etc.)
Ernerging Sense of Self
I(nowledge of Self and Basic Roles of People in his Envi-
ronrnent
Talks about parts of the body and their functions
. Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics (e'g.,
 child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

sings, dances, is helpful, studious, etc.)

Asks r
Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like
practict
and don't like a Talks r

a Defends possessions with determination a Regard

h
k a Can give rcasons or justiff why he/she acted the way he/she does n,
Ii dtd
I
lJ
Willinr
tl Forming Attachments differer
i;
. Shows preference for the company of significant adults and
children (other than the primary caregiver) over unfamiliar The Rok
adults and children
lnteractions with Other Children From the
. Plays with 2 or 3 children using the same play equipment that parents and u
o Participates in games with other children but plays in his preschooler. The
own way teachers):
. ChatVconverses with other children
l. Greet eac
and resp
. Takes tums and shares toys with others 2. Read stor
. Actively participates in classroom and group routines ings.
. Plays organized group games fairly 3. Develop r
together a
Interaction with Adults
4. Help chil
3648 months providing
. Verbalizes feelings related to events that arise in classroom, 5. Play gamr
home, and environment in a positive way 6. Observe I
. Speaks rcspectfully with adults using "po" and "oprol and/or request, h
appropriate titles 7. Help chilc
. Recognizes the importance of adult's ideas and experiences
them won
see you a
by listening arid asking questions when they share these
. 8. Use dolls
Clarifies rules and routines before abiding by them to expres
. Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with 9. Acknowle
or see the value of a rule or routine "Nalulun
I .Can take on another person's viewpoint seem sad
we are at
i{ Pakiramdam (Sensitivity)
listen and
i"
i. . Knows when to stop asking questions or when he is being 10. Catch ch
lI
"makulit" accomplis
!(
;
. Cooperates to minimize conflict or tension sayo "Got
you pack'
Appreciating Diversity
ways pac
. Asks questions that indicate he/she notices differences in 11. Read stoq
socio-economic status
12. For teactn
and gettinl
 Part ll Unit 3 Module 17 - Socio-Emotional Development of Preschooler

. Asks questions about new/different words (dialects) and

in the community
practices
Tdks about gender differences and roles
a Regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels, and
does not resoft to name-calling
Willing to make friends with other children and adults in
different situations and locations (e.g., schools, neighborhood)

The Role of Caregivers ii the Socio-emotional

Development of the Presclrooler
From the discussion above one can see the very important role
that parents and teachers play in the socio-emotional development of the
preschooler. The following tips are given to caregivers (parents and
teachers):
l. Greet each child with his or her names each day. Be sincere
and respectful to each ehild.
2. Read storybooks that deal about friendships and different feel-
ings.
3. Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working
together and getting along.
4. Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by
providing opportunities for them to play in small groups.
5. Play games that involve social interaction and team work.
6. Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to
request, bargain, negotiate, and apologize.
7. Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving
them words that they can use to express how they feel. can "l
see you are SAD about your pet, ANGRY at your sister...."
8. Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how
to express feelings appropriately.
9. Acknowledge how the child feels. For example. One can say,
"Nalulungkot ka dahil hindi ka nakasama sa party. " (You
seem sad that you did not go the party). When we do this,
we are able to model to the preschooler that is is important to
listen and that having feelings, even negative ones, are okay.
I0. Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to
accomplish something. Be specific in your praise. Do not just
say, "Good job" or "Very good." Instead, say, "When I saw
you pack-away you toys, I felt really happy. Remember to al- J
ways pack-away."
ll. Read storybooks that deals about friendships
12. For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together
and getting along
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

*,,
s16
RESIARCH CO}INECTION ($nrnrcAno
l. Choose a I

Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on the internet sr
socio-emotional development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below. powerpoint
use of pan

2. The bes c
you have I
that an arl
l.
)
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
Source: (bibliographical entry format)
t0.

sYilAPlll
Research
A. Biolq
B. Psych
C. Cogni
D. Gendt
tl'f
1
E. Social
i
{r Read on
I issues. G
l( Three" a
Research
on introdr
ln extr€n
styles car
mone on
 Part ll Unit 3 Modulc 17-Soclo-Emotbnel Devetopmsnt of Proschoobr

{SnmrrcAnon
l. Choose a big idea from this Module and expand it through
internet searches and downloads. Prepare a pamphlet or
powerpoint presentation or a movie (movie maker) intended for
use of parents of preschoolers.

2. The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that
you have leamed fiom this Module, make a list of l0 qualities
that an authoritative preschool teacher should have:
l.
2.
3.t
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

ffi sYlrAPsE srRIltcIHINtRs

l. Research on the following theories on gender development:

A. Biological approach
B. Psychoanalyic approach
C. Cognitive development theory
D. Gender schema theory
E. Social cognitive theory
2. Read on Lesbian, Cay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT)
issues. One controversial storybook for children is "Thngo Makes
,l
Three" a story about two male penguins starting a family.
Research on this and write an essay about your own views J
on introducing LCBT to preschoolers.
3. ln extreme form, the authoritarian and the negligent caregiving
styles can lead to neglect and abuse of the prcschooler. Read
more on this and share with the class.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

MRtFucTrolr Ut,lIT 4

From the module on the Socio-Emotional Development of Preschooler, I

learned that...

WSrlrTRo
Middle ch
different changes
is the stage ben
less attention tha
the family and f
development.

Explain why?
TI,IODUI

fficnaruu
In this Mc
o describ
aged cl
' o enumet
module

Physical d
appearance, visu
undergo many
development.
and environmefll
 239

rhe PrimarY schooler

U[llIT 4
-- Heidi Grace L, Borabo, Ph,D,

'W*rlrrRoDU(TroN

Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many

different changes - physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This
is the stage between 6 to 12 years old. Children in this stage receive
less attention than children in infancy or early childhood. The support of
the family and friends of the child is very important during this phase of
development.

Physical Development of the

rl,roDulE 18 Primary Pupil !rt
li
t{

Heldi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.

-

ffi$o''tENGE
In this Module. challenge yourself to:
. describe the different physical characteiistics of early school-
aged children in your own words.
. enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this ,!

module in the teaching-leaming process.

Physical development involves many different factors, height, weight,

;
appearance, visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children
undergo many different changes as they go through this stage of
I
development. This could be caused by different factors; both natural
and environmental.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

.:i:b S..,
ffiWACTlvlrY
ffi anarysts

at least three (3) primary school children (Grades I to 3).

Observe
l. Based on tht
conclude about
Describe the physical characteristics of these children and write them
primary school
down below.

Height

What are the r

ready for prima

Weight

ABSTRACTIOI

Balanee

Speed

Coordination

of Movements
 Part ll Unit4 Modute 18 - physical DeVelopment of the primary pupil

Q auarYsts

l. Based on the observations you have made, what can you

conclude about the general physical characteristics
of children in their
primary school years?

2. What are the necessary skills that help them to be physically

ready for primary schooling?

ABSTRACTT0N /cEN ERALtZATI0N

Physical growth during the pri-

mary school years is slow but
steady. During this stage, physical
development involves: (l) having
good muscle control and coordination,
(2) developing eye-hand coordination,
(3) having good personal hygiene and
(4) being aware of good safety
habits.

Height and Weight

,I
In this development stage,
children will have started their
elementary grades, specifically their
ii
primary years - Grades I to 3. ,l
This period of gradual and t
steady growth will give children time
to get used to the changes in their
bodies. An average increase in
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difrerent Life Stages

height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls will more controlled b
introduce them to many different activities that they can now do with copy simple desi
greater accut::l; utensils correctly
about 6.5 pounds a year. Most chirdren wilr Motor devel
"r"**.s
have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of and power.
the shifts in accumulation and location of their body fats. A child's legs Let us lool
are longer and more proportioned to the body than they were before. Coordinalion is a
A
number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or a particular way I
how much changes in the body will take place: more complex th
. genes o exercise Children develop
games and sports.
o food o medical conditions
num or stabllrty (
o climate o diseases / illnesses
skill needed espr
During this time,
Bones and Muscles is the ability to n
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the one foot. Dynan
best time to teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help moving (Owens.
them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives. Many lifestyle in the shortest p
factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence the change or shift t
increase of bone mass during childhood. important in mos
Because children's bones have proportionately more water and effort in the shor
protein-like materials and fewer. minerals than adults, ensuring adequate All these n
catcium intake will greatly help them in strengthening bones and muscles. games and sports.
between success

Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major
muscles of their bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance.
They like testing their muscle strength and skills. They enjoy doing real-
life tasks and activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because
they are more attuned with everything that is happening around them.
Children in this stage love to move a lot - they run, skip, hop,
jump, tumble, roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are
already developed, they can now perform activities like catching a ball
with one hand, tying their shoelaces, they can manage zippers and
buttons.
Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and
bi-manual (require the use of two hands) activities becomes easier.
Children's graphic activities, such as writing and drawing, are now
 Part ll Unit 4 Module I8 : Physical Development of the Primary Pupit

more controlled but are still developing. They can print their names and
copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons,
utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility
and power.
Let us look into the definitions of the different motor skills.
Coordinatioz is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in
a particular way to bring about a particular re'sult (Strickland, 2000). The
more complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required.
Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when they play
games and sports. Balance is the child's ability to maintain the equilib-
rium or stability of his4rer body in different positions. Balance is a basic
skill needed especiplly in this stage, when children are very active.
During this time, children have improved balancing skills. Static balance
is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on
one foot. Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while
moving (Owens, 2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great distance
in the shortest possible time while agility is one's ability to quickly
change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely
important in most sports. Power is the ability to perform a maximum
effort in the shortest possible period.
Allthese motor skills are vital in performing different activities,
games and sports. Development of these skills may spell the difference
'
between success and failure in future endeavors of the child.

I
,l

,"1

t:i

,t
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages

Cognitive Development of
Primary Schoolers ffi&Acrr,r
M0DULE 19 Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed,
- Look at tx
to your mind wt
Find a pa

fficHAttENGE
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational
stage.
o explain the importance of information-processing skills and how
they affect the child's cognitive development.
. state the different cognitive milestones in primary-schoolers.

INTRODUCIIOiI

Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive

Drscussror Que
development. According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of
ensuring balance in the relations between the person and the environ- l. What were tr
ment. Everything that a person experiences is a continuous process of 2. Are there ne
assimilations and accommodations.Piaget described four main periods in found inrigrrir
iognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the same at 3. With the advr
different ages. lopment is af
 Part ll Unil 4 ltlodule 18 - Physical Dewlopinent of th6 pdmary pupit

ffi& ACTT,TTY
look at the
semantic map below. Write down words which come
to your mind when COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned.
Find a pair and compare your answers.

COGNITTVE
DEVELOPI}IENT

Drscussror Quesnous:
l. What were the common ideas regarding cognitive development?
2. Are there new ideas regarding cognitive development which you
found intriguing?
3. Wth the advent of the computer age, do you think cognitive deve-
lopment is affected? Explain your answer?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

e ABSTRACTT0N /GEN tRALTZAil0N

& \
Jean Piaget's Concrele I
Operational Stage T

Concrete operation is \
the third stage in Piaget's theory
of cognitive development. lt Is Jacob capal
spans from ages 7 to approxi-
mately I I years. In this deve- Cognitive Miles
lopmental stage, children have Elementar;
better understanding of their encounter develop
thinking skills. Children begin to They develop cer
think logically about concrete particular time fra
events, particularly their own learn are in a sr
experiences, but have difficulty meaning they nt
understanding abstract or hypo- numbers before t
thetical concepts, thus most of mathematical eqr
them still have a hard time at stone that devel
problem-solving. upon the previor
achieved. Up un
to Piaget, can already make learns new skill:
Concrete operational thinkers, according
Once they reach
use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific
experience to a general principle. But at this stage, children have great
skills they learn
and it usually is
difficulty in using deductive logic or using a general principle to
of new skills.
determine the outcome of a specific event.
Specifically
left from right. 1
. Reversibility develops rapidly.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an under- families. During I
standing of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An they learn in sch
example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships the week. They r
between mental categories. (For example in arithmetic, 3 * 4 : 7 and 7 span is longer. T
-4:3). learning letters
combinations of r

Example:

Teacher: Jacob, do you have a brother?

.lacob: Yes.
 Part ll Unit 4 Module 19 - Cognitive Development of primary Schoolers

Teacher: What's his name?

Jacob: Matthew.
Teacher: Does Matthew have a brother?
Jacob: Yes.

Is Jacob capable of reversibility?

Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children
encounter developmental milestones.
They develop certain skills within a
particular time frame. The skills they
learn are in a sequential manner,
meaning they need to understand
numbers before they can perform a
mathematical equation. Each mile-
stone that develops is dependent
upon the previous milestone they
achieved. Up until age 8, a child
:
learns new skills at a rapid pace.
Once they reach the age of 8, the
I skills they learn start to. level off
, and it usually is a steady increase
of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell
left from right. They are able to speak and express themselves
develops rapidly. In school, they share about themselves and their
families. During play, they practice using the words and language
they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of
the week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their attention
span is longer. They can follow more involved stories. They are
learning letters and words. By six, most can read words. or
combinations of words.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Information-P rocessing a

Skills a

Several theorists argue O

that like the computer, the

human mind is a system I Give,3 applicati
that can process information information prc
through the application of
logical rules and strategies.
They also believe that the
mind receives information,
performs operations to a

change its form and con- a

tent, stores and locates it
and generates responses
from it.

, APPLICAIION
3. Look for artir
l. Study the diagram on information-processing below. Write your
influences of fa
insights on how you can apply the Information-Processing Theory in
of your resean
prirnary-school children.

iili
t\
rl
(
L*mg*t"*rm
futsru0ry

I-hrud Saxr**xy &{tirl Hkratsr

*k***] hlcm,xr: Fr*c6sal1g fi*tt*\ral {tlril
f,oft
4t
i
I

{
1
W*4t3*t Sh*rt* t.*rm
i

1
T*amg.vy #rpoilt!
-j.,
r*gotten ,&*,',
 Part ll Unit 4 Module 19 - Cognitive Development of primary Schoolers

2. Give. 3 applications each of Piaget's cognitive theory and that of

information processing theory in the teaching-leaming process.
a

3. Look for articles and studies, either online or printed, on the

influences of family on cognitive development. Share important points
of your research in class.

,'I

rli
I
,{
)
tI
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

@ sYrAPsr sTRrlrcrnmrRs MRffHC]

Read and research more on the components of Information -
Processing Skills focused on:
o Attention
o Perception
o Memory Strategies among primary school children.
Summarize your rcsearch and share important points in class.
 Part ll Unit 4 Module 19 - Cognitive Development of Frimary Schoolers

MRETHCTION

From the module on the Cognitive Development of Primary School Children, I

leamed that...
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Socio'Em oti on al D ev el opm ent

M0DULE 2(} Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.
-

fficnnuENGE
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged
children in this stage of development.
o discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional
$owth of the primary-schoolers
'W-rNrRoDUCrroN

The developmental theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of

man's psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a "psycho-
social crisis" which arises and demands resolution before the next stage
can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson's
psychosocial stage. Here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry
vs. Inferiority.
Q nHruvsrs
ffi@ACrrvrTY Discussion Questic
l. Observe primary-schoolers during their play time (recess or lunch l. Wliat were ttr,

break). Take note of their: comes to:

o behavior during play a. behavior d,

b. communicr
c. facial exp
o communication with their peers 2. During the o
encountered u

o facial expressions, gestures and body language

2. Thke pictures of these children during playtime. Paste them below

and discuss important points and observations with your partner.
 Part ll Unit 4 Module 19 - Cognilfue Development of Primary Schoolers

Q nnalsrs
Discussion Questions:
l. What were the common observations among these children when it
comes to:
a. behavior during play?
b. communication with their peers?
c. facial expressions, gestures and body language? i
il

2. During the observation, were there difficulties that the children

encountered'while they were at play?
.I
tl

t
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

c msmACTroN
Primary scl
their parents, but
e i

teract with, includ

Erik Erikson's Fourth Stage of Psychosociul Development understanding of r
Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will can please their I
have to resolve in this stage. Industry refers to a child's involvement confidence in doir
in situations where long, patient work is demanded of them, while things that they fi
inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeting of failure
when they cannot finish or master their school work.
School Years
In this will most likely, have begun going to school.
stage, children,
In the trans
School experiences become the priority, with children so busy doing tend to become ir
school work. The encouragement of parents and caring educators helps
social interactions
to build a child's sense of self-esteem, strengthening their confidence and are also aware of
ability to interact positively in the world.
zess and equoliE*
people who are n
and dependabiliqv r

NESS.

Building Frienr

.tt\\

-lt \
,E{k
Fi* * *^-*]&

Understanding the Self

One's self-concept is the
knowledge about the self, such as
beliefs regarding personality traits,
physical characteristics, abilities,
values, goals and roles. What does
the comic strip depict?
Italso involves a sense of
belonging and'acceptance, a sense

of good and a sense of being capable of doing good.

Having a healthy self-concept does not rnean that a child thinks he
is better than others. It means that he likes himself, feels accepted by
his family and friends and believes that he can do well.
 Part ll Unit 4 Module 20 - Socio-Emotional Development

Primary school children's self-concept is influenced not only by

their parenls, but also by the growing number of people they begin to in-
teract with, including teachers and classmates. Children have a growing
understanding of their place in the'world. They already know that they
can please their parents and teachers. They are comfortable and show
confidence in doing things they are good at, but also show frustration in
things that they find difficult.

School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children
tend to become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with
social interactions. They are not focused on themselves anymore but
are also aware of the needs and desires of others. The issues of fair-
zess and equality become important to them as they learn to care for
people who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty
and dependability are being considered as well as responsibility and kind-
NESS.

Building Friendships

"lV'lrat is t FRIEND? A single soul dwelling in'

two bodies."
-Aristotle

Making friends is a crucial but

very important paft of children's social
and emotional growth. . As soon as
they are able to walk and talk, they .i

will tend to show natural inclination to .,

,l
be around other children. rJ
fl
Children, during this stage, most 't

likely belong to a peer group. Peer i{

groups are characterized by children il

who belong approximately to the same il

age group and same social economic
status. It is found along the stages of
childhood through adolescence. But for
I
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

children, until the age of seven or eight, they think of themselves more
than that others. They may play well with groups but may need some
time to play alone.
$nnnucATro
Primary school children prefer'to belong to peer groups of the Study the sitt
same gender. Many children will use their surroundings to observe and you help these lear

mingle with other children. Some will see this as an opportunity to

make friends while others remain a bit of a loner.
Dear Teacher
Antisocial Behavior
Iamnr
Some adult may perceive that some
isolated and
children's behavior towards other children as
while. She
antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or
kick other children when they are first intro-
duced, it is fairly normal. Remember that
children at this stage are still forming their
own world views and other children may
seem like a curiosity that they need to
explore. Parents and teachers can help
children make friends. You can consider the
following:
o Expose the children to kid-rich envi-
ronments (e.g. playgrounds, park).
o Create a play group in your class
and let the children mingle with their
classmates.

When your children hit other children, remind them that their
behavior hurts others.
Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the
children will have greater opportunity to interact with other chil-
dren.

Self-control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride irr their
ability to do things and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiv-
ing positive feedback from their parents and teachers. This becomes a
great opportunity for parents and teachers to encourage positive emotional
responses from children by acknowledging their mature, compassionate
behaviors.
 Part ll Unit 4 Module 20- Socio-Emotional Development

@.arrurcATroN
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will
you help these leamers cope with their socioemotional d,ifficulties?

Dear Teacher,
I am really heart-broken. My 8-year old daughter is feeling lonely,
isolated and friendless. It seems that she has felt this way for quite a
while. She says that she mostly spends time alone - that she has no
friends because no one wants to pfiy with her.
She tags along, but is usually left out eventu-
ally. She can become angry if things don't always
go her way and also teary. I don't know where to
turn to help her - the thought that she finds school
painful is heartbreaking.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking et Learners at Different Life Stages

Dear Teacher,
I am a really proud parent. My little boy is in primary grade and he
ffi sYNAPtit

is doing much better than his classmates. He sometimes becomes restless Read more
in school - he says he knows what the teacher is talking about. Some children. Analyrc
teachers even suspect that he is gifted. But ther'e seems to be a the research pape
problem. Write down
He is bossy. He always orders people around -
his classmates and people at home. How could I Points for L
help him be comfortable in school and lessen his bossi-
ness?
 Part ll Unit4 Module 20 - Socio-Emotional Development

ffi sYlrAPst sTRtNGIHtlt[Rs

Read more on the Socioemotional Development of primary school

children. Analyze the perspective of teachers on this stage by reading
the research paper on http://www.aare.edu.au/ 07 paptbru}T 322.pdt.
Write down points for discussion and share your insights in class.

Points for Discussion:

o
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamee at Different Life Stages

MRtttECroN Urulr 5
B'irry,,am

xkh TNTR0D

From the module on socioemotional Development of primary School Does physicr

Children, I leamed that... this what they cal
this after going th
This unit d'
development of tt

T'JIODUT

mcHAtLtilG
In this Module. r
o identifr
internr<
o discuss
successf
o design z

diate sc
 Late Childhood
Urulr 5 (The lntermediate
IH,'lj,.'L, ce L. Borabo, MA.Ed.

INTRODUCIION

Does physical growth slow down or speed up in late childhood? Is

this what they call the "troublsome age". You should be able to answer
this after going through this Unit.
This unit dwells on the physical, cognitive .and socio-emotional
development of the intermediate schooler.

t
rl
xf

Heidi Grace L. Boraho, MA.Ed.

- i

PfficHALuNct
In this Module, challenge yourself to:
o identify the different physical characteristics of
interrnediate schoolers.
o discuss ways and practices which will aid children in
successfully developing physically.
o design a simple exercise program appropriate for interme-
diate school children.
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

WrlllIRoDUCTl0]l
Q mlalsrs

The steady and gradual changes happening in chirdren at this stage, l. What initial c
especially with their increasing familiarity with school work and other serve?
possible activities provide them with a greater oppoftunity to develop
their motor skill functioning.

ffi& ACTT,TTY

Thke pictures of children in their late childhood (ages 9 to l2).

Make a collage and discuss the common characteristics that you have t-\-
observed.
What activities
them to develo
MY OBSERVATIONS

Based on your
grolvth pattern
 Unit 5 Module 21 - Physical Developmenl of the lntermediate Pupil

arawsls
Q
l. What initial characteristics of children ages 9 to 12 did you ob-
serve?

What activities were commonly done by these children which help

them to develop physically?

Based on your observations and readings, do boys follow a different

growth pattern compared to the girls? Explain your answer.
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

c RgstRAfiroN/GINtRAuzATroN priate activities r

A right direction.
Physical Changes selves in worthu
o promote
Children in their late child-
o give tlrcr
hood stage always seem to be in
a hurry. They get so busy with o reduce d
their school work, interacting with This stage
their friends, exploring other pos- fine and gross r
sible activities, but this period of they are offered
physical development seems to Children n
take on a leisurely pace. they can interat
On the average, girls are share with paren
generally as muclr as two (2) that exercising r
years ahead of boys in terms of
physical maturity. Puberry may be-
gin early. Budding breasts for
girls - which is the initial
sign of
$nrrucn
puberty. Some girls may also
start wit[ their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late 13. l. Being heald
Many of the bodily structures like the liveq muscles, skeletons, kid- everyday un
neys and face follow a normal curve of development for both girls and
boys. Other structures like the brain, intestines and other organs and Design a
bodily systems mature at their own time, thus. affecting growth pattems. to 12. Divide
Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight, and average of 2
l % inches in height and an average of an inch in head circumf-erence
Part l: w
{ each year. Children at this stage have groMh spufts - sudden boost in
,,1

'il
height and weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in appetite
and food intake. Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for r()
rl
the growth that occurs during adolescence. The body fat increase oc- Part 2: E
'I,'l
t curs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
Girls appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean \AI

body mass per inch of height than girls. These are all normal part of h
development. These differences in body composition become very signifi- st
cant during adolescence. Part 3: C
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their
physical appearance. Girls. especially, rnay become concerned about their
weight and decide to eatless. Boys may become aware of their stature
and muscle size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers
must be very conscious about their dealings with these children. Appro-
 ______----

Unit 5 Module 21 - Physical Development of the lntermediate Pupil

priate activities must be designed so that children will be guided into the
right direction. Children must be given opportunities to engage them-
selves in worthwhile activities that:
o promote healthy growth
o give them a feeling of accomplishment
. reduce the risk of certain diseases
This stage is also characterized by advanced development of their
fine and gross motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina increase as
they are offered different physical activities.
Chitdren may become more interested in physical activities where
they can interact with friends and family. Activities which they can
sharp with parents (e.g. biking, running, playing basketball) show ohildren
that exercising can be fun.

$nrrrcATrcil
l. Being healthy physically greatly helps children to succeed in their
everyday undertaking in their late adulthood.

Design a simple exercise program appropriate for children ages 9

to 12. Divide your program into three parts:

Part l; Warm Up Activities:

- May include breathing exercises and stretching
routines.
Part 2: Exercise Proper:
- May consist of three to four sets of exercises
which may focus on the following areas: (a) body
balance and posture, (b) endurance, (c) muscle
strength and/or (d) agility.
Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Aaivity:
- Includes another set of breathing and stretching
exercises.
Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

msYltAP
Title of Exercise Children
physical appeat
Part l: Warm Up Activities: rpsearches in th
such as health
Summariz
o Researcl
o Findirgs

Part 2: Exercise Proper: o Conclwi

o Recomn
o Referen

As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate

school children develop physically?
 Unit 5 Moduls 21 - Physical Devulopment of the lntermcdiet€ Pupil

m sYilAPsE srREltcrnrlttRs

Children in their late childhood are often concerned about their

physical appearance. They may suffer physical conditions. Read on
rcsearches in the area of physical development of intermediate schoolers
such as health issues.
Summarize one research by stating the ff. research problems:
o Research Methodolory
o Findings
o Conclusions
o Recommendations
o References
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

MRtH.tc,oN nnoDuU

From the module on the Physical Development of Intermediate School

Children, I leamed that...

ffi,ru,u*o
In this Module, c

. examine
children.
. discuss ir
intermedi
. enumeral
leaming r

NrRol
ryffiu
Since chilr
stage are alrea
late childhood, n
ment of mental
dent. Accordi
Piaget, concrete
thinkers can n(
thoughts effectivt
they can only l
ceive the immed
They can appll
have learned to
Thus ttreir
with proper guid
of the communit
endeavors.
 Unit 5 Module 21 - Physical Development of the lntermediate Pupil

Development of
MoDULEnCognitive
ntermediafe Schoolers I
tleidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Eil.
-

@cHAttE*ct
ln this Module, challenge yourself to:
a examine the cognitive characteristics of intermediate school
children.
o discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development of
intermediate school children.
a enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the
leaming environment, leaming activities and instructional materials.

'W-rNTRoDucTroru

Since children in this

stage are already in their
late childhood, rapid develop-
ment of mental skills is evi-
dent. According to Jean
Piaget, concrete operational
thinkers can now organize
thoughts effectively, although,
they can only logically per-
ceive the immediate situation.
They can apply what they
have learned to situations and events that they can manipulate.
Thus their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But
with proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest
of the community, these children can easily succeed in their intellectual
endeavors.
Child and Adblescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages

Initial Cognitive
ffi"$#ACTrvril Intermed ia
abilities that ttrey
Write your understanding on the statement below. effective as comF
now more compi
solving has becor
Their abilit
thinking about r,rr
very interested in
They develop spo
even capable of r

experiences.

Reading Develol
Children in
attack. Because
a wide vocabular
unknown words t
Stage in readin_e
and magic type (
complex reading r

Attention
Older child
compared to your
how much is requ
children can con
especially if thel'

nulrYsrs Creativity
Q
Discussion Questions:
l. What kind of intelligences is being referred to by Howard
Gardner?
2. What intelligence do you think is the most evident in this stage
of development?
3. Do these intelligences vary among children in terms of age and Children at
gender? is innate in childr
parents, teachers a
 Unit 5 Module 22 - Cognitive Development of lntermediate Schoolers

Initial Cognitive Characteristics

Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive
abilities that they can now utilize. Their thinking skills have become more
effective as compared during their primary years. Their school work is
now more complicated. Reading texts have become longer; problem-
solving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning give them chances of
thinking about what they want and how to get it. They now become
very interested in talking about the future or even their potential careers.
They develop special interest in collections, hobbies and sports. They are
even capable of understanding concepts wjthout having direct hands-on
experiences.

Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word
attack. Because of the presence of previous knowledge. they now have
a wide vocabulary. which enables them to understand the meanings of.
unknown words through context clues (This is the "Reading to Learn,,
Stage in reading development.) They are no longer into the fairy tales
and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more
complex reading materials, e:g. fiction books and series books.

Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span
compared to younger children. Their span of attention is dependent on
how much is required by the given task. In terms of school work, older
children can concentrate and focus more for longer period of hours
especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.

Creativity

"CREATIVITY is not the .finding of a thing,

but making something out of it after it is
found."
- James Russell Lowell

Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity

is innate in children, they just need a little guidance and support from
parents, teachers and people around them. They are usually at their best
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

suf,fer fnor
when the work is done in small pieces.
. Children
Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities:
becoming
. encourage different responses from each child. . Children r
. celebrate uniqueness. real life.
. break stereotypes. . Children '
. value process over product. conflicts.
. reduce stress and anxiety in children. The school
. support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but access to media.
also with other chi.ldren. videos, movies, co
. minimize competition and extemal rewards. lies with the paren
a collective effon z
in every aspect of
The Impact of Media Having a rol
stage of transition ,

"klevision viewing is a highly complex, cognitive adult to admire anr

activity during which children are actively tivation to succeed
involved in learning." become a very go(
(Anderson and Collins, 1988)
Teachers...
. need to be
The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started Iopment.
in the 1950's. It was considered as one of the first technological . must under
advancements in schools. The impact of the use of television and other helP make '
media like the computer has gained popularity because students are given abililies.
more opportunity to: . must creat
. communicate effectively in speech and in writing discoveries
. work collaboratively
\ o use technological tools
il
,t
t . analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for
i achieving those goals
. seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet
their goals

Media and Aggression

Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of
media. According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following
are some of the negative results of media:
' Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
. Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who
 Unit 5 Module 22 - Cognitive Development of lntermediate Schoolers

suffer from violence.

. Children may view the world as violent and mean,
becoming more fearful of being a victim of violence.
' children will desire to.see more violence in entertainment and
real life.
' children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle
conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited
access to media, not only televisions and computers, but also
videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics. The responsibility now
lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should be"
a collective effort among the factors working together to support children
in every aspect of development.
Having a role model is extremely important for chirdren at this
stage of transition (from childhood to adolescence). It gives children an
adult to admire and emulate. Role models also provide them with mo-
tivation to succeed. one of the most important roles of teachers is to
become a very good role model to children.

Teachers...
. need to be an eager participant in children's growth and deve-
lopment.

' must understand how to use the children's natural curiosity to

help make the appropriate developmental leaps in their skiils and
abilities.
. must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and
discoveries made while chiidren remain safe.
Child and Adobsocnt Denpbpmcnt Loddng at Leamers at Difierent Lib Stages

$mnrrAnon @ sYlrAPsr
Read more o
l. Write the definitions of the following wonds based on how you un- Intermediate
derstood it. all the parts
a. Concrete operational thinkers

Look for the

b. "Reading to Learn" Stage (in Reading Development)

c. Attention Span

d. Creativity

2. What can teachers do to help encourage creativity in children?

Consider the following areas in the teaching - leaming process:

The Creative Teacher

 Unit 5 Module 22 - Cognitive Development of lntermediate Schoolers

@ sYNAPSE sTRTNGTHENERs

Read more on researches relevant to the cognitive Development of

Intermediate School children. Summarize one research report with
all the parts of an absffact given in part I, Unit I, Module I.

Look for the relationship of human and cognitive development:

 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

d
MRITEC,oN MODULI

From the module on the Cognitive Development of Intermediate

School Children, I learned that...
fficHAtLmrGt
ln this Module. cl
. identifl th
childhoo,J
. determine
developm,
' inten'ieu
ment.

#f.*i,'A
Lry'';nla lNTRol
ilt1t ?
At this peri
Iess time in the I

either alone or n
have alreadv fa
already used to r

them, these socir

also different for

,E@ACTIV

l. Paste a
Recall a
brief stor
 unit 5 Module 23 - socio-Emotional Development of lntermediate schoolers

Socio-Em otional Development

ruroDuLEn of lntermediate Schoolers
L. Heidi Grace Borabo, MA.Ed.
-

TACHATLENGE
In this Module. challenge yourself to:
. identifl, the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late
childhood stage.
' determine the qualities of family life that affect older children's
developnrent including changes in family interactions.
' interiew a parent regarding their child's socio-emotional deverop-
ment.
',#$,,,ffi
,ffiKra tNTR0DUCTt0N
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending
less time in the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home,
either alone or with other children, rather than with adults. older children
have already familiarized themselves with other children. They are
already used to interacting with different ages and gender. For many, of
them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but
also different forms of learning.

ffiMACTTvTTY
l. Paste a picture of you when you were in Grade 4, 5 or 6.
Recall a significant event that happened to you. Write a very
brief story of what happened.
 .l
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Emc
nnllYsls
Q this
Discussion Questions: unde
As you share you story with a classmate, answer the questions exp€
below: emol
l. Why was this event so significant? empi

2. What do you think were the factors that made you react or
feel that way? emol
event has affected you socially and ings
3. How do you think this
Emo
emotionally?
4. Thinking about it, do you think you could have acted or felt
differently?

c lgslRAcnolt
&
Builr
understanding Self-competence, self-Identity and Self-concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of peer
development is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is impo
what Erik Erikson referred to when he described the developmental task stabi
of middle childhood - the social crisis industry versus inferiority. incrr
Industly refers to the driye to acquire new skills and do meaningful child
"work".
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child's
.ti definitions of self and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpre-
Qtions in the surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be
it
\
.\ provided in order for children to develop a sense of perseverance.
They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed, along with
sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with
internal and psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely
employ more social comparisore - distinguishing themselves from others.
In dealing with other children, they show increase in perspective-taking.
This ability increases with age. Perspective taking enables the child to:
'
(a) judge others' intentions, purposes and actions, (b) give importance to
social attitudes and behaviors and to (c) increase skepticism of others' skills
claims.
 Unit 5 Module 23 - Socio-Emotional Developmentof lntermediate Schoolers

Emotional Development
Similar to the other areas of development, children in
this stage, show improved emotional understanding, increased
understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a single
[re questions experience. They may also show greater ability to show or conceal
emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine
empathy.

,vou react or Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children's
emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feel-
socially and ings of oneself and others and use this to guide and motivate behavior.
Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
acted or felt
. Developing emotional seli-awareness
. Managing emotions (self-control)
. Reading emotions (perspective taking)
. Handling emotions (resolve problems)

Building Friendships
[-Concept As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in
'this period of peer interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very
ence. This is important. The approval and belongingness they receive contribute to the
bpmental task stability and security of their emotional development. Peer size also
us inferiority. increases and less supervision by adults is required. At this stage,
do meaningful children prefer to belong to same-sex peer'groups.
There are five types of Peer Status:
re. The child's . Popular - frequently nominated as the bestfriend and one who
ing to interpre- is rarely disliked by peers
nities must be
. Average - receives an average number of positive and negative
perseverance.
nominhtions from peers
ed, along with
. Neglected - very seldom nominated as bestfriend but is not
really dislil<ed
hemselves with
Ey most likely . Rejected - infrequently nominated as a bestfriend but one who is

es from others. also disliked by peers

,sWctivelaking. . Controversial -
frequently nominated as a best friend but at the
:s the child to: same time is disliked by peers
r importance to Popular children which peers find very positive have the following
cism of others' skills and as a result they become the most favored in the group:
l. They give out reinforcement.
2. They act naturally.
 child and Adolescent t)B\EbplItgnt Looldng al LBamers at Different Life Stages

3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.

4. They are happy and are in control of their negative emotions.
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.
On the other hand, here are the characteristics of why the group
or majority of the peers develop negative feelings toward rejected
children:
1. They participate less in the
2.
classroom.
They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance.
Sr
3.^ They are more often reported as being lonely.
l.B
fa
4. Aggressive
cl
a.ln boys:
- They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and
disruptive.
- They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down
- They have fewer social skills to make and maintain friends.

Family
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by
success and failure. If children do not find a supportive family when
they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or playing a
musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. tf Amities are seen
as a primary support system, failures and setbacks become temporary
and surmountable rather than something that is attributed to personal
flaws or deficits. This time is a critical time for children to develop a
sense of competence. A
high-quality adult relationship, specifically, family
tl relationship enables them to successfully go thrgugh this stage of devel-
t
,r opment.
*
i
I '$ orc rDrAs
This Module stresses that:
. During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological
and social changes take place across the developmental domains.
. As children progress through late childhood, the family
environment remains extremely important, while the community
environment - including the school - also becomes a significant
factor in shaping the child's development.
; During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact
 Partll Unit5 Module23- socio-Emotional Developmentof lntermediateschoolers

on development; peer acceptance becomes very important to

I emotions. well-being.

y the group
rd rejected

$nrrrrcATrcit
I attendance.
l. Based on the readings and researches that you have, what are the
factors which greatly affect the socio-emotional development of
children in their late childhood stage.

ttentive and

wn.
r friends. FACTORS THAT GREATLY AFFECT THE
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS

rcterized by
Ermily when
x playing a
ies are seen
I temporary
to personal
o develop a
inlly, family
p of devel-

r,vchological
Nl domains.
the family
r community
a significant

hong impact
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

) Interview a parent or a teacher of an intermediate schooler. Use

the questions below as your guide. Write your conclusions and
insights.
Name of Parent (optional):

Age and Grade Level of the Child:

Gender of the Child:

Questions:
a. What were some marked changes in your child as he/she
reached the intermediate level (Grades 4 to 6)?
b. How can you describe his/lrer interactions with parents,
sibling(s)
- if
any, teachers and peers?
c. What can you say about your child's self-confidence and self-
esteem?
d. What activities in the home do you do to help your child
interact with people around him/her?

I,tri, Insights:

E
tt
\
I
,r
T
 Partll UnitS Module23- Soiio-Emotional Developmentof lntermediateSchoolers

iler. Use
bions and ffi: sYNAPst SIRI]{GIHENIRS

l. Read more on researches related to the

socio-emotional
development of intermediate school-aged children. Research on
how children emotionally respond to the following events in life:
. death
. parents' separation
. rejection from peers

as he/she

. sibling(s)

: and self-

iour child

r*/
/r/
I
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

- , RTSTARCH
&/-
Give an abstract of at least 1 research which you did in Synapse
M*
Strengtheners. Follow the parts of an abstract given in Part I, Unit I,
Module tV.

ll
,'l
i
'\fi
 Part ll unit 5 Module 23- socio-Emotional Development of -lntermediate Schooters

MRtttECTIoN

From this Module on the Socio-Emotional Developrnent of Intermediate

I leamed that...
Schoolers,
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

Adolescence illegal dru

Ut.lIT (The High School Learner) of droppi
6 personal

- Paz L Lucido, Ph,D, situatiorq

guidance
I

lives suco
high schor

WqTNTRoDUCTToN
Unconsciously, students who gain admission into high school may
be unawaie of the dangers and stresses involved in their personal
transition during the age of adolescence. Indeed, it can be a rough
time for them both at home and school, although the kind of disturbing
events adolescent students may likely meet head-on will depend on the
physical-social environment surrounding each individual leamer.

Photo by B

@cna
At tt
l. de
ch:

2. illr
ad<
Feelings of'uncertainty, even of defeat, can thus arise from
challenges that the adolescent leamer may face, balanced by the kind 3. ani
of support they receive at home or in school. In Philippine high em
po!
schools, crisis situations can occur by way of the destructive culture of
 Part ll unit 6 Module 24 - Physical Development of the High school Learners

illegal drugs and youth gang violence, and the less recognized problems
of dropping out due to social problems, such as poverty, and more
personal problems, such as low aspirations and delinquency. In this
situation, high school teachers and their schools are challenged to provide
guidance and support so that the adolescent learner can manage their
lives successfully through stresses and storms that may accompany their
high school years.

nl ma)
personal
a rougtr
lisn:rbing
d on the

Photo by Bernadette T. lnocencio Photo by Maggie l. Amor

fficHAr.rENcE
At the end of the Unit, you must be able to:
l. define adolescence and explain the concepts of biological
changes, puberty, and transition into adulthood;

2. illustrate the biological, cognitive and socio-emotional changes of

adolescence, and;
se from
le kind
3. analyze the issues related to physical, cognitive and socio-
emotional maturation inclusive of sexuality, thereby formulating
ine high
ulture of
positive values on adolescent development.
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

m0

M
ffic
A
I

ffi4
SI

@r
A
l.
2.
 Part ll unil 6 Module 24 - Physical Development of the High school Learners

Physical Development of the

rrroDuLEu High School Learners
Paz l. Lucidq Ph.D.
-

ffi*rmrilGE
At the end of this Module,.you are challenged to:
o define adolescence.
o describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying pu-
berty.
o identifr the psychological consequences of early and rate matu-
ration in the period of adolescence.
o identifl symptoms, causes of possible habit disorders and ways
of coping with them.

ffi@ACTrvrTY
Share your real life experiences along the following aspects:
o Individual perceptions whether your growth was slow or fast,
smooth or by spurts, etc. Any sense of curiosity or concern
(especially as to such incidences as menstruation for girls and
wet dreams for boys).
o How your self-image (esteem) was affected by your physical
growth (possibly too thin or plqmp, lanky or shoq homely-looking
etc.)
o Parental relationship during these years, as you may have sought
more independence, privacy, etc.

@. malYsls
Answer the following questions as a group:
l. Was there anything common in the experiences shared?
2. Was there anything unique?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

o'msrnAcrroN peak at
continual
&
spurt lat(
Defining Adolescence declining
The period of hdolescence begins with biological changes of A
puberty and ends with the role and work of adult life. The specific while bol
ages for this period varies from person to person but distinct phases stages in
have been identified. The advent of puberty may come early for some strength.
and late for some others. But everyone goes through these stages. face mat
These stages are: l). early adolescence characterlzed by pube(y mostly organs.
occurring between ages l0 and 13; 2). middle adolescence characterized B
by identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16; and 3). late adolescence part in ti
which marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive Sexual n
and socio-emotional changes, physical transition being particularly coupled T
with sexual transformation. This Module is focused on physical develop complex.
ment that takes place during adolescence. All the while, the aspect of ized chen
individuality in adolescent development is unique to each individtial, hormones
although there are common issues that depend on race and culture, signals
inclusive of dependence versus independence, changes in parent-adoles- gonadotr
cent relationship, exploration, need for more privacy and idealization of lies bene
others.
geometric
the femt
Pubertal changes gonatrotq
In all cultures, biological change comprises the major male test
transition from childhood to early adolescence. This is manifested by a secreted.
change in physical appearance, a more rapid rate of development (next lated.
to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth Sec
spurts. The phenomenon commonly results in a feeling of awkwardness comprise,
and unfamiliarity with bodily changes. first sign
In addition, alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescent rela- lation. th
tionship may be experienced accompanying puberty changes. growth. I

growth r
growth p
The growth spurts
late in p
Throughout life, the grolvth hormone conditions gradual increases in .

the laryru
body size, and weight, but hormone flooding occurs during adolescence
most obr
causing an acceleration known as the growth spurt. Body changes
In
include change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk
enlargem,
length). In particular, spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather
thap leg growth. growth s
female t
In girls, the growth spurt generally begins at age l0 reaching its
 Unit 5 Module 24 - Physical Development of the High School Learners

peak at age ll
and-a-half, and decreasing at age 13, while slow
continual growth occurs for several more years. Boys begin their groMh
I
spurt later than girls at around age 12, reaching a peak at 14 and
declining at age 15 and-a-half.
changes of At age 16 and Yo, girls reach 98 percent of their adult height,
lhe specific while boys do so at age 17 and %. Growth in height is conditioned by
[nct phases stages in bone maturation. The muscles also grow in terms of size and
ly for some strength, while a similar spurt occurs for weight, muscle size, head and
ESe stages. face maturation, and especially the development of the reproductive
hrty mostly organs.
*raracterized Briefly, all the muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take
adolescence part in the groMh spurt during adolescence.
D.

al, cognitive Sexual maturitv

arly coupled
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is
cal develop
complex. Hormones are recognized to be powerful and highly special-
lre aspect of
ized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells. The triggering by
r individdal,
hormones of the hypothalamus glands ori hormones of the pituitary glands
rnd culture,
signals the entire process of sexual maturation. Duringr the process,
rrent-adoles-
gonadotropic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary, which
balization of
iies beneath the base of the brain and are situated approximately at the
geometric center of the human head. Gonads, which are the ovaries in
the female and the testis in the male, are then stimul'ated by the
gonatrotopic hormones, in tum stimulating their own hormones. When the
the major male testis is stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, testosterone is
rifested by a secreted, while estrogen is secreted when the female ovary is stimu-
pment (next lated.
n as growth Secondary male sex characteristics are stimulated by testosterone,
rwkwardness comprised by the growth of the testis and scrotum (recognized to be the
first sign of puberty), penis and first pubic hair; the capacity for ejacu-
olescent rela- lation, the groMh spurt, voice change, facial hair development/ beard
L growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair.. The acceleration of the
growth of the penis precedes the growth spurt in height. Pubic hair
growth precedes the first appearance of facial hair growth. Occurring
late in puberty, the lowering of the voice, caused by the enlargement of
I increases in
the larynx and double lenghening of the vocal cords, is viewed to be the
; adolescence
rdy changes most obvious aspect of adolescent development.
width, trunk In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast
folvth rather enlargement, the appearance of pubic hair, the widening of the hips, a
growth spurt, and menarche (first menstruation). The elevation of the
reaching its
female breast is the first external sign of puberty in girls, while the
 Child and Adolescent Development Looking at Leames at Different Life Stages '

growth of the uterus and vagina accompanies continued enlargement of rea

ih" b..*t. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning I I to I1.5 years

(5 percent), up to 12 and 12.5 years (25 percent) and at age 13 (60 am
percent). There are, however, differences in reaching menarche in accor- inf
dance with ethnic differences. Studies show that African American and fte
European American girls may exhibit secondary sex activities as early as thir
8.87 years and 9.96 years; menarche as early as ll.6 years and 12.4 uP
years, respectively. soc

In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of ofl

puberty and sexual maturity in boys. At about age 12 or 13, boys w€

experience the enlargement of the testis and the manufacture of sperms

in the scrotum, most likely experiencing their first ejaculation of semen- Ac
a sticky fluid produced by the prostate gland. The need to discharge
semen occurs more or less periodically following pressure caused by the w(
production of seminal fluid by th'e prostate gland. Noctumal emissions or ch
"wet dreams'l occur during sleep often caused by sexual dreams. be
Masturbation or manipulation of physical sexual organs is caused lis
by conscious fantasizing, both among boys and girls. It is important to an
note that science and religion differ in their regard to masturbation. go
Modem medical science sees it as an inevitable transitional phenomenon pn
among adolescents. On the other hand, religion generally regards it sf
as gravely sinful, ascribing sin even to sexual fantasies. To view the
issue objectively, a guilt complex on the matter is unhealthy to growth. da
On the other hand, habitual masturbation is an aberration when it can sh
inhibit the growing adolescent from confidence in heterosexual (male- flr
female friendship) relationship. In the end, while the growing yotrth need
not feel guilty about natural sexual urges, they need to be forewamed
D
t about habitually giving in these urges. Outgrowing the acts of
t\ masturbation is wholesope especially during adulthood when males and
UI
\ females need to relate to each other in a mature relationship.
s€
i
n CC
d The secular trend
tr
The striking tendency for children to become larger at all ages has d,
been perceived during the past one hundred years. Known as the.
Secular Trend, the phenomenon reflects a more rapid maturation
compared with that occurring in previous millennia. In 1880, for example,
pr
the average age at which girls had their first menstrual period in well-
o
nourished industrial societies was 15 and 17 years. This is not true,
however, in depressed societies wherein this period is a bit later at about
15.5 years.
One hundred years ago, boys reached their adult height at ages
23 and 25 and girls at ages 19 and 20. Today, maximum height is
 Part ll Unit 5 Module 24 - Phyrical Development of the High School Learners

mlargement of reached between 18 and 20 years for boys and 13 and 14 for girls.
I to I1.5 years The occurrence of the secular trend is ascribed to many factors,
{ age 13 (60 among which are: the complex interaction of genetic and environmental
rche in accor- influences, improvement in health care, improved living conditions, and
American and the control of infectious diseases. Better nufrition is a major factor, since
lbs as early as this provides more protein and .calories for humans from conception
pars and 12.4 upwards. But while Third World counffies are still experiencing their
secular trends, industrialized countries appear to experience the levelling
[e first sign of off in the achievement of physical maturation and greater height and
2 or 13, boys weight at earlier ages.
frne of sperms
tion of semen- Adolescent sleeping habit
d to discharge Studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, and.
r caused by the would want more sleep. Actually, lack of sleep is likely caused by
al emissions or changes in adolescent behavioural patterns. Teens often stay up late
dreams. because they enjoy it, especially with the advent of Internet music
Fns is caused listening, video watching, message/pholo/e-cam communication, chatting,
is important to and blogging. About 90 percent of teenager high school student r.po.t
r masturbation. going to bed later than midnight. Socializing with peers add to the
al phenomenon problem, causing difficulties'in waking up early and causing teenagers to
rally regards it struggfe to stay alert and function productively-
s. To view the Shorter sleep time also contributes to increased levels of depression,
rlthy to growtlt. daytime sleepiness, and problems with sleeping. The school and teachers
on when it can should therefore take time to impart healthy sleeping habits, to prevent
rosexual (male- fluctuations in moodiness and anemic conditions among teens.
ving youth need
be forewarned
Exploration
rg the acts of
vhen males and Instinctively, adolescents become aware of changes in sexuality, thus
nship. undergoing a period of exploration and adjustment. Learners from
sectarian (religious and gender exclusive) schools are more likely to
consider sexual openness to be dangerous, if not sinful. The case is not
perceived among non-sectarian or gender mixed schools, although more
at all ages has
dangers exist relating to heterosexual relationship and early pregnancy
Known as the among students in non-exclusive schools.
pid maturation
80, for example,
The drug culture, especially in urbanized communities,
period in well-
presents a serious danger to students who are undergoing the
his is not true, exploratory phase of adolescent development. '
it later at about
Pluses and minuses in early or late
maturation
, height at ages Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can be
imum height is
 Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

a factor for adolescent acceptance and comfort or satisfaction with his/ weight, gi
her body image. Among girls, physical changes are more dramatic, but caution.
perceptions of not being well developed as compared with their peers cents wht
can be a cause for timidity or shyness, if not frustration. In the case of cannot pr
late maturing boys, the slack in growth in body build, strength, motor with food
performance and coordination may inhibit their performance in curricular sources sl
and extra-curricular activities, such as in sports. Being physically weaker, It ir
shorter and slimmer would make them less apt to be outstanding in age grou
leadership activities and in sports. On top of these, late maturing teens (hamburg
are seen by their peers as being more childish, more inhibited, leis
independent, less self-assuring, and less worthy of leadership roles.
The idea
.. Meanwhile, teens who develop faster than their peers may be It's
overly conscious of this phenomenon. It helps to know that early image. TI
mafuring teens undergo a more intensive growth spurt than late mahrrirtg
color of
teens. It can be a great plus for boys, who become bigger than be respa
their age, more muscular, more physically attractive and more athletic.
change ir
It is obvious that the early maturing teens can gain social adyantage, Th
in -esteem and greater inner poise. But there are also some disadvan-
cem goo
tages, such as greater expectation on the part of others, resulting in
o(
lessening the experience of freedom in more steady groMh.
op

The ideal masculine and feminine physiques

.f
Most adolescents desire an "ideal body," which is the same as
.I
being physically attractive or handsome in face (features of the eyes, .I
nose, lips, hair, :etc.) and in body (tall and muscular for boys and tall
and slender for girls).
' In the developed countries like the U.S., about l0 percent of ado-
I lescents have been known to take anabolic steroids in tablet or in
t\ injectible form for cosmetic and athletic performance purposes, It is
t important to forewam adolescents about the severe harmful effects of
i
h
long term use of steroids: liver dybfunction, cancer,. and damage to the
+t reproductive system. Short-term effects are hair loss, severe acne, high
blood pressure, shrunken testicles and low spenn production. Girl users
develop irreversible masculine characteristics, such as groMh of facial
hair. Steroids may also foster aggressive and destructive behaviour. Finally,
giving up the drug may lead to depression and suicide.

Adolescents and nutrition

Necessary for adolescent years are sufficient amounts of vitamin
Bl2 (found in animal proteins), calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin and viamin
D. Magic diet schemes 'suggested by advertising and magazines to lose
 Part ll Unit SModule 24 - Physical Development of the High School Learners

I with his/ weight, give a radiant hair, whiten the skin, etc. should be met'with
matic, but caution. The vegetarian fad can also be disastrous especially to adoles-
heir peers cents who need vitamins, minerals and protein which vegetable diets
he case of cannot.provide. Vegetable intake is good, but this should be balanced
gth, motor with food intake to form high-quality nutrition including eating protein
t curricular sources such as milk, dairy products and eggs.
Ity weaker, It is a recognized fact that teens are the poorest eaters among
hnding in age groups, as they often skip meals, frequently take snack foods
ring teens (hamburger, fuies, pizza, soft drinks, etc.) at fast-food eateries.
bited, less
roles.
The ideal body
s may be It's important that adolescents feel confident about their body
that early
image. The physical features of the human body (facial looks, body size,
e maturing
color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage which must generally
igger than
be respected. However with advancement in hair and skin technology,
re athletic.
change in hair color and skin are no longer impossible.
adyantage,
disadvan=
There is more to body image than physical looks and these con-
:sulting in cem good habits in relation to:
. Cleanliness and grooming
. Proper wearing of clothes following current styles
. Erect bodily posture
i same as
. Eye contact while communicating
'the eyes, . Decorum (good form and confidence) and decency
m and tall

rt of ado-
blet or in
oses. It is
effects of
age to the
rcne, high
Girl users
r of facial
ur. Finally,

lfvitamin
nd vitamin
ps to lose
 Child antl Adob3cent Oeyelopmctil: Lolrine at Laanatr et Oifierent Life Stages

2. Play
$mrrrcATror lede
w€t
l. Cite at least 5 big ideas from this Module. Cive a concrete agt
application of each in your personal life. 3. Org
grcu
Blg ldca from thh ilodulc Concrete Application 4. Org
in your Life groo
ato
5. Do
achi
6. Prel
stud
the I

2. clim

3.

4.

5.
 Part ll Unit 5 itbdule 24 - Physical Dey.lopment of the High School Leamers

2. Play the role of medical expert who can provide wholesome know-
ledge and attitudes on physical transition in puberty (menstruation,
wet dreams, spermache etc.) and give a powerpoint presentation to
a concrete a group of adolescents.
Organize a fun cooking activity making nutrition an element in the
goup activity. :

4. Organize a symposium on poise and grace (walking,

grooming, eye contact, etc) for adolescents. Each one must havp
a topic to talk about or demonstrate.
5. Do group sharing on your aspirations and ideals (celebrities,' ^
achievers, etc.) during the period.
Prepare a life-map which caR assist' in guiding future
students towards academic and future achievement (patterned after
the possible life-map of achievers, such as the Filipino Mt. Everest
climbers).
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

ffinwttcnou IrflODl,
Joumal Entry

ment
Reflect on how as a future teacher can you foster the develop-
of adolescent high school learners, such that the learners:
l. become aware of the personal transition-problems and stresses-

?,
springing from physical changes affecting him/her as an
adolescent;
can overcorne possible problems and stresses as adolescents;
I
HT:t:
3. are capable of identifuing the problems and sffesses peculiar to
l. desc,

Filipino high school students, different from students of other Phas

cultures (e.g. Americaris, Europeans, etc.);

2. iden
m€ta
4. acquire wholesome and balanced attitude towards modern IT
3. defir
technolory (lntemet surfing, chatting, e-mailing etc.) as a tool in .poss
learning and personal growth;
4. expl
5. develop approaches to foster self-esteem and wholesome attitude incl
towards their physical groMh (whether naturally/genetically tall, argu
thin, homely looking, etc.) among learners;
6. can envision lifelong values related to their physical
development (inclusive of grace and refinernent) contributing to
their personal success and a sense of fulfilment in life.
fr&.
Share
them to You;
. You
@ ffiBsrrE ACnvrTY affe

Surf the net for information on the genetic physical features of

' SP€{
(e.9.
different nationalities: such as Filipinos, Chinese, Japanese, Americans, fini
etc. and. how geography, climate, nutrition, and racial mix (as case of dem
Fil-Ams and Euro-Asians) affect physicality.
' Fiel

@mr
Answ
l. All
ctu
2. Dir
or[
p{(
ITX
bru
 Part ll Unit 5 Module 24 - Physical Development of the High School Learners

Cognitive Development of the

nnoDuH 25 High School Learners
l.
- Paz Lucido, Ph.D.

he develop-
rners:
md stresses-
t'her as an
CHAttT}IGE
olescents: In this Module, you are challenged to:
s preculiar to l. describe the theories of cognitive thinking and relate these to the
phases of teaching-and-leaming.
nts of other
2. identify the avenues for the adolescent learner's acquiring
metacognition, elevating his thinking ability base.
modern IT
3. define overachievement and underachievement and propose
as a tool in
to underachievement.
.possible solutions
4. explain the outcomes of the adolescent's new thinking skills,
ome attitude
inclusive of egocentrism, idealism and increased
*ically' tall.
argumentativeness.

ir phl,sical
ntributing to fr&ACrrvrTY
lile.
Share real life experiences about the following and relate
them to your cognitive development:
. Your grades (possible awards, recognition) and how these
affected you.
. Special projects that gave you opportunities for higher thinking
features of
(e.g. IT research, workshops, planning, discovering, organizing,
. .\mericans. finishing a project) and what cognitive processes were
(as case of
demanded of you.
. Field Study and how this helped you ilevelop cognitively.

@ nnnlsls
Answer the following questions:
1. All the activities you shared are cognitive in nature. What
changes are included in cognitive development?
2. Did you suddenly blossom into the thinker, the planner, the
organizer, the researcher, the analyst that you are? What
processes came along with these forms of cognitive develop-
ment? Did these come along with physical development of the
brain?
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Difierent Life Stages

o ngsmAcTrolr
For Pia
thinking is th
A
sis, which is
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional situation, testi
period of adolescence, are changes in thinking pattems. These changes of a situatio
are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain's laboratory e4
increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections (technically known elements siq
as the corpus collosum) which join and coordinate the two hemi- chemical cha
spheres of the brain. Another brain development is the process of con- A new
tinuous concentration of the brain cells in the prefrontal cortex and Rpasoning,
related temporal and parietal areas (technically known as myelination). situations to
This second development covers the brain systems whose executive an examPle r
functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and planning. truth, exPress
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been a hypothesis.
identified by neurological scientisis and these are .at age 12, age 15, Scienti
and age 18.5, coinciding with the operational thinking processes of logical capacity for
reasoning. Accompanying brain changes in cognitive capability, the will allow t
adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or such as in P
general ideas involving numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these projections t

changes propel the adolescent from the world of the sensible and formal opera
concrete'thoughts to the world of the possible and the qniversal Westem cul
(abstract ideas, such as on the generally good, true and beautiful). thinking Pro
Outsid
Piaget's Formal Qperational Thinker mathematicr
Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking . capability u

which demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows identifuing 1

him/her to go beyond the sensible and concrete to dwell on what is ab- The probkn
stract, hypotheticpl, multidimensional and possible. In this realm of ideas and a
thought, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the previously s
sphere of possible and futuribles. More specifically, formal operational The a

thinking consists in: thought. 1

(a) propositional thinking--making assertions outside visual everydaY li{

evidence, and stating what may be possible in things not seen by the or response
eyes (for example, whether an unseen object is red or green, big or
small, flat or round); Siegler's I
(b) relativistic thinking-subjectively making an opinion on facts - As
- involving one's own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts-which may be influence o1
either right .or wrong '(for example, arguing for or against the as stages
superiority of the races, whether white, brown, yellow or black); specific kn
(c) real versus possible-examining a situation and exploring the quality of
possible in terms of situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in influences I

implementing a student project or a school policy).

 Part ll Unat 5 Module 25 - Cognitive Development of the High School Learners

For Piaget one indication of the prqsence of formal operational

thinking is the ability of the adolescent thinker for combinational analy-
sis, which is his taking stock of the effects of several variables in a
the transitional situation, testing one variable at a time, and not randomly. An application
r These changes of a situation whicll requires combinational anglysis is -the school
r !o the brain's laboratory experiment activity whefein high school students test chemical
dmically known , elements singly and in combination resulting in an understanding of .
the two hemi- chemical changes.
process of con- A new thought capacity, known as Hypothetico-Deductive
rtal cortex and Reasoning, emerges in the adolescent reasoning from general facts/ '
s myelination). sltuations to a particular conclusion. The school pendulum experiment is
*rose executive an example of deducing from variables and generating and recognizing a
I planning. truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving a conclusion from
ation have been a hypothesis.
rye 12, age 15, Scientific evidence shows that'while adolescents may obtain the
cesses of logical capacity for format operational thinking, only experience and education
capability, the will allow them to actuatty practice it. School math and science courses,
ulate abstract or such as in performing Physics-type problems (balance scales, pendulums,
ffect. All these projections of images and shadows, etc,) certainly help in actualizing
e sensible and formal operational thinking, although only 40 to 50 percent of 'adults in
I the qniversal Western cultures have shown evidence of success in formal cognitive
beautiful). thinking processes.
Outside formal operational thinking which can be developed by
mathematical and science studies, the adolescent enters into a new
ional Thinking . capability which makes him a Problem-Solving Thinker. This involves

iolescent allows identiffing problems and seeking new ard creative solutions for them.
on what is ab- The problem-finding thinker is one who is able to rethink and reorganize
n this realm of ideas and ask important questions, evEn defining totally new problems not
ng, entering the previously seen.
mal operational The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of
thought. Thus, he/she is able to bring what is logically "best" for
outside visual everyday life, whether or not this may be the objectively correct solution
rot seen by the or response to a situation or problem.
)r green, big or
Siegler's Information-Processing Skills
inion on facts - As in information-processing theorist, Robert Siegler views the
rwhich may be influence of the environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not
or against the as stages of development, but more of a sequential acquisition of
r black); specific knowledge and strategies for problem solving. He observes the
d exploring the quality of information the adolescent processes, and those information
ible success in influences him/her in his facing tasks at hand ttrrough strategies or rules.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamer6 at Different Life Stages

In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation t'o balara- those
weight, distance, conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and conflict balarn clrve
problems. He examined the correct and wrong answers to each of tt: of le
problems, drawing out rule models in thinking and knowing.
Thereupon, adolescents may show: (a) speed in informatioa rDt dr
processing, coupled with greater awareness and control and acquired srch a
knowledge base-a more emcient kind of thinking compared with tha d Bq,on
the child (b) complexrty by way of considering longer term implicati<rr (in En
and possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and (c) increased volume d &mon
information processing, coupled with longer memory span. csrsisfi
rrcss (
compa
Metacognition
rhieri
Among the developmental cognitive advances in adolescence b
l.
metacognition. This involves the ability to think above thinkiry
evidenced by awareness of and Capacity to identiff one's own thinkfu;
:.
process&s or strategies--perception, comprehension, memory and problcn
solving. 3.

The. knowledge acquired through experience is stored in lgng terl

memory and now becomis more declarative ("1 know that"), as ncl 4.

as procedural ("1 know how"). Thus, the learner becomes aware d

his/her poor memory, such that the ,adolescent may be prqdded n 5.
muster cognitive capacity to supplement poor memory by emplolng I
memory aid, for example, a list of things to do and a mnemonk
device. The learner may also spend time with and attention to I 6.
material to be leamgd, demonstrating higher thinking skills.
Another important information-processing trend is the adolescerft
ability to acquire an increased amount of knowledge and skills aloog 7.
many areas or domains. From a novice, he/she becomes a near-€xpe[
Information is also processed more rapidly, while showing increased levcb
of memory performance. Urder
Il
Overachievers re lab
Achievement and IQ tests are standard measurements of th sores
leamer's abilities, as well as potentials for success in given areas. \\B belor*-
IQ tests alone do not measure the great number of abilities that are plt driete
of human intelligence, they are still relatively good predictors of succcs !€es
in school achievement. Indirectly, IQ tests are a beneficial instrument L A
identiffing leaming deficiencies in leamers. . &scrib
In many societies, students who get IQ scores that place them i oltrt b
the top 3 and 5 percent on the bell curve are considered "gifted." Sf,- mresis
,g sc
 Part ll unit 5 Module 25 - cognitive Development of the High school Learners

l talanca those whose IQ tests are not in the top 3 and 5 percent on the bell
I talancc curue may actually achieve very high academic grades. The latter
ffi
*r of the of learners are labelled overachievers.
The case of overachievers serve as a reminder that the Ie test is
brmation not the only determinant in school achievement. There are other factors
acquired such as, motivation, interest, work habits, and personality development.
[r t'at of Beyond what are statistically shown by achievement in curicular subiects
plicdims (in English, Math, Science, Araling panlipunan,- etc.), overachievers
olume of demonstrate superior work habits, greater interest in school work, more
consistency in doing assignments, and more grade/performance conscious-
ness. overall, they show more responsibility, consciousness and planning
compared with "normal" achievers. Listed as characteristics of over-
achievers are:
iscence ls
thinking. l. Positive self value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism)
n trinkirg 2. openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and
I problern teachers)
3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to
long temt feelings of others)
), as well 4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to
aware of make right choices, initiates and leads activities)
rqdded to 5. Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to
rploying a discover and leam, interest in study values and varied fields of
mnemonic study)
ttion to a 6. Goal-orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning,
setting target, prioritizing long-term goals over short-term
dolescent's pleasures)
dlls along 7. control over anxiety (well composed and reraxed in performing
lear€xperL organized tasks)
ased levels

Underachievers
Individuals whose performance are below the measured Ie levels
are labelled underachievers. ln spite of possible potentials to leam and
nts of the scores in the top quarter on measured academic ability, their grades are
eas. While below their measured aptitudes for academic achievement. under-
ff are part achievement becomes more pronounced with the beginning of adolescent
of success years in high school when class work becomes more demanding.
trmment in As to types of underachievers, the withdrawn underachievers are
described as having a more pronounced tendency to be passive (thri:ir
ce them in overt behavior being submissive and docile). They follow the path of
[ed." Still, no-resistance, not reacting against given assignments and actually follow-
irg school regulations. Generally quiet, they tend not to participate in
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Difierent Lifb Stages

class activities. Meanwhile, the aggressive underachievers tend to be rmagr

talkative, if not disruptive and rebellious' to br

self-ir
earl1.
Parental involvement
There are many theories on underachievement, but generally the
2. Ideat
to po
influence of parents appears to be the dominant influence on the at hc
adolescent's achievement levet, more than peer group influence. A
irnpo
summary of differences between parents of high achievers and under-
becor
achievers will help teacher educators understand the significance of
short
parental involvement in adolescent leaming and involvement in school
activities.
of high achievers demonstrato: Developil
Generally, parents
Gerx
l. Positive attitudes about leaming, school, teachers, arid intellectual '
cognitive
activities, such as by exposing their children to stimulating books,
Philippina
word games, wholesome sports, travel, etc.;
directly en
2. Harmonious and supportive relationship, inclusive of open, free
the pa*r u
and enjoyable interaction within the family;
graduates
J. Their own capabilities for success, conflict management, inde- '

in the pn
pendent choice with which children can identify;
mismarch
4: Encouragement and support for their children's echievement examined.
without undue Pressure; social prol
5. Active involvement in the school program and in parent-teacher- Tol
community activities. area of de
Meanwhile, parents of underachievers show little or none of the adolescent
above traits, while possibly showing: guide stud
l. Indifference and disinterestedness in academic and extracurricular types matr
activities of their children; Holland ha
2. Authofitarian, restrictive and' rejecting: attitudes or the work prefr
opposite, namely being excessively lax so as to leave their .Rr
children on their own without any involvement or support; re(
J. Excessive indulgence, solicitousness, and protectiveness, thus int
stifling their children's self initiative. .In
int,
Possible adolescent behavior durtng cognitive growth the

Accompanying cognitive growth are possible behaviors which etc

need to be understood for proper g;idance of the adolescent: .So
l. Egocentrism. This'is the tendency among adolescents to think too sin
much of themselves, Such as to be too sensitive to social wo

acceptance of their appearance, actions, feelings, ideas, etc.- Feeling

.Co
they are being watched like an actor on a stage, they keep an the
 Part ll Unit 5 Module 25 - counitive Development of the High school Learners

:"nd to bc imaginary audience making them anxious about what to wear, how
to behave, etc. one egocentric strain is one's feeling exaggeratedly
self-important, leading to dangerous situations such as entering into
early boy-girl relationships, reckless escapades and adventures.
rrrally ttre 2. Idealism. The adolescent opens thought on the possibre, an avenue
rce on the to possibly imagining what is far-fetched and less ideal to situations
fluence. A at home, in school, and in society. Imagining the world of the
md under- impossible (as a utopia or heaven on eafth), the adolescent may
ificance of become discouraged as social realities (e.g. family discords) fall
t in school short of the ideal.

Developing occupational skills

intellecu.ral Generally, the high school curriculum tends to focus on academic
ring books, cognitive learning, neglecting attention to occupational skills. In the
Philippines, there is evidence that high school graduates lack skills to
'open, free directly enter the labor sector. Generally, college education is viewed as
the path to occupations and careers in life. Unfortunately, even college
graduatgs are viewed to lack occupational skills needed for employment
ment, inds-
in the present-day commercial and industrial sectors. The possible
mismatch between academic preparation and the professions need to be
chievement
examined. Schools which are diploma mills certainly do not contribute to
social progress.
rent-teacher-
Today, experts believe that high schools can go more along the
area of developing occupational skills than they are curently providing
none of the
adolescent students in high school. It is impo(ant therefore, at least to
guide students on their future career choices to view how personality
rtracurricular types match occupational interests and potential skills. Theorist John
Holland has identified basic personality factors matched with attitude and
des or the work preferences. These personality factors are as follows:
leave their . Realistic-This personality type prefers practical tasks, often
tpport
requiring physical labor and motor coordination, and less of
reness, thus interpersonal skills, e.g. in construction (carpenters, drivers, etc.)
. Investigative-They prefer to think rather than act, being
interested in tasks that use conceptual skills, e.g. in the field of
the sciences and technology (chemists, scientists, technologists,
viors which etc.)
It: . Social-They are social and tend to engage in interpersonal
to think too situations and social interaction, e.g. in the social sciences (social
e to social workers, physicians, broadcasters, etc.)
etc. Feeling . Conventional-They prefer structured tasks, and can subject
rcy keep an their needs to those of others, e.g. in office jobs (clerks,
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

manual workers, etc.).

Enterprising-They are skilled and constructive in thoughts and
actions, and are capable of leading others, e.g' in business,
industries (sales,'enterprises, etc.) itr q
Artistic-They prefer unstructured tasks and may show ability
for self-expression, e.g. in the arts (artists, musicians, peformers,
etc.)

It is understood that early enough, an adolescent may show various

personality factors making him capable of performing more than a single
task. Thus, we have cases of physicians entering into business ventures,
scientists enjoying artistic pursuits and the like.
Adolescents can show abilities for gainful work, such as those who
work part-time or full-time in fast-food restaurants as kitchen help, in
retail stores as sales clerks, and in offices as messengers and utility
personnel. High school students who work can benefit by acquiring the
attitudes and abilities needed for gainful occupation. These are:
. Self-reliance (working without being stressed)
. Ability to manage money (not spend money on luxuries, much
less on alcohol or drugs)
Social responsibility (cooperation and respect for others includ-
ing superiors)
a Mature work orientation (pride in the work done, quality work)
a Personal responsibility (lndependently competing tasks)
o Positive attitudes about work (it is not a burden, but a gainful
and wholesome activity that contributes tp personality growth)

Extracurricular activities
School activities outside the subjects for classroom study are
mechanisms for further development of the adolescent student allowing
the acquisition of new attitudes (such as discipline and motivation),
knowledge (such as of organization, sports, etc.), and skills (grganizing,
planning, time-managing, athletics, etc.).
Extracurricular activities ane an avenue for leadership, although
there is need to caution students on devoting more time than necessary
to these tasks since their more important curricular or study work may
suffer. For example, joining a stage club may be so engrossing espg-
cially to the artistically bent, such that studies may be neglected causing
lower academic achievement.
 Unit 5 Module 25 - Cognitive Development of the High School Learners

@ amucAnoN
Is and
siness Give one important concept that you leamed under each then give
its application in the teaching-leaming process.
ability
kmcrs
One Concept Learned An application in the
teaching-learning process
\aious 1. Piaget's formal operation 1.
a singh stage
,EfIUJTEE

e wtp
Elp, in
d utility
ing tE

;s, mudl

s inclu*

qv work) 2. Siegleds lnformation- 2.

t) processing skills
a pinfut
fo\r,tt)

study are
allowirg
ltivation),
rganizirg,

although
necessar,'
*ork rnaY
sing espe-
ed causitg
 t.Qlmer3 at Dificrent Life Stages
Child and Adolesccnt Dernlopment: Looling et

One ConcePt Leamed

An application in the MnEruolor
teaching.learning Procest
Reflect on the
.encouraged your cog
ones did not. As a :

from . your past teacl

cognitive developnrenP

4. Overachievement

@ffiBsrTr Acl
Intemet rEsearch,
achievers:
. *Little'; Stevie
composition, "L
5. Underachievement . Wolfgang Ama
. Anne Frank at
occupation of I
. Cralileo at age
. Leonardo da
Painters' Guild
 Unit 5 Modute 25 - Gogtilul Daibpncnt of the High Gchool trrrh€rr

MRErrcuolr
Reflect on the practices of your past teachers. which ones
.encouraged your cognitive development as an adolescent
and which
ones did not. As a future teacher, what lessons have you learned
from . your past teachers regarding ways of enhancing adolescents'
cognitive development?

@wEBsrTr Affrvrry
Intemet rcsearch, rcport and group discussion on notable adolescent
achievers:

' "Little" Stevie wonder who at age l0 wrote his first musical
, composition, "Lonely Boy."
' wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at age 12 wrote his first opera.
' Anne Frank at age 13 wrote his famous diary during the Nazi
occupation of Holland in 1942.
. Galileo at age 17 began his study of physics in l5gl.
' Leonardo da vinci at age z0 was admitted to the
Painters' Guild in 1472.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

o,:
ABsTRAorot
Socfo-em otion al D evelopment d'
Adolescence, a
ruroDULE 26 - Paz l. Lucido, Ph.D. can be the best of ti
excitement, discovery
related to adolescen
frequenting partiess an
are atypical to other
use frequently occr-n r
'ffi,WulNrRoDUCrloN go through happy tin
able to go through tr
college education.
During adolescence, the teen shows manifestations of groMh as
he/she begins to have friends in school, attends parties, goes to
Self-Understanding
discos and keeps intimate friends with the same or with the opposite
sex. These extemal manifestations are signs of socio-emotional groMh Physica! and c

which usher in self-knowledge, self-identity, social relationships, and what are accompanied by
scholars see as an intensification of stereotypical gender roles (males among adolescents.
tend to be different from females). significance since this
truman. lnhumanity,
and the despotic (fti
CHALTENGE
suffering and sadness
In this Module, you are challenged to: In early adole
identifl, the socio-emotional changes in the adolescent. reflective idea of orr'--
describe how seltimage develops among teens. which younger chil&
determine the wholesome attitudes and values in teenage friend- future. During adohs
ship. and irnportance to r
discem the causes of moral reasoning and feeling, while under- inhospective thinkirg r
standing religiously-imposed morality. is bright, flexible, ine
recognize the need of the adolescent for freedom and privacy, From self-imag
also known as adolescent emancipation. esteem. This is an a
limitations or deficier
becomes useless and
ffi&ACrvrTY others in self-pity (e
Student-teachers share real-life experiences on their personal class grades as the
development as adolescents. The class niay be divided with groups of 5 number of personagu
or 6 to draw up group findings on socio-emotional issues, such as: the beautiful people r
(Aristotle, Einstein, B
(1) Developing self-esteem in the family
cannot be these peol
(2) Developing self-esteem in school
really a futile exercis
(3) Friendships during adolescence
(4) Joining cliques (barkadas) and consequences
(5) Intimate same-sex friends
(6) Intimate opposite sex friends
 Unit 5 Module 25 - Cognitivc Danlopment of the High Scrrool lcarrrlt

"*'r:
o-,
lgstRA(loil '

Adslescence, as expressed in the book "The Tale:of TWo Citieq"

can be the best of times... the worst of times." While it is a time of
excitement, discovery and joy, it can also ,bpen undesirable experiences
related to adolescent anXiety, concerns and troubles. Hanging out,
frequenting parties, and feeling first loves are typical to adolescents, but
ar€ atypical to other age gmups. Meanwhile, jwenile"violance and drug
use frequently occur during teenage'years. Forhrnately;.. most adolescents
go through happy times and are able to get themselves together to be
able to go through the next stage of development in adulthood through
college education.

Self-Understanding
Physica! and cognitive developments do not come in isolation, hrt
are accompanied by growth in self-image and maturation of feelings
among adolescents. The formation of a self-concept is of paramount
significance since this relates to enduring trais that make the person fully
[ruman. Inhumanity, as sadly demonstrated bj, the egotistic, the cruel
and the despotic (think of Herod, Hitler, Stalin, etc.) have caused much
suffering and sadness to mankind in huinan history.
In early adolescence (10-13 years),,the teen begins to acquire a
reflective idea of one's self, not only in terms of the immediate pres€nt
which younger children also see, but in terms of their past and their
future. During adolescent years, the teen also begins to see hiVher role
and irnportance to society. This development requires self-thought or
inhospective thinking along generalized ideas, such as in thinking tlrat one
is bright, flexible, intelligent etc.
From self-image, there is the all important value known as setf-
esteem. This is an appreciation of who one is, regardless of possible
limitations or deficiencies in bodily and mental qualities. In the end, it
becomes useless and unhealthy to seriously compare ourselves with
others in self-pity (e.g. not being as good looking or not having high
class grades as the other fellow). One can only think of unlimited
number of personages who are incomparable in physical traits (such as
the beautiful people of the celebrity world) and in intellectual acumen
(Aristotle, Einstein, Bill Gates, etc.). Since the growing youth ordinarily
cannot be these people, making comparisons of self with others is
really a futile exercise.
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

Stereotypes in gender differences As girls begin t

Scholars make reference to gender differences, as studies in connection with their
countries like the U.S. show that boys have higher self-esteem in confidence, tusting th
achievement and leadership, while girls see themselves better in terms of engage more freely i
congeniality and sociability (Hattie & Marsh, 1996). These studies also tence and energy. B
show that boys are more self-sufficient, while girls are help-seeking. surfaces for girls to I
Other studies show that girls have a higher self-esteem in relation to more self-conscious
competence in spelling, penmanship, nea0less, reading and music (Elcless, development girls te
et al., 1993). Meanwhile, boys feel more competent in math subjects, adventure.
while, girls prefer social and verbal skills (Marsh, 1989). ln terms of While the result
general abilities and self-confidence, however, no significant differences youths of other coun
wqre observed. serve as safeguards to
Meanwhile, another U.S. study shows that Hispanic American grls during their adolescr
view themselves stereoffid as more 'Teminine," therefore more submis- effects of adolescent t
sive and dependent, than their European American counterparts. On the More important to nc
other hand, European American girls tend to see themselves As stronger . Self-esteem
and more active, nurturing and expressive compared with their Hi6panic regardless of
counterparts (Varquez-Nuttal, et al., 1987). emotional).
Within the family domain, there are also stereotyping concepts of . Potential enr
adolescent American boys and girls. Boys tend to prefer activity and through hmil;
autonomy of children,'while girls prefer family relationship, connection, I o The personal
and openness. On feelings, girls experience more anxiety, self-doubt in although mot
making choices, isolation/individualism in the family, compared with boys. (coming from
Generally, girls are a more emotional lot cornpared with boys (Olver et . Popularity ar
al., 1990). comely lmks)
In adult life, studies show that men see themselves as.separate are among tl
and distinct persons, while women tend to see themselves through otherg esteem but tl
for example as a daughter, wife, or mother. Consequently, women tend to growth. The
give way . to the wishes of others, even sacrificing their own interests. self-esteem lu
On the other hand, men more easily know their own needs and their regardless of
genuine desires in life (lz.ard &Ackerman, 996), . Self-appreciati
If these research findings apply also in Philippine setting? Find out other intemal
which can lea
Developing self-esteem she needs in
Some scholars see the roots of self esteem in the mother-child
relationship. Thus" boys develop a masculine trait in self esteem since Friendship and intin
there is more distancing between mother and son, compared with the Teenage friendstr
closer emotional connection between mother and daughter. The high terms of sharing ,of d
involvement and intrusion by mothers in the lives of their daughter anl rcsponding to one ano
observed to cause delay in the development of self-individuation among to spend more tirne w
girls. comprising an emotior
 Unit 5 Module 26 - Socioemotional Developrnent

As girls begin to separate themselves form the matrix of emotional

connection with their mother (7-ll years), they gain strength and selfl
confidence, trusting their own feelings and knowledie. They also begin to
engage more freely in sports ind the arts with more courage, compe-
tence and e.nergy. But at age 14 (middle adolescence), the danger
surfaces for lirls to lose their assertiveness, as their personality becomes
more self-conscious and deferential. It appears that at this stage of
development, girls tend to lose their flexibiliry optimism and spirit of
adventure.
while the results of these U. s. studies may not be applicable to
youths of other countries and cultures, these are useful ideas that can
serve as safeguards to ensure the proper directions for reorienting youths
during their adolescent growth. It does appear, however, that the
effects of adolescent transitions and acquisition of self-esteem are mixed.
More important to note are some established facts, namely:
' Self-esteem means appreciation of one's self or self-love,
regardless of genetic potential endowments (physical, mental,
emotional).
' Potential endowments can be developed to a great extent
through family formation, school education, and sociat influence.
' The personal attitude-and-will to grow depends on the individual,
although motivational influences can help progressive growth
(coming from parents, siblings, friends, teachers, etc.).
. Popularity and external appearance (such as body physique,
comely looks), admiration by others, social position and prestige,
are among the many external factors that contribute to self-
esteem but these are passing or vanishing contributions to
growth. They may last for many years, but in the end,
self-esteem has to grow from internal appreciation of oneself,
regardless of extemal circumstances in life.
. Self-appreciation, self-reliance, autonomy, energy, courage, and
other internal positive motivators are more permanent factors
which can lead the adolescent to the progressive self-concept he/
she needs in adult life.

Friendship and intimacy

Teenage friendship is a social system which can be wholesome in
terms of sharing ,of thoughts and feelings, caring for one another, and
responding to one another's deeper psychological needs. Adolescents tend
to spend more time with friends (up to l6yo of their time, studies show),
comprising an emotional investment they can benefit from.
Child and Adolescent aLwbprnsnt Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

The peer groups or cliques with which early adolescents (age 10-
13) identifr may enlarge. Belonging in larger groupings is especially The majr
true in the case of middle adolescents (age 14-17), particularly among inner sameness a
those with leadership qualities. From cliques of 4-6 persons with similar themselves in a
interests prwiding oompanionship and security to eaoh otheE the larger themselves and
peer group or crcwd can be comprised by lG20 members sharing com- however, is not a
mon interests in social activities. Sexually, same-sex cliques can enlarge evolvement of ol
into heterosexual cliques and interact with others in large crowd activities however, maybe
such as athletic meets and social gatherings. The middle adolescent may havoc to a perso
separate from identiffing with a crowd as he/she gnters into serious in the previous s
boy-girl heterosexual intimate relationships. It is impor
Several types of friendship can be distinguished: gradual and cun
(a) acquaintances who meet periodically; accumulating or
(b) companions who share common interest through regular contacts, During early ado
and that leads to conl
(c) intimates or best friends with depth of self-disclosure/feelings/ copy teenager.
provides a ready
caling, romantic partners in intimate heterosexual relationship.
former identity as
Intimate friendships are viewed to be especially important during
early adolescenc,e. Compared with those who have not been involved.in Identifoing '

discinguishing self
intimaie friendship, adolescents who have friendships characterized by
compassion, openness and satisfaction tend to be more sociable and ager may also t
more competent, while being less anxious, depressed and hostile. The involvements rw<
intimate parent-child relationship appear to also wane as adolescents "What do I wart
develop intimate friendship with a romantic partner.
The world of friends can be equally important, if not more Phases of iderti
important than the family world. Talking with friends and sharing things John ivlan
with them can be rewarding.in the sense that friends see both sides of ing four phases ir
the story unlike parcnts Who normally impose their side of an issue. As crisis are two din
to the sexes, girls are viewed to be more capable than boys in forming l. Identity 1

intimate friendships, benefiting more from social support they can get a follo*u
from close friends. Evidence further shows that friendship among boys Thc
is less intimate, as they put less trust in friendship and care less about altematiw
being listened to and being understood. of o0rer p
be prema
Identity issues follow a r

The active search which adolescents engage in to try to gain a of self<

ne-\A/ understanding of self along sexual, occupational, religious, political 2. Moratorir
self-image is referred to as identity issues. This process ushers in a The
sense of confusion as adolescents bring together all the things they have alternativr
leamed as son$daughters, students and friends. and try to make sense experimenr
of their self-image. commitmr
moratoriul
 Unit 5 Modub 26 - Socioemotional Development

The major task in developing self-identity is the formation of

inner sameness and continuity in personality. only when adolescents see
themselves in a definite and reasonably unique self can they accept
themselves and the physical/social world they are in. Self-identity,
however, is not a stagnant end-poinl but rather a continuous change and
evolvement of oneself throughout life's course. This process of change,
however, maybe disrupted by a traumatic experience that can create
havoc to a person's personality, shattering the self-image he has gained
in the previous stages of life.
It is important to view the development of self-identity to be
gradual and cumulative throughout life. One finds self more and more,
aecumulating or Iosing values and standards acquired since childhood.
During early adolescence, there is often the case of over-identification
that leads to conformity with peers, resultrng in a stereotypical or carbon-
copy teenager. Here, there is the case of a youth culture which
provides a ready-made identity, setting the adolescent apart from his
former identity as a child in the world of famill.
Identifoing with the crowd, the adolescent lmay reach the stage of
distinguishing self from the crowd, in a process of exploration. The teen-
ager may also try out a variety of attitudes, persuasions, commitments,
involvements revolving around the inner search for "Who I really am,,'
"What do I want for life," "How can I achieve my ideals?"

Phases of identity status

John Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory on identity by identifu-
ing four phases in the attainment of an identity status. commitment and
crisis are two dimensions that combine to define these stages:
l. Identity foreclosure. This is the case of an adolescent who is
a follower, finding security in others not in hiVher self.
The adolescent makes a commitment'before asking about
alternatives. This commitment,arises from values or expectations
of other people (such as a parrjnt, relative or friend), which may
be premature as foreclosure is rooted in commitment to obey,
follow a strong leader, respect authority-a most vulnerable kind
of self+steem develops.
2. Moratorium. This is the case of an adolescent searcher.
The adolescent enters a crisis by becoming aware of
alternative roles, values and beliefs. Thus, he explores and
experiments becoming a prober and critic without any permanent
commitment to follow authority or be part of a system. The
moratorium status is viewed as a most sophisticated mode of
Child and Adolesent Development: Looking at Leamers at Different Life Stages

identity search and achievement. tension among chil

Identity achiever. This is the point where the adolescent fully democratic style of
finds himselflherself. ,
more easily fulfillin
An optimal sense of identity is experienced. One feels at openly, seek guidan
home with one's body, with one's knowledge and awareness of their parents' values
where one is and where he/she is going in addition to the love and emotional r

possible recognition for deedS done. Identity seekers have looked they may later on s
at alternatives and have made their choice with an optimal
feeling of themselves. Stereotypical gend
Identity diffusion. This is the case of the adolescent failing Several snrdi€:
to find himselflherself. On emotional
There is hardly a knowledge of who one is, uncertainty conscious, excellir
running through episodes in-life. Identity-diffUsed persons lack forming intimate fri
goal orientation, direction and commitment. While they may have
arc less emotional
expressed interest in a future career, thcy are vague about it re0).
and are unaware even of the advantage and disadvantages of
the work they want to do. Setting goals, they frequently change
In a cross c
nurturance, deferenc
them as they have no commitment to any given aim in life. As
dominance, aLftonom
a result, adolescence is prolonged, unable to reach maturity due
the female is d€x
to a diffused or fragmented personality. Inability to explore
stereo$pe (Segal a
alternatives and make choices may be due to psychosocial
factors, springing from a complexity of reasons, such as disdain In a study or
or hostility to playing a role in the family or community. Told countries (the Net
by parents to do well in school so that he can enter a presti- 'tnodem" as they t
gious college, the peison may out of spite do poorly, even quit behaving. Mean*til
school deliberately. most "traditional," r
preference for fen
adolescents in the t
being ambitiouq tE
It is clear that successful identity achiev.ement is crucial to independent. Mear
developing an integfated personality. The highest self esteem is achieved "liberated". In the
by identity achievers, followed by those in the moratorium, foreclosurc of being compassio
and identity difl19r.on status.
In general, f
Overall, the ingredients that make up an optimal sensi'of personal be major factors in
identity are:
L inner confidence about self competence and ability to learn and
Antisocial behavit
master new tasks;
Gerald Panen
2. ample opportunity to try out new roles either in one's fantasy or
social behavior wtri
in actual practice, and;
monitoring and disc
3.
support from parents and adults.
with peer and sctrot
Ctearty) pa-r6ntal relationship plays an important role in self-identity peer group in late
development. In fact, parental indifference and rejection create inner
 Unit 5 Module 26 - Sociobmotional Development

tension among children affecting their individuation. Meanwhile, the

democratic style of parental discipline makes tasks for children to be
more easily fulfilling, encouraging adolescents to express themselves
openly, seek guidance and advice from parents, even identiling with
their parents' values and rules. The protection of home, which conveys
love and emotional security, can be a safe haven for adolescents, even if
they may later on seek to be independent as a free spirit.

Stereotypical gender roles

Several studies on gender stereotypes show:
On emotionat response, girls in early adolescence are more self-
conscious, excelling in verbal skills, while they invest more time in
forming intimate friendships. Meanwhile, boys show independence and
are less emotional, involving themselves in sports (Galambos, et al.,
r990).
In a cross cultural studies, the femal'e is associated with
nurturance, deference and abasernent, while the male is associated with
dominance, autonomy, aggression, exhibition and achievement. In general,
the female is described to be less active and weaker than the male
stereotype (Segal et al., 1999).
In a study on gender-role in ideology, adolescents in European
countries (the Netherlands, Germany, Finland, England) were most
*modem" as they believed in androgynous (equality
of sexes) ways of
behaving. Meanwhile, adolescents in African and Asian countries were
most "traditional," while those in the U.S. were midway, as girls show
preference for femininity and boys for masculinity. In comparing
adolescents in the U.S. and those in Sweden, Swedish youths show their
being ambitious, hard-working willing to take a stand, also selflreliant and
independent. Meanwhile, girls demonstratp a sense of being more
"liberated". In the U.S. girls .responded to show mofe:,expressive ways
of being compassionate, caring, eager to assuage hurt feelings.
In general, preparation for adult roles and so0iltlization appear to
be major factors in gender stereotyping differences.

Antisocial behaviors among adolescents

Gerald Patterson formulated a developmental progression for anti-
social behavior which takes into account (a) the importance of parental
monitoring and discipline on the child in early childhood (b) involvement
with peer and school work in middle childhood, and (c) commitrnent with
peer group in late childhood and adolescence.
child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life stages

In early childhood (ages 10-13), the child is normally subordinated many girls attempt sri
to conventional authority in the farnily and majority of children including lethal to boys, while 1
teens generally show a reasonable degree of adherence to moral prin- serious, but often not
ciples, able to succumb to the temptation to engage in unethical and pines? Find out.
unlawful behavior. Identified as con
In legal terms, the juvenile delinquent is a young person under abuse by adults, sexu
the age of 18, who has been apprehended and convicted for transgres- friend. There are, hou
sion of established laws. danger signals, foremo
Juvenile delinquency is an occurrence with 1.4 million juveniles in Depression arise
the U.S. arrested each year for crimes such as vandalism, drug abuse, can be minor depress
running away, and (almost 900,000 each year) for larceny-theft, robbery passes away, but a m
and forcible rape. Offenses by male adolescents under the age of l8 despair, pessimism ar
account for 17 percent (or almost one-fourth) of all crimes committed. influence a person thr
The particular crimes of burglary, auto theft, aggravated assault, and persistent anxiety whk
other'aggressive behaviors are committed by males. Girls, more Pre-suicidal adol
generally, have committed infractions related to running away from home from being calm and
or deviant/illicit sexual behavior. risks of suicidal action,
Commonly cited are a complexity of reasons to explain the will, making empty I
incidence of juvenile delinquency. These are: (l) family factors, (2) poor concemed adult should
parental supervision, (3) poor parental behavior, (4) feelings of appropriate such as

alienation (sense of separation) by children, (5) extemal factors affecting assistance.

the family (econornic and social pressures), and (6) child rejection/abuse/
neglect. Moral development
Peer factors. Lack of recognition, even outright rejection, by peers In his study of I
in early and middle elementary school grades may result in making the tists through the ages
child unfriendly, troublesome and aggressive. Constant exposure to peers moral reasoning anrorq
with those who are poor academically and socially may also affect the l. Conventional I
teenager. In school tliose treated as educationally retarded,, such that At this r
they repeat the grades, are prone to misbehave in class, become truants conform to su
and hate school altogether. adults, engal
in Australia,
, Teenage suicides in the U.S. is comparable to thoseincidence follow the rul
Iielgium, Great, Britain (Orbach, lggT). However, the of ' The focu
suicides is lower in Canada, ltaly, Norway, the Netherlands, Nsw tations, relati<
Zealand and Ireland (Drummond), but substantially higher in Austria, stealing an ob
enmark, Hungary Japdn and Switzerland that object, su
The dramatic rise of teenage suicides in different countries Doing good ar
beginning the 1970s has aroused worldwide attention. Suicide rates have person by keq
begun to double, even triple especially in the U.S. with those age 15-24 following the
years of age constituting one-fifth of the victims. The astonishing suicide others to do t
rates are equivalent to 13 incidences a day or 5,000 a year occur- 2. Post+onventicr
rences. Completed suicides are higher for boys, although three times as At this s
 Unit 5 Module 26 - Socioemotional Development

many girls attempt suicide (D'Attilioet al., 1992). The use of firearms is
lethal to boys, while poisoning through overdoses by adolescent girls is
serious, but often not lethal. Does this picture hold trqe to the enltip-
pines? Find out.
ldentified as common reasons for suicides are: physical or sexual
abuse by adults, sexual victimization, and association with a suicidal
friend. There are, however, warning signs that should be attended to as
danger signals, foremost of which is depression.
Depression arises from feelings of being low, sad and weary. It
can be minor depression when the negative mood is mild and easily
passes away, but a major one if it stays and deepens into feelings
of
despair, pessimism and misery. In its serious form, depression can
influence a person through a pervasive loss of interest or pleasure and
persistent anxiety which can lead to committing suicide.
Pre-suicidal adolescents may change mood in a mafter of weeks
from being calm and happy to showing manifestations that show the
risks of suicidal action, such as giving away prized possessions, writing a
will, making empty threats to end one's life. parent, teacher o. uny
concemed adult should be able to recognize the suicidal cues and do the
appropriate such as provide professional counselling and health
assistance.

Moral development
In his study of Ethics and topics that have interested moral scien-
tists through the ageso Lawrence Khorberg laid down three stages of
moral reasoning among adolescent:
l. Conventional level
At this stage, the adorescent is abre to understand and
conform to social conventions, consider the motivgs of peers and
adults, engage in proper behavior to ptias" others, and
follow the rules of Society.
The focus of thinking of the teen is towards mutual expec-
tations, relationships and conformity with others. Instead of
stealing an object, he/she may think of other options to acquire
that object, such as by asking or saving money to buy the thing.
Doing good and being good spring from a desire to be a good
person by keeping rules and respecting authority, sqrnmed up in
following the colden Rule (do unto others what you want
others to do unto you).
2. Post-conventional level
At this stage, the adolescent wishes to conform to:
Child and Adolescent D,evelopment: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages

(a) law and order (don't steal because it is against the law) when parents show co
(b) the social contract (rights such as life and liberty must be appropriate support and
upheld to uphold the welfare of the majority in society), and ' On the other han
(c) universal ethical principles (the universal principles of justice, parents fail in providirg
equality of human rights, freedom of conscience; etc.) Thus, parents who do
Do males and females differ in moral reasoning? Some studies may lose them to beinl
show that women are more focused on issues related to caring and In the end, the in
cgnnecting with people, while males tend to resolve moral concems by' time can cause fiustrat
invoking principles of faimess, equality, and justice. behavior.
A more recent consensus among scholars, however, is the theory As the adolescen
that differences in moral tendencies b6tween male and female are not casting off infantile tiel
absolute, but relative to their individual orientations sense of individuation,
leave responsibility witt
process of individution
Development of guilt
develops a keen sense
Guilt is a sense of feeling responsible for one's actions, particularly that East Asians, inclu
when harm has been done to oneself or others. children-parents cohesic
On the negative side, guilt can threaten self-image, such thbt if Always, it is hel
one is unable to thresh out guilt feelings, there can be serious problems rights of their growing
in adjusting to normal living. Guilt that causes anxiety and fear can space for privacy (e.g.
usher in a complexity of illnesses, ranging from chronic fatigue to escaP (e.g. choosing a colleg
ism (e.g. use of drugs to forget the guilty feeling).
Identified by sch
On the positive side, guilt makes us aware of possible wrongdoing, practicing phase, as p
serving as a regulator for individuals to be more responsible in uphold-
demands while the adc
ing esteemed social values.
freedom (b) rapprocl
As to stages in developing guilt, the first rudimentary feelings.of parents, induced by p
guilt begin when children think they have caused some kind of harm fieedom to grow.
to others. inaction to change behavior adds to the initial guilt feelingS. Thus, it is img
Anticipatory Guilt is felt when the child sees consequences that are tion and psychologica
detrimental to onesglf or others (e.g. stealing an item may cause others consists of the child's p
to grieve losing a prized possession). cal well-being consists
Meanwhile, .survivor Guilt is experienced when ohe feels blamewor- self-esteem, feeling ol
thy regardless of involvement. (e.g, lingering feeling of baseless guilQ. Ioneliness).
In the end, a pr
Influences in moralbehavior and separation is bes,
Peers can encourage positive behaviors (e.g. example of good Christian/lslam ic/Asiar/
study habits), although they can also encourage misconduct or inappro-
priate behaviors (e.g. use of illegal drugs). Peer influence should not be
underestimated.
Compared with the influence of peers, the influence of parents is
more pervasive. The quality of parent+hild relationship is most positive
 Unit 5 Module 26 - Socioemotional Developmenl

when parents show competence, ndn:oppressive-level parental control,

appropriate support and directiclii. - :-
' On the other hand, parent/adult and peer values can occur when
par€ntsfail in providing the appropriate levels of support and nurturance.
Thus, parents who do not care about the whereabouts of their children
may lose them to being dependent on peers.
In the end, the inability of parents to provide quality ipresence and
time can cause frustration and anger, endangering the teen's emotional
behavior.
As the adolescent goes through a stage of emotional autonomy
casting off infantile ties to family, it is important the he/she develops a
sense of individuation, taking personal responsibility for himself and not
leave responsibility with parents. It is important to note, howeveq that the
process of individuation starts from infancy but sharpens when the teen
develops a keen sense of separateness and competence. Studies show
that East Asians, including Filipinos, and Latin Americans show more-
children-parents cohesion and closeness.
Always, it is helpful for parents to respect the self-determination
rights of their growing children, such as their choosing friends, getting
space for privacy (e.g. writing diaries), making small and big choices
(e.g. choosing a college course)
Identified by scholars in the process of individuation are: (a) the
practicing phase, as parents continue to make behavior conformance
demands while the adolescent begins to feel the need for psychological
freedom (b) rapprochement, as adolescents re-establish bonds with
parents, induced by parents' recognizing their psychological need for
fircedom to grow.
Thus, it is important for parents to be aware of the life satisfac-
tion and psychological well-being of their children. Life satisfaction
consists of the child's perception of the quality of hiVher'{ife. Psychologi-
cal well-being consists of a complex multiple dimension of the child's
self-esteem, feeling of control, sociability (as opposed to anxiety and
loneliness).
In the end, a proper balance between parent-child connectedness
and separation is best, allowing for cross-cultural/ethnic differences (e.g.
ChristiaMslam iclAsian/Westem cu ltures).
Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Steges

Teacher's Blog
$EmrrcAnot
Implications for '
ffinffiAC,,il . The socio<
and needs t
Research on any teenage issue found on pp. 317-325. Pass a concrete iru
sumrhary of the research by stating the following: . Self-esteern
a.) objectives of the research tity issues. t

b.) findinp can help ad

c.) conclusions and (gatnes inc
d.) recommendations their self-es
. Emotioml t
be handled
are antidote
tation on en
@ wEBsrTr AorvrTY
values to q
Surf the internet for programs meant to help troubled teenagers.
Make a list of these teen programs, their objectives and contact number.
Pass this in clasS.

######