CSCM Paper 3 2023

Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02160
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm
Sustainable cement replacement using waste eggshells: A review

on mechanical properties of eggshell concrete and strength
prediction using artificial neural network
Sagar Paruthi a, Afzal Husain Khan b, *, Ashish Kumar a, Fanish Kumar a,
Mohd Abul Hasan c, Hassan M. Magbool b, Mohammad Saood Manzar d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, DPG Institute of Technology and Management, Gurugram, India
b
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, PO Box. 706, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
c
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
d
Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, 31451 Dammam, Saudi Arabia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Though the European Commission classifies eggshell as a hazardous material, using eggshell
Artificial Neural Network, Concrete properties powder in place of cement can aid in waste reduction and contribute to sustainability initiatives.
Eggshell powder Eggshell powder replaces cement in concrete manufacturing due to its high calcium content.
Sustainability
Eggshell is impermeable in nature, so it helps in reducing the permeability of concrete. Eggshell
Microstructure, Workability
powder fastens the process of hydration of cement by the formation of monocarboaluminate
during the mixing of material at the time of casting. This paper includes a detailed study of the
process production of eggshell powder, the properties of eggshell powder concrete, and the
relationship between different properties has been determined. In addition, Artifical Neural
Network approach has been used to predict the strength of eggshell powder concrete to reduce the
labour cost and experimental time. In the end, microstructure of eggshell powder and its appli
cation in various engineering products have been reviewed. After analyzing the qualities of
eggshell powder concrete, it was determined that replacing up to 20% of the cement in concrete
with eggshell powder increases the material’s strength. The ANN model’s results also demonstrate
its effectiveness in forecasting the strength of eggshell powder concrete, with an R2 value of 0.96.
So, it clearly shows that eggshell powder can be used to replace cement to improve the properties
of concrete and reduce the percentage of cement usage. Finally, the conclusions and discussion of
this study addressed the eco-friendly utilization of eggshell powder in construction applications.
Abbreviations: AI, Artificial Intelligence; ANN, Artificial Neural Network; CS, Compressive Strength; STS, Split Tensile Strength; FS, Flexural
Strength; LOI, Loss of Ignition; MPa, Mega Pascal; QD, Quarry Dust; GGBS, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag; SCBA, Sugarcane Bagasse Ash;
CoS, Copper Slag; XRD, X-Ray Diffraction Analysis; SEM, Scanning Electron Microscope; TGA, Thermogravimetric Analysis; XRF, X-Ray Fluores
cence Analysis; FTIR, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy; RMSE, Root Mean Square Error; MAE, Mean Absolute Error; MSE, Mean Square
Error; FA, Fly Ash; POFA, Palm Oil Fuel Ash; RHA, Rice Husk Ash; GP, Granite Waste Powder; ESP, Egg Shell Powder; CaCO3, Calcium carbonate; Ca
(PO4)2, Calcium phosphate; MgCO3, Magnesium carbonate; SiO2, Silicon dioxide; Fe2O3, Ferric oxide; Na2O, Sodium oxide; CaO, Calcium oxide;
K2O, Potassium oxide; SO3, Sulfur trioxide; TiO2, Titanium dioxide; MgO, Magnesium oxide; CO2, Carbon dioxide.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: amuafzal@gmail.com, ahkhan@jazanu.edu.sa (A.H. Khan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02160
Received 22 March 2023; Received in revised form 9 May 2023; Accepted 20 May 2023
Available online 21 May 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Paruthi et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02160
1. Introduction
The highly demanded and used material in the construction industry is concrete. Various materials, like cement, coarse aggregate,
and fine aggregate, are used to mix with water and admixture and to make concrete mix [1,2]. Use a large amount of cement which has
huge carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions along with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, and it is nearly 7% of global CO2 emissions, and 90 g of
CO2 is emitted into the environment while manufacturing 1000 g of cement [3–5]. There has been a recent shift away from wasting
resources and towards recycling and reusing waste materials.
Many types of waste dumps in open fields cause environmental pollution and spread infectious diseases in our atmosphere [6]. The
eggshell becomes toxic due to organic content rats and worms influence it and emerge as a public health concern [7]. Out of this solid
waste is eggshell waste, found in factories, houses, poultry farms, eggs-laying farms, bakeries, etc. [8].
An eggshell contains 94% of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 1% of calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2), 1% magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
and 4% organic matter [9,10] which replace limestone [11]. Blended cement has numerous advantages for the environment, economy,
and technology [11]. The chemical composition of eggshell powder (ESP) is similar to limestone [12]. The limestone powder is the
filler used in cement, concrete, and bricks [13–15]. Replacing the cement with ESP increases the hydration process and gives early
strengths, improving tensile strength, compressive strength, and flexural strength [16,17]. Hence, an alternative to direct disposal to
landfill was investigated by reusing ESP in concrete [18,19]. The ESP has been used as a source of calcium in synthesizing calcium
phosphates since 1999, but a study of its effect on the properties of concrete is limited [19]. A thorough study was carried out on the
reuse of solid waste in building materials [19]. The total waste of eggshells obtains 10000 million every year [19,20]. The utilization of
solid waste makes a sustainable environment as well as sustainable construction [21].
The impact strength study of concrete with a small quantity of powdered rubber to replace cement [22]. Various factors influence
the eggshell quality, factors such as hen population density, strain, genetics, age, and diet [23]. The ESP is also very much applicable
for stabilizing soil as a road subgrade material [24]. As a result, the building industry is now looking for acceptable trash that will
drastically cut cement consumption and, as a result, construction costs [25]. ESP is used in many building materials due to its high
calcium content, but the effect of incorporation of eggshell powder in different percentage on the properties of concrete has limited
literature.
Large-scale investigations of ESP’s potential in the building industry have been conducted, although the technique is not yet
recommended in any regulatory code of conduct. Therefore, knowing the gaps in the literature that limit its use in standard building
methods is crucial. Herein, this review article offers a critical overview of current ESP properties, correlation of ESP ratio with slump,
compressive strength (CS), split tensile strength (STS), and flexural strength (FS) using MATLAB, ESP utilization, emerging research
trends, and challenges taking a vast amount of literature made available by earlier studies. The conclusions and discussion have
effectively tackled key issues with the potential application of ESP in building constructions. Also, it deliberates how the emerging
research on ESP such as ANN can be new avenues for achieving optimal concrete mixtures with a minimum threat to the environment.
2. Preparation of ESP
Eggshell waste was first cleaned in factories, houses, poultry farms, eggs-laying farms, bakeries, etc. [26]. The thin membrane of the
eggshell is efficiently reduced by water, and the wastewater produced can be used again for other eggshell washing [26]. After
cleaning, the eggshell undergoes natural drying under sunlight [26]. The maximum size of ESP used is 2.36 mm [26]. We can use the
oven drying process at a temperature of 1800 ℃ for one day for drying eggshells [27]. In other research, it was observed that heating at
a temperature of 110 ℃ for half day is sufficient for drying eggshells [28]. The dried eggshells are then ground in a flour mill [29], and
ESP is then passed through 90 µ sieve [27,30]. It was also observed that many researchers used ESP after passing through 75 µ sieve
[31]. The sequence of ESP preparation from eggshell waste is shown in Fig. 1. The design mix of ESP concrete is similar to ordinary
Portland concrete with partial replacement of cement with ESP up to 10–20% [32]. The maximum size of coarse aggregate and sand
are 20 mm and 4.75 mm respectively [32].
Fig. 1. Sequence of eggshell preparation for concrete applications.
2
3. ESP concrete production
ESP concrete comprises cement, sand, aggregate, water, and eggshell powder (ESP) [33]. It was observed that ordinary Portland
cement of C53 grade is used in eggshell concrete [33]. Broken eggs used in eggshell concrete were collected from local sources [34,35].
Eggshells are available in white as well as brown color and inner layer of eggshell need to be removed before using in concrete [35,36].
These are cleaned in normal water and dried for at least 5 days in 25–30 ℃ range of temperature [36]. After rinsing, the wastewater
collected could be filtered and reused [36]. These were crushed handy, grinded, and sieved in 90 µm [36]. The material used as a
coarse aggregate is crushed blue granite of a maximum size of 20 mm, whereas the finer aggregate used was well-graded river sand
finer [36].
3.1. Cement
Cement acts as the binder material, a substance used in construction that adheres sets and hardens the material for proper binding
[36,37]. Its powdered form consists of limestone and clay, blended with sandstones and water [37]. It achieves strength through a
chemical reaction with water [37]. It was noticed that Portland pozzolana cement of 53 grade has a specific gravity of 3.15, used for
eggshell concrete [37]. Some tests on cement were specific gravity using Le-Chatlier’s principle, fineness of cement by a sieve analysis
(using 90 µ sieve), and initial and final setting time using Vicat’s apparatus [37].
3.2. Coarse aggregates
The crushed granite aggregates having a specific gravity of 2.6 that passes through 20 mm sieve and retained at 12.5 mm sieve in
accordance with IS:383–1970 were used in eggshell concrete [37]. The sample received of 20 mm size coarse is now tested using
fineness modulus, specific gravity, and water absorption before use in concrete [38].
3.3. Fine aggregates
It is basically sand obtained from marine or land environment [38]. It is mixed with fine, medium and coarse grading requirements,
doesn’t have any harmful impurities, and is free from crushed stones [38]. Sand must be dried to ensure the water-cement (W/C) ratio,
sand that passes IS 4.75 mm sieve according to IS: 383–1970 was used [38].
3.4. Water
It is the most important substance of concrete, and it chemically reacts with cement [38]. It provides strength to the cement gel, and
quality and quantity should be checked carefully [39].
Table 1
The chemical composition of ESP (%).
Sr. No Oxides (%) Ref.
SiO2 Fe2O3 Na2O Al2O3 CaO K2O SO3 TiO2 LOI MgO
1 <1 <1 0–2.9 <1 33.1–99.8 <1 0–1.3 <1 0.1–47.8 <1 [45]
2 0.58 0.02 0.15 0.06 52.1 0.25 0.62 42.42 0.06 [46]
3 - - 0.14 0.11 47.49 - 0.38 - [47]
6 0.79 0.06 1.48 0.13 64.8 0.08 0.06 0.29 [48]
7 0.12 0.32 0.19 0.49 46.69 0.21 0.57 0.18 [49]
8 0.08 0.02 0.15 0.03 52.1 45.4 0.1 [50]
9 0.07 0.02 0.19 0.03 50.7 0.57 0.01 [51]
10 0.08 0.02 - 0.03 52.1 - - - - [52]
11 0.09 0.02 0.19 0.03 50.7 - 0.57 47.8 0.01 [53]
12 0.05 0.02 0.05 98 0.11 0.49 1.12 [54]
13 0.1 0.62 1.55 53.6 0.01 1.57 40.7 [55]
14 0.2 52.4 46.5 0.6 [56]
15 1.22 0.16 - 0.28 52.1 - 0.6 [57]
16 0.06 - 0.02 - 53.8 0.07 0.98 42.2 0.75 [58]
17 0.002 0.01 99.8 0.03 0.16 [59]
18 0.24 0.13 0.23 93.2 0.07 0.2 0.85 [60]
19 0.08 0.02 0.13 0.04 53.6 - 0.61 - 0.01 [61]
20 0.08 0.02 0.15 0.03 52.1 - 0.62 45.4 0.01 [62]
21 0.24 0.08 0.13 0.23 93.2 0.07 0.2 0.85 [63]
22 0.35 0.03 0.4 51.57 2.21 45.1 [64]
23 0.13 0.03 0.16 0.03 50.09 0.61 0.02 [65]
24 0.09 0.34 0.17 0.44 32.5 - 0.37 3.74 0.14 [66]
25 0.09 0.02 0.19 0.03 50.7 0.57 0.01 [67]
26 0.11 2.6 0.14 0.05 50.7 1.88 6 [68]
3
3.5. Eggshell powder (ESP)
ESP has a high calcium content [39]. In many countries, dry eggshell is used for feeding the animals because calcium is present in it
in a maximum amount [39]. It was found that there are many layers of calcium carbonate present in ESP [40]. ESP chemical
composition is very similar to limestone [40]. Hence, ESP can replace cement in concrete [41]. Typically, ESP contains 90% of CaCO3
followed by other compounds such as Iron, Boron, Manganese, Copper, Magnesium, Zinc, Silicon, and Sulfur [41]. Almost 4% of
organic matter is present in eggshells [42]. Several research studies found the main constituents in eggshells are 95% CaCO3 and 5%
another mineral [43]. Furthermore, many studies investigated specific portion of eggshell constituent, i.e., 93.7% CaCO3, 4.2% organic
matter, 1.3% magnesium carbonate and 0.8% calcium phosphate [43]. Eggshells are broken into small pieces before chopping [43].
The processing of ESP requires three machines, i.e., a dryer, a mill, and a sieve [43]. Customize the eggshell washing machine used by
the researcher [44]. Table 1 and Table 2 provide information regarding the ESP’s chemical composition as well as its physical
characteristics. Various design mix proportion of ESP concrete is shown in Table 3.
4. Properties of ESP concrete
4.1. Density
As we already know, the specific gravity of cement is higher than the specific gravity of ESP which becomes the cause of lower
concrete density if we increase the ESP percentage [86]. It has also been shown that the dry density of concrete increases with
increasing ESP content [86]. In addition, ESP replacement up to 5% gives a significant density but decreases if we increase eggshells by
more than 5% [86]. The effect of ESP incorporation on concrete density is shown in Fig. 2.
4.2. Compressive strength
Concrete has strong compressive strength but is weak in tensile strength [90]. It was observed that tensile strength of concrete is
nearly 10–20% of its compressive strength [91]. In the process of determining the effectiveness of concrete, the tensile strength is not
taken into account according to the design code. MS EN 1992–1–1:2010 [91]. When the powder of eggshell is only the mix
replacement, the capital content of ESP investigated by several researchers was 10% [92]. Apart from that, the eggshell requires a
higher demand of water, though which W/C ratio increases and reduces its strength [92]. ESP concrete has been studied by Parkash,
with 0%, 6%, 12%, 18% and 24% eggshell and 12% of optimum content obtained [92]. According to a study, eggshells can be replaced
up to 15%, which is optimal performance [93]. Jhatial et al. study the effect of addition of ESP of two different sizes 50 µm and 100 µm
on the compressive strength of concrete and it was observed that compressive strength is increased by 1.68% and 5.88% after replacing
the cement by 5% and 10% with 50 µm ESP. In case of usage of 100 µm, ESP compressive strength is increased by 0.76% and 2.55%
with replacement of 5% and 10% cement in concrete [94]. Yu et al. study the effect of curing conditions on the compressive strength of
ESP concrete and it was observed that compressive strength of ESP concrete is increase with increase in percentage of ESP up to 15% in
full water curing and open air curing condition. But a decrease in strength up to 24.7% and 34.83 was observed after replacing cement
with 20% ESP in full water curing and open air curing conditions [95]. Toose et al. replace the cement with ESP from 1% to 15% and
study the effect of addition of ESP on compressive strength of concrete cured for 3, 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days. It was observed that
significant increase in compressive strength was occur when replacing the cement with ESP from 7% to 9% and among all the ESP
concrete lowest compressive strength is occur when cement is replaced by 1% and 15% ESP [96]. Arif et al. also study the effect of
replacement of cement with ESP from 0% to 15% in concrete and it was observed that maximum compressive strength up to 68.4 MPa
is achieved at 10% ESP incorporation followed by 67.1 MPa at 5% ESP incorporation. But a decrease in strength was observed after
Table 2
Physical properties of ESP.
Sr. Bulk density (kg/m3) Surface area (m2/g) Specific gravity Max. particle size (µm) Moisture Source of Origin Ref.
No. (g/cc) (%)
1 800 21.2 0.85 - 1.18 India [69]

2 - - 1.01 - - India [70]
3 - - 2.14 - - India [71]
4 1081 290 1.89 - - India [72]
5 - - 2.37 - - India [24]
6 - - 2.07 100 - Iraq [73]
7 - - 2.66 - - Bangladesh [74]
8 700 - 0.85 - 0.99 Nigeria [75]
9 800 21.2 0.85 - - Nigeria [76]
10 700 - 0.85 - - Nigeria [77]
11 2088 - 2.58 - 5.1 Ghana [48]
12 - 367 2.5 - - Canada [14]
13 - - 2.47 900 - Brazil [78]
14 - - 2.45 75 - Brazil [79]
15 - 955 2.26 100 - France [80]
4
Table 3
Various design mix proportions of ESP concrete.
Mix Design Cement Water Sand Aggregate ESP W/B Compressive strength Ref
(kg/m3) (MPa)
M1 240 136 600 1200 0 0.56 31.51 [81]

M2 220 136 600 1200 20 0.56 35 [81]
M3 200 136 600 1200 40 0.56 40 [81]
M4 400 180 690 1120 0 0.45 24 [82]
M5 360 180 690 1120 40 0.45 27 [82]
M6 320 180 690 1120 80 0.45 30 [82]
M7 450 225 700 1200 0 0.5 51.7 [83]
M8 450 225 700 1200 67.5 0.5 40.7 [83]
M9 405 225 690 1128 45 0.5 25.7 [84]
M10 360 225 690 1128 90 0.5 23.8 [84]
M11 266 95 720 1120 14 0.34 61.2 [85]
M12 238 95 720 1120 42 0.34 44.6 [85]
Fig. 2. The effect of ESP incorporation on the density of concrete [87–89].
incorporation of 15% ESP [97]. This fall in compressive strength at 15% ESP is due to increase in lime content in concrete and for
mation of calcium monocarboaluminate hydrate phase occurs which results into weakening of boding between cement and aggregate
[98,99]. Adi et al. studied the behavior of self compacting concrete (SCC) after the replacement of cement with ultrafine ESP. After
replacing cement from 0% to 25% with ESP it was observed that compressive strength of SCC is increase with increase in ESP content
up to 15% and then sharply fall in strength with further increase in ESP content [100]. The effect of ESP on mechanical properties of
concrete is shown in Table 4, and the change in strength due to incorporation of ESP up to 20% as shown in Fig. 3.
4.3. Flexural strength
The resisting deformation ability of concrete under bending moment is called flexural strength. When an ESP content increases up
to a specific point (20 wt% partial replacement was optimal), ESP concrete flexural strength also increases [112]. Eggshell is a
replacing agent which increases the flexural strength of concrete, so the control mix (without ESP) is lower than the flexural strength of
Table 4
Impact of percentage replacement on the hardened properties of ESP concrete.
%Replacement Maximum Content Compressive strength Tensile Strength Flexural Strength Ref.
0–20% ES. 20% ES 9.92–11.69%↑ - - [101]

10%ES, 0–75% QD 10%ES, 0–75% QD
0–25% ES, 25% GGBS 10% ES, 25% GGBS 33–35%↑ - - [102]
7.5–12.5% ES, 20–35% GGBS 10% ES, 25%GGBS 8.83%↑ (7days) and 6.52%↑ (28days) - - [103]
0–7.5%ES,0–15%SCBA 5%ES 5.5%↑ (7 days) - - [104]
5% ES, 10% SCBA Equal to control
0–20% ES, 0–20% CoS 10% ES, 10% CoS - 14.73%↑ - [105]
0–15% ES 10% ES - - 6.70%↑ [106]
0–12.5% ES 7.5% ES - - 19%↑ (28 days) [107]
7.5% ES 7.5% ES 10%↑ (28 days)
↑increased by
ES: Eggshell Content; QD: Quarry Dust; GGBS: Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag; SCBA: Sugar cane bagasse ash; CoS: Copper Slag;
5
Fig. 3. Change in compressive strength due to incorporation of 0–20% ESP in concrete [108–111].
ESP concrete [113]. However, the maximum flexural strength of optimum ESP content is the same as the maximum compressive
strength of optimal ESP content [113]. Othman et al. experimented with the mixture of ESP with rubber powder as a partial
replacement of cement in concrete, and it was observed that maximum flexural strength is achieved after a mixture of 5% ESP with 0%
rubber powder in concrete [114]. According to another study, a similar result is observed during the flexural strength of eggshell
mortar, i.e. flexural strength starts to decrease after increasing the ESP content by more than 5% [115]. The effect of different per
centages of ESP on the flexural strength of concrete is shown in Fig. 4.
4.4. Tensile strength
The split tensile test plays an important role in determining its resistance to tensile crack [119]. According to experiments per
formed by the researcher, the max split tensile strength was obtained when 50% of ESP was used along with 50% fly ash as a source
material in geopolymer concrete [119] Krishnamoorthy and Ramasamy also studied the feasibility with M20 grade concrete specimens
of ESP concrete [120]. Oliko et al. studied the split tensile strength ESP concrete after replacing the cement from 5% to 30% with ESP,
and it was observed that split tensile strength is increased with an increase in the percentage of ESP up to 10% and after that strength
starts decreasing [121]. Deshpande et al. studied the effect of partial replacement of cement with ESP along with cow dung ash and
sugarcane bagasse ash, and it was observed that maximum split tensile strength is achieved after replacing of cement with 5% ESP
along with 20% cow dung ash and sugarcane bagasse ash mixture [122].
4.5. Workability
ESP concrete workability is lower as compared to conventional cement concrete [123]. But increasing the percent of cement per
eggshell also reduces the maneuverability of the ESP concrete [123]. The workability of ESP concrete is affected in both mix, mortar
mix, and concrete mix [123]. During low slump and lower workability, the bleeding and segregation will not be shown by ESC [124]. It
was observed that incorporation of steel fiber reduced the workability but increase the properties of hard concrete simultaneously
[124]. On the other hand, mortar workability decreases with increases in the percentage of cement replacement. When copper slag is
used in concrete, the slump cone value and workability increase, whereas the compaction factor decreases [125]. Whreas when both
rice husk and eggshell are used in conjuration, there will be low workability of concrete [125]. The effect of ESP percentage
Fig. 4. The influence of different ESP percentages on concrete flexural strength [116–118].
6
replacement on slump value is shown in Fig. 5 [125].
4.6. Consistency and setting time
According to IS 4031, the setting time and consistency of concrete are determined by the Vicat’s apparatus [126]. It is observed that
ESP shortens the setting time of cement [126,127]. Eggshell is taken as an accelerator throughout the whole investigation [127].
Setting time gets reduced when ESP acts as a filler, providing hydration of cement paste in nucleation sites [128]. An effect that
occurred during the setting time of ESP is similar to limestone in which tri-calcium silicate was accelerated due to a hydration reaction
[129]. In an experiment, the materials used are ESP 2.5%, setting time is 34% shorter and water content 37%. In another experiment,
ESP concrete 5% is utilized and shortens the final setting time from 60% to 49% [115]. However, it shortens the initial setting time by
44.4% of the initial setting time by 1.5% replacement with eggshell [115]. The effect of ESP along with the locust bean pod ratio on the
setting time of concrete is shown in Fig. 6 [130].
4.7. Durability
The strength of concrete for a longer period very much depends on the pore structure concrete [131]. The permeability of concrete
greatly affects the strength of concrete, especially in marine conditions [132]. It was also observed that with the increase in ESP
content, water absorption decreased for oven and air-dried ESP [132]. Water absorption of foamed concrete is reduced by 17% after
the addition of ESP by 5% [133]. It was also observed that significant loss of weight and compressive strength happens when we expose
the ESP concrete to the sulfate and chloride solution [134]. A weight loss in eggshell concrete of about 1.45% was observed after
exposure to sulfate attack of 5% [134]. However, the acid attack resistance of ESP concrete is decreased when we increase ESP content
in concrete [134]. It was observed that if we increase the W/C ratio, the carbonation of concrete is also increased due to increased
permeability and porosity of concrete [135–137].
4.8. Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is usually determined to evaluate the performance of eggshell concrete. It was observed that adding ESP
from 5% to 20% decreases elasticity from 3% to 14% [138]. Adding ESP of about 0.25% gives the highest value of modulus of
elasticity, and a higher value of ESP content decreases the modulus of elasticity [138]. Other researchers also observed that a positive
result on the modulus of elasticity is achieved after the replacement of 0.25% by ESP [139]. The effect of ESP content on the elasticity
of concrete is shown in Fig. 7.
4.9. Microstructural properties of ESP concrete
Eggshells are composed of excess protein, including calcium carbonate, nearly 94% [142]. According to EDS and SEM studies, on
heating, the eggshell layers change in morphology [142]. Commercial-produced CaO is similar to CaO formed in ES 800 [143].
Microstructural analysis of ESP was done by scanning electron microscope (SEM) using model Quanta 650 FEG with 10KV;
double-sided carbon tape was used to mount the small stubs with the sample powers [143]. As per IR spectrum, the inclined CaCO3
peaks wavenumber is similar to nano CaCO3 [143]. ESP microstructure will be of irregular shape and in non-uniform size distribution
[144]. The weight loss curve is similar in shape to white and brown ESP [145]. The surface morphology of calcined and uncalcined ESP
is explained by SEM testing [145]. The irregular shape is observed in ESP reflected in the microstructure image [145]. The size of the
ESP is decreased after calcination from more than 1 µm to less than 1 µm [146,147]. It was observed that the compressive strength of
cement is reduced after replacement by ESP due to irregular distribution of particles and irregular morphology [148]. An increase in
mechanical properties of concrete was observed by increasing the filler fineness [148]. It was also observed that the workability of
concrete is affected by inconsistent ESP morphology [149]. Uniformly rounded particles of ESP found to be evenly distributed
Fig. 5. The influence of different ESP percentages on concrete on slump value [125].
7
Fig. 6. The effect of eggshell ash powder along with locust bean pod ratio on the (a) initial (b) final setting time of concrete [130].
Fig. 7. Effect of ESP content on the elasticity of concrete [139–141].
throughout the mass were observed during SEM analysis [150]. SEM images and XRD of white and brown ESP are shown in Fig. 8 and
Fig. 9 [151,152]. It was observed from Fig. 8 that ettringite phase is formed in ESP concrete during the mixing of ESP with the Calcium
silicate hydrate (CSH) gel formed after heat of hydration of cement which later on mixed with calcium hydroxide. Ettringite is formed
in the free space of cement paste at the time of mixing and having needle like structure. Stability and strength of concrete is increased
after the formation of ettringite in cocncrete [153–155]. Das et al. study the effect of addition of CSH seeds in the concrete and it was
observed after the SEM analysis that CSH seed fills all the gaps present in cement which result into acceleration of heat of hydration
process in comparison with concrete without CSH seeds [156]. Ettringite and calcium hydroxide is formed apart from CSH paste during
the hydration process [156,157]. Ettrignite is usually categorise in two types first is “void fill ettringite” which fill pores having
diameter size less than 100 µm and second type is “ void rim ettringite” which is formed in the inner side of pores having diameter size
more than 100 µm [158]. Tosun et al. study the effect of formation of Ettringite in concrete and it was observed that ball shape
ettringite is formed where the larger gaps are present and needle shape massive ettringite is formed at the interface of cement paste and
8
Fig. 8. S.E.M. images of ESP with magnifications of 500X (Topleft) and 2000X (Topright) and ESP concrete composite (ESP 0.05 ratio by weight)
500X (Bottomleft) and 2000X (Bottomright) [151].
Fig. 9. XRD of Chicken ESP [152].
aggregate [159]. This ettringite structure can be expand after increase in sulphur in concrete [159]. Hamada et al. study the SEM
analysis of nano ESP particles and it was observed that high amount of CaO present in ESP is responsible for the formation of addition
CSH gel which reduce the pores volume and increase the durability of concrete [160].
It was observed from Fig. 10 that all the reversion peak characterization is calcined CaCO3. It was observed from TGA, FTIR and
XRF analysis that it is better to convert the CaCO3 into CaO after heating the ESP at a high temperature up to 900 0C [161]. TGA and
FTIR results of raw and calcined ESP at high temperature is shown in Fig. 11 [161]. Other researchers also observed a significant
breakdown of CaCO3 at 900 0C, so the optimum calcined temperature for ESP is 900 0C [162].
9
Fig. 10. TGA pattern of ESP and FTIR results of raw and calcined ESP [161].
5. Strength prediction of ESP concrete
5.1. Analytical approach
The data are collected after a comprehensive literature study from various research experiments. The relationship between the
various properties of concrete and ESP content is determined by using MATLAB. Table 5 shows the effect of eggshell content on various
properties of concrete. The correlation of ESP ratio and slump with compressive strength (CS), split tensile strength (STS), and flexural
strength (FS) was determined. The polynomial equations were determined using non-linear surface fitting on the data mentioned in
Table 5. Various methods of comparison were used by researchers from different research fields [163,164]. The expression for the
compressive, tensile, and flexural strength have been presented in Eqs. (1)–(3). The desired strength for various ESP content and slump
values can be further calculated using these equations. The model’s accuracy in predicting the strength is shown by the coefficient of
correlation (R2). The closest value of R2 to 1 gives the result with higher accuracy [165]. The relation for predicting the strength Eq. (1)
with the value of R2 0.99 shows a good agreement between the predicting and actual strength. The relation for predicting the strength
Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) also gives an acceptable range with values R2 0.98 and 0.96, respectively. Increasing the number of data samples is
necessary to obtain better prediction performance models.
CS = 25⋅2 – 0⋅75 ESP + 2⋅73 S + 0⋅125 (ESP)2 – 0⋅152 S2 + 0⋅046 S(ESP)…………… (1)
2 2
STS = 2⋅54 + 0⋅091 ESP + 0⋅391 S – 0⋅0041 (ESP) – 0⋅0142 S – 0⋅0042 (ESP)S……⋅ (2)
2 2
FS = 13⋅09 + 0⋅411 ESP – 0⋅782–0⋅825 S – 0⋅00258 (ESP) + 0⋅0152 S – 0⋅0251 (ESP)S…… (3)
10
Fig. 11. The result of the workability of the developed ANN model for the input data set.
5.2. ANN approach
5.2.1. Modelling phase

It takes a lot of time and money to conduct laboratory tests on concrete to get strength results [169,170]. Even with ESP concrete,
there are a lot of variables that might affect the strength [171]. Therefore, a numerical model, i.e., soft computing techniques, is
necessary for this objective [172–175]. A variety of methods, including neuro-fuzzy analysis, ANNs, and nature-inspired algorithmic
from, have been used in the literature study [176–180]. There are many artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, including fuzzy logic
[181,182], metaheuristic algorithms [183], and gene expression programming [184–188]. Predictions of geopolymer concrete
strengths using ANN are prevalent [189–192]. High-performance concrete strength prediction is another area where AI has proven
useful [193,194]. AI was utilized by several researchers to determine the extent of the structural damage [195], to predict how well a
wooden building will withstand a fire [196], calculating the shear strength of concrete with steel fiber reinforcement [197], and also
helpful in forecasting the effectiveness of sewage treatment facilities [198]. The artificial neural network is the best-suited method for
prediction because of its high-performance efficiency [199]. Data of different input parameters and their corresponding target strength
is taken from published research [101]. It is used for training and validating the machine learning model in MATLAB shown in Table 6,
and adjusted parameters of ANN are shown in Table 7.
5.2.2. Training methods

Three metrics—root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and correlation coefficient—were used to measure the
ANN method’s efficacy at regular intervals throughout this study (R). Estimation power increases as the R-value rises. Improved
forecasting techniques are reflected by lower RMSE and MAE values [200]. The coefficient of determination measures the correlation
11
Table 5
Effect of eggshell content on various properties of concrete.
ESP (%) Slump (mm) Compressive strength (MPa) Split Tensile strength (MPa) Flexural Strength (MPa) Ref.
0 75 22.30 2.4 - [24]

5 72 24 2.4 -
10 70 18.90 2.3 -
15 71 16.10 1.6 -
0 70 27.20 - 2.75 [26]
5 71 29.63 - 2.76
10 72 42.92 - 3.18
15 75 38.67 - 3.27
20 75 37.60 - 3.38
0 72 24.20 2.20 - [69]
6 75 25 2.48 -
12 71 27.30 2.10 -
18 70 26 1.83 -
24 70 24.80 1.76 -
0 70 26.90 - 4.3 [73]
5 70 26.60 - 4.28
10 71 25.70 - 4.14
15 72 24.90 - 3.98
20 75 23.80 - 3.8
0 100 52.40 - [85]
5 97 61.20 -
10 95 49.30 -
15 94 44.60 -
0 100 49.50 - - [87]
2.5 65 31.14 - -
5 73 25.36 - -
7.5 85 40.91 - -
10 110 39.74 - -
0 30 29.60 4.82 - [105]
5 30 29.20 5.21 -
10 24 29.80 5.53 -
15 19 27 5.45 -
20 18 26.40 5.80 -
0 25 26.74 3.12 13.01 [166]
5 25 28.14 3.45 12.47
10 24 27.01 3.62 13.31
15 21 27.96 3.47 13.96
20 19 27.71 3.89 14.48
25 18 26.92 3.11 13.71
0 25 51.70 - 9.6 [167]
5 28 46.20 - 8.6
10 30 42.30 - 7.9
15 32 40.70 - 7.2
20 34 37.10 - 6.1
25 32 33.90 - 5.1
50 30 30.70 - 2.3
0 70 37.82 - - [168]
5 75 41.49 - -
7.5 80 40.91 - -
10 65 29.15 - -
Table 6
Adjusted parameters of ANN model.
Parameters Values
Number of Iterations 6
Input 6
Hidden layers maximum number of neurons 10
Output 1
ANN training algorithm Levenberg-Marquardt
Activation functions of output layer neuron Linear
Data Division Random
12
Table 7
The values of indicators for training and validating the data set.
Indicators Training Validation Complete
R2 1 0.99 0.96
MSE 52.18 45.45 47.45
RMSE 7.06 6.7 6.8
between input and output parameters using Eq.4.

2
Σ ni=1 (yi − ŷ
ip )
R2 = 1 − (4)
Σ ni=1 (yi − y)2
Where yi is the ith initial output, y is the mean of initial outputs, yip is the ith predicted outputs, and n is the total number of data
samples. MSE is the average squared difference between predicted outputs and initial outputs. MSE can be computed using Eq. 5.
1∑ n
MSE = (yi − ŷ
ip )
2
(5)
n i=1
The formula for calculating RMSE, which is the square root of mean squared error can be calculated by Eq. 6.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1∑ n
RMSE = (yi − ŷ ip )
2
(6)
n i=1
5.2.3. Model performance

Indicators used for improved efficiency of artificial neural network model are coefficient of correlation (R2), mean square error
(MSE), and root mean square error (RMSE). The values of indicators for training and validating the data set are shown in Table 7. It was
observed that the ANN model performed well for concrete strength prediction with a value of R2 for training and validation the model
were 0.96 and 0.99, respectively. The capacity of the model to predict its strength is considered significant when the value of R2 is
closer to 1. Regression plots are the alternative method to present the performance result of an Artificial Neural Network. The result of
the workability of the developed ANN model for the input data set is shown in Fig. 11. In these figures, the predicted value is rep
resented on the vertical axis, and the actual value is represented on the horizontal axis, which an artificial neural network model gives.
The ideal prediction of the developed ANN model is shown by the samples located on the diagonal lines.
6. Application of ESP
6.1. ESP in concrete
The specific surface area of ESP after grinding was observed 0.3 m2/g, which is greater than the specific surface area of cement
0.28 m2/g [201,202]. The slump value of concrete increases when the treated ESP is used, but it decreases when using raw ESP [203].
Due to the use of less-density ESP in replacement of highly dense cement, the density of eggshell concrete decreases as compared to the
density of control concrete [204]. It was also observed that a decrease in strength is achieved after adding ESP of more than 15% [205].
Split tensile strength and flexural strength performance of eggshell concrete are similar to the compressive strength behavior of
concrete. The maximum percentage of eggshell replacement for achieving significant strength is 15% [206].
6.2. ESP in cement mortar
ESP in cement mortar increases the mechanical strength of mortar to the optimum level, but a further increase in eggshell content
results in a decrease in the strength of mortar [207]. But it was also observed that mechanical properties are decreased at every
percentage of cement replacement with ESP [113]. Blocks made by 20% replacement of ESP give significant strength up to 25 MPa
[113]. Flexural and compressive strength is the same when we heat the mortar at a temperature of 300 0C, and a strength loss of 12% is
observed when we heat the mortar at 450 0C with 20% ESP. replacement mortar as compared to the control [113]. It was also observed
that thermal conductivity was reduced when we used treated ESP [113]. If the porosity of mortar is increased, the thermal conductivity
of mortar starts to decrease [208,209].
6.3. ESP in reinforced concrete
The plastic shrinkage resistance of fiber-reinforced concrete is increased with the addition of natural fibres like ESP [210]. ESP
replacement in fibre-reinforced concrete increases the water absorption of concrete and decreases the density of fibre-reinforced
concrete because the ESP has less density than cement [210]. It was found that the compressive, tensile, and flexural strength of
concrete is improved after replacing with ESP to a significant extent but also increases the water absorption rate [211]. ESP can be used
in the production of one-way concrete slabs. Research has been done in which cement is replaced upto 15% with ESP during slab
13
production. It was observed that the highest compressive strength upto 51% and flexural strength upto 4.9% is achieved after replacing
3% cement with ESP [211]. ESP can also be incorporated in manufacturing reinforced concrete beam along with palm oil fuel ash
(POFA) in replacement of cement. It was observed that the optimum percentage of incorporation of ESP and POFA combination in
concrete is 10% and 20%, respectively [212].
6.4. ESP in masonry blocks
It was observed that the compressive strength of ESP masonry blocks, including replacement with ESP of about 30%, is nearly 90%
of the strength obtained in conventional masonry blocks because of the increase in the densification of blocks [213]. ESP is also used in
the production of high strength sandcrete blocks. Cement content in sandcrete blocks is replaced from 0% to 40%, and it was observed
that maximum compressive strength of sandcrete block is obtained after replacing cement with 30% ESP [213]. ESP has significant
potential to be used in the production of unburnt clay block is increased with an increase in the percentage of ESP upto 40%, then start
decreasing after further increasing in ESP content [213]. Maximum compressive strength upto 5.68 MPa is achieved after replacing
40% cement with ESP [213]. The strength properties of stabilized earth blocks can be improved after the incorporation of ESP. The
addition of ESP along with rice husk ash (RHA) increases the density of geopolymer blocks. The optimum ratio of ESP: RHA is 30: 70
resulting in obtaining strength up to 95% of cement blocks [214].
6.5. ESP in clay bricks as a stabilizer
Clay bricks are usually stabilized with the help of the addition of cement and lime, but sometimes ESP is used with cement at a
significant replacement percentage to achieve this object ive, especially in fired clay bricks [215]. The strength of clay brick depends
upon the burning temperature, and maximum strength is achieved after burning for 5 hrs. Water absorption of clay bricks is reduced
after the incorporation of ESP [215]. Fired clay bricks and adobe bricks properties are shown in Table 8. ESP improves the mechanical
properties of laterite bricks. The compressive strength of latrite bricks is observed to be increased by 60% after the addition of 30% ESP
content [215]. This will ultimately result in managing eggshell waste by using it as a stabilizer in soil and masonry structures. Fired
clay bricks can be manufactured using ESP and granite waste powder (GP) in combination. It was observed that the optimum per
centage of ESP and GP is 10% and 20% respectively in producing highest compressive strength upto 3.12 MPa [216]. ESP can also be
used as a biofiller in producing fired clay bio bricks. Due to low thermal expansion coefficient and high compressive strength upto
7 MPa, ESP added fired clay bricks used for thermal insulation [217].
7. Discussions
Eggshell waste is produced worldwide, which has no use and has an adverse effect on the environment during disposal [222]. ESP
in the finer form can be used as a replacement for cement and fine aggregate during the production of concrete [223]. The chemical
composition of eggshells shows that the main component of ESP is calcium oxide, from 33% to 90%. The percentage of calcium content
in ESP plays a vital role in gaining strength as degradation in concrete is observed during less calcium concrete [223]. The size of the
ESP is another factor that influences the strength of concrete as finer particles give significant strength, and coarser particle negatively
affects concrete strength [223]. The percentage of replacement ratio also influences the strength of concrete, and various researchers
recommended that a lower replacement ratio of upto 15% gives significant strength [117]. But it was also observed that better strength
is improved at a higher replacement ratio, up to 25% [117]. However, there is no effect of the brown or white color of eggshell on the
characteristics of concrete [117]. Besides, the water absorption and durability results of ESP concrete are also contradictory [42,117].
The properties of eggshell concrete can be improved after incorporating fly ash, silica fume, and nano-silica [224]. The addition of
pozzolanic material improves the characteristics and microstructure of the concrete composite by chemical reaction and makes the
product denser, ultimately increasing concrete’s mechanical strength [225]. The ESP, a replacement for cement in concrete, is also
used to make the concrete more cost-effective [226]. The compressive, tensile and flexural strength is also increased after incorpo
rating industrial waste like volcanic pumice powder [211], so good strength can be achieved using industrial waste along with ESP as
cement replacement in concrete.
Table 8
Properties of fired clay and adobe clay bricks.
Brick Type Optimum ESP (%) Compressive strength (Mpa) Tensile strength (Mpa) Density (Kg/m3) Water Absorption Ref.
Fired clay 20 1.12 - 0.90 - [217]

Laterite 4 1.5 - 1.04 - [218]
Fired clay 5 1.53 1.10 - 0.95 [219]
Fired clay 5 1.26 0.93 - 0.18 [219]
Fired clay 20 1.02 - 1.00 0.89 [220]
Adobe clay 3 1.14 - - - [221]
14
8. Conclusion
This study covers a detailed review of the material used, ESP preparation, properties of ESP concrete, microstructure and mix
design proportion of ESP concrete, and concludes with the following points:
1. The chemical composition of the ESP is similar to the limestone. It has high calcium content in the form of calcium carbonate, about
85–95%, which makes it suitable for cement replacement in concrete.
2. It is essential to heat the ESP after cleaning and grinding to achieve the desired strength at a temperature of 110 ℃ for half day and
then pass it through 90 µ sieve before use in concrete.
3. The workability of the concrete decreases after the cement replacement with ESP in a high amount because water absorption of ESP
is high at the time of casting as it absorbs water very quickly.
4. The setting time of ESP concrete is less than conventional concrete, nearly 40–60%.
5. Compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength of concrete are increased after cement replacement with ESP by nearly
about 10–30%. However, the highest mechanical properties are achieved when we replace up to 20% of cement with ESP. But after
increasing the replacement by more than 20%, the compressive strength and tensile strength are reduced by 10%.
6. The ESP has a specific gravity less than the specific gravity of cement, nearly about 2.5, which makes the concrete lighter in weight
and value in constructing a lightweight structure.
7. A positive result in modulus of elasticity is achieved after the replacement of 0.25% by ESP. In the case of eggshell cement mortar,
flexural and compressive strength is the same when we heat the mortar at a temperature of 300 ℃, and a strength loss of 12% is
observed when we heat the mortar at 450 ℃ with 20% ESP replacement mortar as compared to control.
8. Mortar workability decreases with increases in the percentage of cement replacement with ESP, and the slump cone value in
creases, and when the ESP is added more, the compaction factor decreases.
9. Water absorption of clay bricks is reduced after the incorporation of ESP. The strength result of clay brick depends on the burning
temperature, and maximum strength is achieved after burning for 5 hrs.
This study also helps design the mix proportion of ESP concrete and provides relationship equations for predicting properties of
concrete with a significant value of R2. Besides construction work, other applications like Eggshell membrane, Eggshell nano-particle,
eggshell reinforced biocomposite and Eggshell waste as catalyst material could potentially increase the value of the ESP and have less
chances of causing environmental damage, opening new options for the disposal of ESP in a sustainable manner.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for
funding this work through Large Groups Research Project under grant number RGP.2/209/44.
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Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02160

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Sustainable cement replacement using waste eggshells: A review

Fig. 1. Sequence of eggshell preparation for concrete applications.

3. ESP concrete production

3.2. Coarse aggregates

3.3. Fine aggregates

3.5. Eggshell powder (ESP)

4. Properties of ESP concrete

4.2. Compressive strength

1 800 21.2 0.85 - 1.18 India [69]

M1 240 136 600 1200 0 0.56 31.51 [81]

Fig. 2. The effect of ESP incorporation on the density of concrete [87–89].

4.3. Flexural strength

0–20% ES. 20% ES 9.92–11.69%↑ - - [101]

4.4. Tensile strength

replacement on slump value is shown in Fig. 5 [125].

4.6. Consistency and setting time

4.8. Modulus of elasticity

4.9. Microstructural properties of ESP concrete

Fig. 7. Effect of ESP content on the elasticity of concrete [139–141].

Fig. 9. XRD of Chicken ESP [152].

5. Strength prediction of ESP concrete

5.1. Analytical approach

5.2. ANN approach

5.2.1. Modelling phase

5.2.2. Training methods

0 75 22.30 2.4 - [24]

between input and output parameters using Eq.4.

5.2.3. Model performance

6.1. ESP in concrete

6.2. ESP in cement mortar

6.3. ESP in reinforced concrete

6.4. ESP in masonry blocks

6.5. ESP in clay bricks as a stabilizer

Fired clay 20 1.12 - 0.90 - [217]

Declaration of Competing Interest

Data will be made available on request.

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