Professional Documents
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AIRCRAFT
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM
FOR
A&P
Power available at the generating sources must be made available at the input of the
power consuming equipment and systems.
In large aircraft miles of cable are involved together with multiple load distribu tion
busbars protection networks, junction boxes and control panels.
BUSBARS
In most types of aircraft the output from the generation sources is coupled to one or
more low impedance conductors referred to as busbars. These are usually situated in
junction boxes or distribution panels located at central points within the aircraft, and
they provide a convenient means for connecting positive supplies to the various
consumer circuits; in other words, they perform a "carry-all" function. Busbars vary in
form dependent on the methods to be adopted in meeting the electrical power
requirements of a particular aircraft type. In a very simple system a busbar can take the
form of a strip of interlinked terminals while in the more complex systems main busbars
are thick metal (usually copper) strips or rods to which input and output supply
connections can be made. The strips or rods are insulated from the main structure and
are normally provided with some form of protective covering. Flat, flexible strips of
braided copper wire are also used in some aircraft and serve as subsidiary busbars.
Busbar Systems.
(3) arranging for faulted generators to be isolated from the distribution system.
In adopting this arrangement it is usual to categorize all consumer services into their
order of importance and, in general, they fall into three groups: vital, essential and non-
essential.
Vital services are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up landing,
e.g. emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers. These services
are connected directly to the battery.
Essential services are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight emergency
situation. They are connected to d.c and a.c busbars, as appropriate, and in such a way
that they can always be supplied from a generator or from batteries.
Non-essential services are those which can be isolated in an in-flight emergency for load
shedding purposes, and are connected to d.c and a.c busbars, as appropriate, supplied
from a generator.
For the particular system represented by figure 1 the d.c supplies for driving the inverters are
taken from busbars appropriate to the importance of the ac operated consumers. Thus,
essential ac consumers are operated by No. 1 inverter and so it is driven by d.c from the
essential services busbar and No.2 and No.3 inverters supply ac to non-essential services and
so they are powered by d.c from the No. I and No. 2 Busbars respectively.
Figure 2 illustrates a split busbar method of power distribution, and is based on an aircraft
utilizing non-paralleled `constant-frequency ax as the primary power source and d.c via
transformer-rectifier units (T.R.U.').
The generators supply three-phase power through separate channels, to the two main busbars
and these, in turn, supply the non-essential consumer loads 3 and T.R.U.s' The essential a.c
loads are supplied from the essential busbar which under normal operating conditions is
connected via a changeover relay to the No. 1 main busbar.
The main busbars are normally isolated from each other i.e., the generators are not
paralleled, but if the supply from either of the generators fails, the busbars are
automatically inter-connected by the energizing of the "bus-tie" breaker and serve as one,
thereby maintaining supplies to all a.c consumers and both T.R.,U.s if, for any reason, the
power supplied from both generators should fail the non-essential service will be isolated
and the changeover relay between No.l main busbar, and the essential busbar, will
automatically de-energize and connect the essential busbar to an emergency static
inverter.
The supply of d.c is derived from independent T.R.U and from batteries. The No. 1 TRU
supplies essential loads and the No. 2 unit supplies nonessential loads connected the main
d.c busbar; both are automatically interconnected by an isolation relay. The batteries are
directly connected to the battery busbar and this is interconnected with the essential
busbar. In the event of both generators failing the main d.c busbar will become isolated
from the essential d.c busbar which will then be automatically supplied from the batteries
to maintain operation of essential d.c and a.c. consumers.
External power supplies and supplies from an auxiliary power unit can be connected to
the whole system in the manner indicated in Figure 2.
A generator over-voltage circuit is fitted to take the generator "offline”i n the event of
a voltage regulator failure that allows the voltage to build up in an . uncontrolled
fashion. The over-voltage circuit must not take the. generator "off line" when spikes
or transient surges occur (nuisance tripping) but provide a time delay in order that the
voltage regulator can regain control.
In circuit number one (figure 1), under normal generator operation the output voltage
is insufficient to break down the over-voltage Zener Z1. Therefore all transistors are
off. When an over-voltage point is reached of sufficient value to break down Z1, T1
switches on allowing T2 to switch `ON, T2 switching on provides a cha rging current
to the time delay circuit C1, VR1. If the over-voltage is simply a spike then T1 will
almost immediately switch off, as will T2. C1 will discharge through T3, R2 and be
ready for the next over-voltage. If the over-voltage is a genuine over-voltage, then
after the time delay (this is an inverse time delay cct, i.e. the higher the over -voltage
the shorter the time delay) when C1 is charged T3 will switch ‘ON’. T3 switching
`ON' puts the top of R2 positive which will trigger the SCR. The SCR swit ching on
puts on the over-voltage light, but more importantly it also trips the generator field
relay. The generator output voltage will drop to residual and the generator will be off
line. When the output voltage drops to residual all the transistors swit ch ‘OFF' but the
SCR remains conducting holding the generator off line. The over-voltage circuit has to
be de-latched and switching ‘OFF' the generator control switch, this removes the
supply to the line marked battery volts. Z2 is part of the voltage stab ilization circuit.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The terminal voltage of generator will also vary with the variation of the electrical load on the
generator. The voltage will be high on no load and low on full load. Therefore, the purpose of
voltage regulator is to maintain the generator output voltage constant at a pre-set value
irrespective of changes in the generator speed and load condition.
TYPES:
DEFINITION - The vibrating-contact voltage regulator is one which regulates the generator
voltage by cutting in and out a resistance connected in series with the generator field winding.
Fig. 2(a) shows the vibrating contact voltage regulator.
DESCRIPTION - It consists of an operating coil whose contacts cut in and out a resistance
connected in series with the generator field winding. The operating coil which is also called
voltage coil is connected across the generator output terminals so that coil current and
electromagnetic force is substantially proportional to generator speed output voltage.
OPERATION - When the generator speed increases with increased engine speed, the
progressive increase in its - voltage results in an increase electromagnetic force of the
operating coil until, at a pre-set voltage level, this force opens the 'contact which inserts a
resistance in series with the generator field winding. This action weakens the generator field
strength and reduces the generator voltage. The reduction of the generator voltage reduces
the operating coil magnetic force and its contacts close to cut out the resistance in series with
the generator field winding. This allows the generator voltage to rise, and the cycle is then
repeated. The contact points open and close many times a second the result of which
maintains the generator voltage at a pre-set value.
The vibrating-contact regulator is so named because of the repeated opening and closing of
its contact points. The regulator is shown in a more practical form in Fig. 2(b)
(I) The generator will produce under voltage if regulator contact points are stuck open.
(2) The generator will produce over voltage if the regulator Contact points are stuck
closed or welded together.
(3) The generator will produce over voltage if the operating coil of the regulator is open-
circuited. ,
(4) The generator will produce under voltage if the operating coil of the regulator is burnt
out or shorted.
(5) The repeated opening and closing of the regulator contact points cause radio
interference. In view of this, radio interference suppressor is always provided.
(6) Adjustment of the generator voltage is made by increasing or decreasing the tension
of the spring, which controls the contact points.
(7) If the regulating resistance becomes disconnected, open-circuited or burnt out, the
generator voltage will fluctuate and excessive arcing will occur at the contact points.
DEFINITION: The carbon-pile voltage regulator is one which regulates the generator voltage
by varying the resistance of a pile of carbon washers connected in series with the generator
field winding.
BASIC PRINCIPLE - The operation is based on the fact that the contact resistance between
faces of carbon disc depends on the area of contact and the pressure with which disc faces are
held together, if, therefore, a pile of carbon disc or washers is connected in series with the
shunt field circuit resistance can be varied by adjusting the pressure applied to the `pile'.
DESCRIPTION - It consists of a pile of carbon washers which are compressed together by a
leave spring whose pressure is varied by the magnetic force of an operating coil. The
operating coil is connected in parallel with the generator output terminals so that coil current
and electromagnetic force is substantially proportional to generator output voltage. When the
carbon washers are compressed together, they possess a low resistance. The pile of carbon
washers is connected in series with the generator shunt field winding.
OPERATION - When the generator speed increases with increased engine speed, the
progressive increase in its voltage results in an increased electromagnetic force of the
operating coil until, at a preset voltage level (usually 28 volts) this force is balanced by the
pile-compression spring. If the output voltage exceeds the pre-set level the increase in
electromagnetic force reduces the pile compression, thereby increasing the resistance of the
generator shunt field circuit to check the rise in the output voltage.
Fig. 3 shows the schematic diagram of the carbon pile voltage regulator.
(1) Carbon-pile unit - is housed within a ceramic tube which, in turn, is enclosed in a
finned casing. The casing is finned for cooling or dissipating the heat generated by the
carbon-pile. The finned casing is called cooling fins.
(2) Carbon Inserts - contact at each end if the pile is made by carbon inserts.
(3) Compression screw - Initial pressure of the pile is set by a compression screw.
(4) Bi-metal washer - Compensates for temperature effects on voltage coil resistance and
expansion characteristic of the regulator, thus maintaining constant pile compression.
(6) Terminal block or Base-plate plug the cables from the voltage coil and carbon-pile
terminate at a terminal block or plug on base-plate of the regulator.
(1) Magnetic Core Airgap - The airgap between the core and armature is preset by
adjusting the position of the magnetic core within the endplate of the electromagnet housing.
(a) Ballast resistor - adjustment of the operating coil circuit resistance is accomplished by
a ballast resistor pre-set by the manufacturer, to give the correct ampere turns in the voltage
coil at the nominal voltage to be controlled.
(b) Trimmer resistor - A trimming resistor is also provided for . raising or lowering the
regulated level within certain limits, after the regulator is installed in an aircraft.
The magnet core airgap, carbon pile compression and the ballast resistor adjustments are
done during testing of the voltage regulator by the manufacturer after manufacture and in an
approved shop after overhauling. A maintenance engineer is not allowed to tamper with these
adjustments in service. If the electrical system voltage is higher or lower than the pre-set
value, the maintenance engineer can adjust the voltage regulator by means of the trimmer
resistor only.
(1) The generator will supply over voltage if the operating coil is open circuited or the
carbon pile shorted out.
(2) The generator will supply under voltage if the operating coil is shorted or burnt.
(3) The generator voltage will fluctuate if some of the carbon washers are burnt or pitted.
(4) If the strength of the electromagnet of the operating coil is increases, the carbon pile
compression will decrease resulting in increased generator field circuit resistance and reduced
generator voltage. The reverse is the case if the strength of the electromagnet of the operating
coil is decreased.
In the regulator circuit shown in Figure b, the three transistors (TR I, TR2 and TR3) are
connected in the n-p-n arrangement. When the system control switch is "on", excitation
current flows initially from the battery to the base of TR2 and through a voltage dividing
network made up of resistances R), R2 and RV,. The purpose of this network- in conjunction
with Zener diode "Z" is to establish the system-operating voltage. With power applied to the
base of TR2, the transistor is switched on and batter current flows to the collector and emitter
junction. The amplified output in the emitter circuit flows to the base of TR3 thereby
switching it on so that the battery current supplied to the field winding can be conducted to
ground via the collector-emitter junction of TR3. When the generator is running, the rotating
magnetic field induces an alternating current in the stator and this is rectified and supplied to
the d.c power system of the aircraft.
When the alternator output voltage reaches the preset operating value, the current flowing in
the reverse direction through the Zener diode causes it to break down, and to allow the
current to flow to the base of TRr thus switching it on. The collector-emitter junction of TRl
now conducts, thereby diverting current away from the base of TR2 and switching it off. This
action, in turn, switches off TR3 and so excitation current to the alternator field winding is cut
off. The rectifier across the field winding
provides_a..path so that field current can fall at a slower rate and_thus prevent generation of a
high voltage at TR3 each time i is -switched-off When the alternator output voltage falls to
cease conduction, TI~j will again conduct to restore excitation current to the field winding.
This sequence of operation is repeated and the alternator output voltage is thereby maintained
at the preset operating value.
CURRENT REGULATOR
DEFINITION - Current regulator is a device which protects the generator against the supply
of excessive current.
DESCRIPTION - It consists of an operating coil called current coil which operates a contact
that cuts in and out a resistance in the generator field circuit as the generator load current
varies. The operating or current coil is connected in series with the generator and its load.
Definition - Reverse-current cut-out relay is a device which performs these two functions
1. It connects the generator to battery (or brings the generator on line) when the
generator voltage is higher than battery or bus bar voltage.
2. It disconnects the generator from the battery (or bring the generator off line) when the
generator voltage is lower than the battery or busbar voltage. Disconnection of faulty
generator
1. The self excited shunt wound generator must be allowed to build up its full voltage before
it is connected to the electrical system. The reverse current relay allows this condition to be
fulfilled.
2. In every generator system is which the generator charges the battery as well as supplying
other electrical equipment in the aircraft an automatic device must be provided for
disconnecting the generator W
from the battery in the event of generator failure. If this is not done, the battery will discharge
through the generator and burn out the generator armature.
Description - It is a relay having a voltage coil and a current coil wound on the same soft-iron
core. The voltage coil is connected in parallel with the generator and the current coil is
connected in series with the generator.
Operation - When the generator voltage is rising and it reaches a value slightly higher than
the battery or bus bar voltage, the voltage coil of the relay will magnetize the soft iron core
and closes the bus bar.
Current now flows through the current coil and its magnetic flux assists that of the voltage
coil to keep the relay contacts closed.
In the event of generator failure or when the engine is stopped, the generator voltage
decreases and falls below that of the battery or the bus bar to the generator through the
current coil of the reverse current relay. The magnetic flux of the reversed current in the
current coil will oppose that of the voltage coil of the relay. This results on week flux in the
relay soft iron core and the relay contacts open to disconnect the generator from the battery or
the busbar.
l. Generator - It supplies power to the electrical system and charges the battery when the
engine is running.
4. Cut-out - It connects the generator to the bus-bar when the generator voltage is higher
than the bus bar voltage. It also disconnects lower than the bus bar voltage.
5. Generator fuse - It protects the generator against the supply of excessive current.
7. Battery charging ammeter- It is a central zero ammeter connected between the battery
and the busbar to indicate the value of the battery charging and discharging current. It
is one of the means by which generator failure is indicated. If the generator is
supplying power and charging the battery the ammeter pointer will be on the positive
side of zero. If the generator fails and the battery is discharging the ammeter needle or
pointer will be on the negative side of zero.
the circuits in the electrical system. It is a copper or aluminium bar to which all the
fuses or circuit breakers of the electrical system are connected. Bus-bar is a short form
of omnibus bar. Omnibus in Latin means the whole lot together, and bus bar means a
common connecting point for the load circuits.
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Overvoltage is a condition which could arise in a generating system in the event of a faulty in
the field excitation circuit, e.g. internal grounding of the field windings or an open-circuit in the
voltage regulator sensing lines. Devices are therefore necessary to protect consumer equipment
against voltages higher than those at which they are normally designed to operate. The methods
adopted vary between aircraft systems and also on whether they supply d.c or a.c. An example
of an overvoltage relay method applied to one type of d.c. system is shown in figure 1
The relay consists of a number of contacts connected in all essential circuits of the generator
system, and mechanically coupled to a latching mechanism. This mechanism is electro-
magnetically controlled by a sensing coil and armature assembly, the coil being connected in
the generator shunt-field circuit and in series with a resistor, the resistance-of which decreases
as the X current through it is increased. Under normal regulated voltage conditions, tensing coil
circuit resistance is high enough to prevent generator shunt field current from releasing the
relay latch Mechanism, and so the contacts remain closed and the generator remains connected
to the busbar; If however, an open circuit occurs in the regulator voltage coil sensing line,
shunt-field-current increases and, because of the inverse characteristics of the relay sensing coil
resistor, the electromagnetic field set up by the coil causes the latch mechanism to release all
the relay contacts to the open position, thereby isolating the system from the busbar. After the
fault has been cleared, the contacts are reset by depressing the push button.
PARALLELING OF DC GENERATORS
Usually with multi-engine aircraft, there is always multi-generator system. Once there are more than
one generator (DC) in a given aircraft, these generators are usually connected in parallel. This
implies that for generators to be connected in parallel there must be more than one generator.
Paralleling of generator is only possible with at least two generators. Paralleling of generators is only
possible with multi-generator system.
For DC generators, the condition for paralleling is that the output voltages of generators to be put in
parallel must be equal.
When generators are put to run in parallel, the generators are expected to carry the system load
equally at all times. This must be so otherwise one generator or more amongst the ones in parallel
will become load to the others. This is a disadvantage in the electric system. To check is to equalize
the generators’ load.
The generators in parallel are connected together in the negative and by the load equalizing circuit.
No current is expected to flow in the equalizing circuit if the load on each generator is equal.
With unequal load on the generators, current will flow in the load equalizing circuit. This current is
the equalizing current.
The load equalizing circuit consists of the equalizing coils. The flow of the equalizing current has the
effect of reducing the output of one generator and increasing the other.
If generator 1 (Gen 1) in taking more load, more current will flow in the generator 1 circuit and
consequently, the voltage drop (V1) across the negative end of generator 1 will be higher than that of
generator 2 (Gen 2). By this the negative of Gen 1 is more negative than that of Gen 2.
This will cause equalizing current to flow from generator2 negative end to the negative end of
generator1. The result of this is that the output of Gen 1 will decrease and that of Gen 2 will increase.
This action of increasing output of generator (2) and decreasing of generator (1) will continue until
both outputs are equal. When this happens, it will be said that the loads have been equalized. By this
action, the system load is shared equally by the generators.
For this reason of sharing, the parallel system is also known as load sharing system.
The control circuits of a starter-generator are relatively complex; they must control current for both
starting and generating operating. These circuits are contained in a device that is often referred to as
a generator control unit (GCU). This GCU is used in conjunction with the starter-generator
discussed earlier. The GCU contains a voltage regulator, the various control circuits for the starting
and generator mode, and protection circuits used during abnormal operating conditions. The GCU
electronic components are contained on three printed circuit boards. Each board is mounted on a
forged aluminum base, which acts as a heat sink for those components which must dissipate heat.
The entire unit is enclosed by an aluminum cover.
GCU FUNCTIONS
The start mode of a starter-generator is controlled through a circuit independent of the GCU. During
starting, battery or auxiliary power unit (APU) power is sent to the starter-generator via a starter
contactor. The starter contactor is energized by the engine start switch on the flight deck. During
the generator mode, the GCU controls the generator output, generator and system protection, and
self-test functions. If a fault is detected in the generator system, the GCU will illuminate the
appropriate annunciator fail light. The generator control unit is capable of performing the following
10 functions.
1. Voltage Regulation: The voltage regulator section of the GCU maintains a constant
generator voltage under various loads, temperatures, and rotational speeds. The current of the
generator field circuit is controlled through the field transistor. This transistor varies the field
current pulse time to vary generator output.
2. Generator Line Contactor Control: The generator line contactor control provides a
means of connecting the generator output to the aircraft’s dc load bus. This circuit operates with a
time delay to ensure that generator voltage is nearly equal to bus voltage immediately following
initial engine starting. Several inhibiting signals are also employed to ensure proper contactor
positioning (open or closed) when failure conditions are sensed.
7. Anticyle Protection: The anti-cyle protection feature prevents more than one reset
attempt of the generator field relay for each activation of the generator control switch. Because the
generator output voltage is used for GCU control power, and this voltage disappears after a trip, the
system would repetitively build up in voltage and trip again if a fault existed in the system.
8. Latching Field Relay Control: A magnetic latching field relay is used to de-energize the
generator after a fault condition has been sensed. The field relay is used to de-energize the generator
by opening the generator shunt field excitation path and open the line contactor by opening its power
input. The field relay is tripped by a protection function such as overvoltage, overload, under-
voltage, reverse polarity, or open ground wire sensing; it may also be tripped by an external switch
applying a ground signal to the GCU.
9. Flash and Start Relay Control: The field-flashing relay and the associated circuitry
ensure that the generator output can be built up from the residual voltage without help from any
other power source. The residual voltage bootstraps the generator upward to a point where the field
relay is reset and then to a higher voltage to energized, the field flashing relay. Once the field-
flashing relay is energized, the field flash path is broken, but the normal voltage regulator circuitry is
able to operate at this voltage level, and so that generator continues to build up to the normal
operating voltage
10. Overvoltage and Overload Protection Self-Test: Provisions are made within the GCU
to enable it to periodically exercise the overvoltage, overload, and under-voltage protection circuits.
A Passive failure of the circuitry would not otherwise be discovered until that function was required
to operate. If an external test switch applies generator output voltage to the GCU, the protection will
be biased to a point where it will operate, even though normal voltage appears on the generator
output. If a trip of the channel results within a few seconds after the voltage has been applied, the
circuit is working correctly.