Fab Amt 2102 Prelim Module No. 2

REPUBLICOFTHEPHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, Batangas
Institute of Engineering and Technology
First Semester, A.Y 2020–2021
LEARNING MODULE NO. 2
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
SUBJECT: AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS (FIXED
AND ROTARY)
(PRELIM PERIOD-FLEXIBLE LEARNING MODALITIES)
Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

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Module Learning Outcome (MLO)
CLO1: Identify the different
classification of aircraft
Instruments.
Topic Learning Outcome (TLO)
MLO1: Conceptualize the different
identify them one by one. TLO1: Identify the historical
CLO2: Identify the different
mechanism of the different background of the aircraft
aircraft instrument systems. MLO2: Extract the uses of each instruments.
instruments in the aircraft
Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, BatangasTLO2: Relate the past
Institute of Engineering
MLO3: Describe instruments and why I
and Technology
every classification
of instruments in the aircraft
First Semester, A.Y 2020–2021contributed so much in the
present
TIME COMMITMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR THIS MODULE
Page Time
Reading Materials
INTRODUCTION 4
CLASSIFYING OF INSTRUMENTS 5-9 15 minutes
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS 10-20 35 minutes
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 21-27 35 minutes
NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS
28-30 30 minutes
REFERENCES
37
Activity Time
Enrichment Activity 1 32 50 minutes
Quiz 45 minutes
Video Materials Time
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dy45n6oe3A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3pbXX_krS4
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfVu4TskOxo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdFGbUouE_4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4N1f-BLLXY 45 minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JxGFAXp2YcE
INTRODUCTION
There are three basic kinds of instruments classified by the job they perform: FLIGHT
INSTRUMENTS, ENGINE INSTRUMENTS, and NAVIGATION
INSTRUMENTS. There are also miscellaneous gauges and indicators that provide
information that do not fall into these classifications, especially on large complex aircraft.
Flight control position, cabin environmental systems, electrical power, and auxiliary
power units (APUs), for example, are all monitored and controlled from the cockpit via
the use of instruments systems. All may be regarded as position/condition instruments
since they usually report the position of a certain moveable component on the aircraft, or
the condition of various aircraft components or systems not included in the first three
groups.
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LECTURETTE/DISCUSSION
The relaying of important bits of information can be done in various ways. Electricity is
often used by way of wires that carry sensor information into the cockpit.
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Over the years, flight instruments have come to be situated similarly on the
instrument panels in most aircraft and this is called the basic T arrangement for flight
instruments.
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Original analog flight instruments are operated by air pressure and the use of
gyroscopes. This avoids the use of electricity, which could put the pilot in a dangerous
situation if the aircraft lost electrical power.
Development of sensing and display techniques, combined with advanced aircraft
electrical systems, has made it possible for reliable primary and secondary instrument
systems that are electrically operated.
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ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
Engine instruments are those designed to measure operating parameters of the
aircraft’s engine(s). These are usually quantity, pressure, and temperature indications.
They also include measuring engine speed(s).
The most common engine instruments are the fuel and oil quantity and pressure
gauges, tachometers, and temperature gauges.
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Navigation instruments are those that contribute information used by the pilot to guide
the aircraft along a definite course. This group includes compasses of various kinds, some
of which incorporate the use of radio signals to define a specific course while flying the
aircraft en route from one airport to another. Other navigational instruments are designed
specifically to direct the pilot’s approach to landing at an airport. Radios and instruments
sending locating information via radio waves.
The navigation instruments indicate the position of the aircraft in relation to a selected
navigation facility or fix. This group of instruments includes various types of course
indicators, range indicators, glideslope indicators, and bearing pointers. Newer aircraft
with more technologically advanced instrumentation provide blended information, giving
the pilot more accurate positional information. Navigation instruments are comprised of
indicators that display GPS, very high frequency (VHF) omni-directional radio range
(VOR), non-directional beacon (NDB), and instrument landing system (ILS)
information. The instruments indicate the position of the aircraft relative to a selected
navigation facility or fix. They also provide pilotage information so the aircraft can be
maneuvered to keep it on a predetermined path. The pilotage information can be in either
two or three dimensions relative to the ground-based or space based navigation
information.
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ENGINE INSTRUMENT
Engine instruments are those designed to measure operating parameters of the aircraft’s
engine(s). These are usually indicators which measures:
• Quantity
• Pressure
• Temperature
The most common engine instruments are the fuel and oil quantity and pressure gauges,
tachometers, and temperature gauges. But aside from these instruments, there are also
several engine instruments that can be found in a reciprocating/piston engine such as the
following:
• Cylinder head temperature
• Manifold pressure
• Oil temperature
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ENGINE OIL PRESSURE
The most important instrument used by the pilot to perceive the health of an engine is the
engine oil pressure gauge. Oil pressure is usually indicated in psi. The normal operating
range is typically represented by a green arc on the circular gauge. The oil pressure
generated in most engines should be about 10 psi per every 1000 revolutions per minute
(rpm), peaking around 55-65 psi.
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Why is it important?
“BECAUSE OF THE OIL PUMP”
The oil pump circulates engine oil under pressure to the rotating bearings, the sliding
pistons and the camshaft of the engine. This lubricates the bearings, allows the use of
higher-capacity fluid bearings and also assists in cooling the engine.
• Lubrication – to reduce friction and prevents heating of the engine.
• Cooling – oil absorbs heat in the engine as it circulates in the system.
• Cleaning – because of abrasion, the metal gets damaged and it will produce
small metal particles inside the engine.
What Causes Low Engine Oil Pressure?
Here are the four most common reasons for low oil pressure:
• Low oil level
• Worn-out oil
• Overheating
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TACHOMETER
It is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk. The main purpose of
the tachometer is to be able to monitor revolution per minute (rpm) under normal
conditions, during an engine start, and to indicate an over speed condition, if one occurs.
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EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (EGT)
is a meter used to monitor the exhaust gas temperature of an internal combustion engine.
EGT gauges are found in aero planes by monitoring EGT, the operator of the aircraft can
get an idea of the vehicle's air-fuel ratio.
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ENGINE OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
The ability of the engine oil to lubricate and cool depends on the temperature of the oil,
as well as the amount of oil supplied to the critical areas. This instrument is used to show
the temperature of the oil as it enters the oil pressure pump.
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MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGE
The manifold pressure gauge is an engine instrument typically used in piston aircraft
engines to measure the pressure inside the induction system of an engine.
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FUEL PRESSURE
Fuel is pumped out of various fuel tanks on the aircraft for use by the engines. A
malfunctioning fuel pump, or a tank that has been emptied beyond the point at which
there is sufficient fuel entering the pump to maintain desired output pressure, is a
condition that requires the pilot’s immediate attention.
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FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot
with information about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and
direction.
They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, and make
turns, without a reference outside the aircraft such as the horizon. Visual flight
rules (VFR) require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable
magnetic direction indicator.
Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic pitch-bank (artificial
horizon), direction (directional gyro) and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator,
adjustable altimeter, and a clock.
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WHAT IS VFR?
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates
an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where
the aircraft is going. Specifically, the pilot must be able to operate the aircraft with visual
reference to the ground, and by visually avoiding obstructions and other aircraft.
WHAT IS IFR?
Instrument flight rules (IFR) is one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects
of civil aviation aircraft operations; the other is visual flight rules.
Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Instrument Flying Handbook defines IFR as:
"Rules and regulations established by the FAA to govern flight under conditions in which
flight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference
to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to
electronic signals
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ALTIMETER
The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference
between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the
atmospheric pressure obtained through the static system.
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots) relative to the
surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot
tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The instrument is color coded to indicate
important airspeeds such as the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation
speeds.
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VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses changing
air pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet
per minute, meters per second or knots.
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ATTITUDE INDICATOR
The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's relation to
the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level (roll) and if the
aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon (pitch). This is a primary instrument
for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained
to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.
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HEADING INDICATOR
The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG) displays the aircraft's
heading with respect to magnetic north when set with a compass. Bearing friction causes
drift errors from precession, which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the
instrument to the magnetic compass.
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TURN INDICATOR
These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator, which indicate
rotation about the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to indicate if the
aircraft is in coordinated flight, or in a Slip or Skid. Additional marks indicate a Standard
rate turn.
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There is a much wider variety of navigational systems available to aircraft than
communications systems. Navigation electronics are used to identify exact location by
determining direction and distance from certain points. This section provides a general
overview of several common navigation avionics systems that you, as the technician, will
maintain.
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIRANGE (VOR)
The VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIRANGE (VOR) system has been the standard
radio navigation system for cross-country flying in the United States and most of the rest
of the world for many years. The VOR system was developed to overcome the problems
of the earlier navigational aids. The major advantages of a VOR system are as follows:
1. Provides an infinite number of radials or course
indications.
2. Reduces the amount of indication errors from
diverse atmospheric conditions.
3. Accurately provides directional information.
VOR systems operate in the VHF range: 108-117.95 MHz. VHF frequencies offer
relatively interference-free navigation, but, unlike lower frequency radio waves, which
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can skip within the atmosphere or travel over the ground for great distances, VOR
reception is strictly line-of-sight. This limits the usable signal range at low altitudes or
over mountainous terrain.
Basic VOR systems only provide course guidance, while VOR/DME facilities also
provide distance information to aircraft equipped with distance measuring equipment
(DME), which is discussed in a later section. VOR stations transmit radio beams, or
radials, outward in every direction, similar to the spokes on a wheel. Technically, the
VOR station broadcasts an infinite number of radials. However, since it is considered
accurate to within one degree, 360 radials are used for navigation.
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AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)
The Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) system has been in use since the 1930s. Even
though it is not as accurate as more modern navigation systems, it is still widely used in
general aviation aircraft. Many smaller airports that have no other radio aids for
navigation provide transmitters called non-directional beacons (NDB) that can be used
with ADF equipment. In less-developed countries, this system may be the only
navigational aid available and will be used by even the largest transport aircraft. The term
ADF applies to the aircraft equipment, and the NDB is the associated ground-based
equipment. For simplification, the term "ADF system" encompass both the ADF and
NDB equipment since both the airborne and ground-based components are required to
operate the system. The ADF receiver can receive signals transmitted in the 190-1,800
kHz range.
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This figure illustrates the typical equipment that make up an ADF system: the ADF
receiver, a modern loop-and-sense antenna, and three variations of ADF bearing
indicators.
ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT
For this exam/quiz/activity, I make the following truthful statement: I understand that
acts of academic dishonesty shall be penalized to the full extent as indicated in the
provision of the PhilSCA Student Manual (page 30, No.6.)
__________________________
Signature of Student over Printed Name
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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
ESSAY
Q1. HOW IMPORTANT THE GROUPINGS OP CLASSIFICATIONS OF
INSTRUMENT?
RESEARCH
Q1. WHAT IS THE LATEST TECHNOLOGY ABOUT NAVIGATION
INSTRUMENTS?
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EVALUATION RUBRICS FOR CREATIVE OUTPUT
Description: This rubric will help you know exactly what I am expecting to find in an essay.
2 / NEEDS 1 /
5/ 4 / VERY 3/
IMPROVEMEN UNACCEPTABL
EXCELLENT GOOD AVERAGE
T E
This paper is This paper The writer is Topic is not well- As yet, the paper
clear and is mostly beginning to defined and/or has no clear
focused. It focused, define the there are too sense of purpose
holds the and has topic, even many topics. or central theme.
reader's some good though To extract
attention. details and development meaning from
Ideas
Relevant quotes. is still basic or the text, the
details and general. reader must
quotes make inferences
enrich the based on sketchy
central or missing
theme. details.
Organizatio The Paper (and The Sentences within The writing lacks
n organization paragraphs organizational paragraphs make a clear sense of
enhances ) are mostly structure is sense, but the direction. Ideas,
and organized, strong enough order of details, or events
showcases in order, to move the paragraphs does seem strung
32 | P a g e
the central and makes reader not. together in a

idea or sense to through the loose or random
theme. The the reader. text without fashion; there is
order, too much no identifiable
structure of confusion. internal
information structure.
is compelling
and moves
the reader
through the
text.
The writing The writing The text hums The text seems The reader has to
has an easy mostly along with a choppy and is practice quite a
flow, flows, and steady beat, not easy to read bit in order to
rhythm, and usually but tends to orally. give this paper a
cadence. invites oral be more fair interpretive
Sentences reading. businesslike reading.
Sentence are well than musical,
Fluency built, with more
strong and mechanical
varied than fluid.
structure
that invites
expressive
oral reading.
Convention The writer The write The writer The writer seems Errors in spelling,
s demonstrate understand shows to have made punctuation,
s a good s good reasonable little effort to capitalization,
33 | P a g e
grasp of writing control over a use conventions: usage, and

standard convention limited range spelling, grammar and/or
writing s and of standard punctuation, paragraphing
conventions usually writing capitalization, repeatedly
(e.g., uses them conventions. usage, grammar distract the
spelling, correctly. Conventions and/or reader and make
punctuation, Paper is are sometimes paragraphing the text difficult
capitalization easily read handled well have multiple to read.
, grammar, and errors and enhance errors.
usage, are rare; readability; at
paragraphing minor other times,
) and uses touch-ups errors are
conventions would get distracting and
effectively to this piece impair
enhance ready to readability.
readability. publish.
Presentatio The form The format The writer's The writer's The reader
n and only has a message is message is only receives a
presentation few understandabl understandable garbled message
of the text mistakes e in this occasionally, and due to problems
enhances the and is format. paper is messily relating to the
ability for generally written. presentation of
the reader to easy to the text, and is
understand read and not typed.
and connect pleasing to
with the the eye.
message. It is
pleasing to
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the eye.
TOTAL POINTS: 25
REFERENCES
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1. Administration, F. A. (2011). Airplane flying handbook (FAA-H-8083-3A).
Skyhorse Publishing.
1. Aircraft pressure measuring instruments. (n.d.). Aircraft
Systems. https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/2017/06/pressure-measuring-
instruments.html
2. Aircraft flight instruments explained. (2020, February 16). Southern
Wings. https://www.southernwings.co.nz/aircraft-flight-instruments-explained/#:~:text=These
%20are%20the%20instruments%20that,Coordinator%2C%20and%20Vertical%20Speed
%20Indicator
4. Administration, F. A. (2017). Instrument flying handbook (Federal aviation
administration): FAA-H-8083-15B. Simon & Schuster
36 | P a g e

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REPUBLICOFTHEPHILIPPINES

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

LEARNING MODULE NO. 2

SUBJECT: AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS (FIXED

(PRELIM PERIOD-FLEXIBLE LEARNING MODALITIES)

Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

INSTRUMENTS, ENGINE INSTRUMENTS, and NAVIGATION

the use of instruments systems. All may be regarded as position/condition instruments

situation if the aircraft lost electrical power.

Development of sensing and display techniques, combined with advanced aircraft

systems that are electrically operated.

Engine instruments are those designed to measure operating parameters of the

They also include measuring engine speed(s).

gauges, tachometers, and temperature gauges.

sending locating information via radio waves.

with more technologically advanced instrumentation provide blended information, giving

(VOR), non-directional beacon (NDB), and instrument landing system (ILS)

maneuvered to keep it on a predetermined path. The pilotage information can be in either

two or three dimensions relative to the ground-based or space based navigation

engine(s). These are usually indicators which measures:

• Cylinder head temperature

ENGINE OIL PRESSURE

(rpm), peaking around 55-65 psi.

“BECAUSE OF THE OIL PUMP”

The oil pump circulates engine oil under pressure to the rotating bearings, the sliding

higher-capacity fluid bearings and also assists in cooling the engine.

• Lubrication – to reduce friction and prevents heating of the engine.

• Cooling – oil absorbs heat in the engine as it circulates in the system.

small metal particles inside the engine.

What Causes Low Engine Oil Pressure?

• Low oil level

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (EGT)

is a meter used to monitor the exhaust gas temperature of an internal combustion engine.

get an idea of the vehicle's air-fuel ratio.

ENGINE OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

the temperature of the oil as it enters the oil pressure pump.

MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGE

engines to measure the pressure inside the induction system of an engine.

condition that requires the pilot’s immediate attention.

rules (VFR) require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable

magnetic direction indicator.

Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic pitch-bank (artificial

adjustable altimeter, and a clock.

Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates

of civil aviation aircraft operations; the other is visual flight rules.

Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Instrument Flying Handbook defines IFR as:

to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to

atmospheric pressure obtained through the static system.

surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot

tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The instrument is color coded to indicate

important airspeeds such as the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

per minute, meters per second or knots.

drift errors from precession, which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the

instrument to the magnetic compass.

rotation about the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to indicate if the

aircraft is in coordinated flight, or in a Slip or Skid. Additional marks indicate a Standard

There is a much wider variety of navigational systems available to aircraft than

communications systems. Navigation electronics are used to identify exact location by

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIRANGE (VOR)

1. Provides an infinite number of radials or course

2. Reduces the amount of indication errors from

diverse atmospheric conditions.