Bab Amt 1101 Prelim Module No.2

Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Institute of engineering and technology
Basa Air Base Campus, Floridablanca, Pampanga Acc. No.: M2700903PM
Certificate Number: AJA16.0920
AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS

PRELIM MODULE 2
RUNWAY AND RUNWAY MARKINGS
Topics:
 Runway
 Runway Orientation
 Runway Length and Width
 Runway Markings
At the end of this module you will be able to:
 Discuss the importance of runway and its definition.

 Recognize the different runway orientation
 Explain the importance of understanding runway length and width.
 Demonstrate familiarization of Runway markings.
Mark Anthony M. Ganal.,MEAM

Instructor
Course Mapping
Course Learning Outcome Module Learning Outcome Topic Learning Outcome
CLO 3. Recognize the MLO 5. Discuss the use of TLO 5. Identify the different
different signs and markings runway runway orientation and
that can be found in an MLO 6. Recognize the describe the runway
airport. different runway orientation markings.
CLO 5. Interpret the signs and MLO 7. Demonstrate
markings seen in an airport. familiarization of Runway
CLO 7. Influence the students Surface markings.
in observing the proper airport
signs and marking aids.
CLO 8. Acknowledge the
purpose of the airport lighting
system and other visual aids.
CLO 10. Appreciate the value
of dedication, determination
and discipline in dealing with
the subject in aircraft
maintenance as a useful and
inevitable area of study in any
maintenance work.
Page 2 of 21
Table of Contents
Time Allotment
TOPICS Page
(Minutes)
Academic Honesty Statement 4
Introduction 5 5
Runway 5 10
Runway Orientation 5 50
Factors Affecting Runway Orientation 9 30
Runway Length 10 15
Runway Width 11 15
Runway Pavement Strength 11 30
Paper Assignment (Activity 3) 14 30
Formative Assessment (Quiz 4) Google Classroom 30
Key Points 15
Runway Surface Markings 15 120
Paper Assignment (Activity 2) 19 30
Formative Assessment (Quiz 2) Google Classroom 30
Summary 20
References 20
Appendix 21
Page 3 of 21
ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT
Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the
representation of them as one’s original work. (1995 Random House Compact Unabridged
Dictionary)
In the academe, it is an adaption or reproduction of an original intellectual creation, be it concepts,

ideas, methods, pieces of information or expressions of another author, whether individual, group,
or organization without proper acknowledgment. Moreover, plagiarism can range from borrowing a
particular phrase or sentence to paraphrasing someone else’s original idea without citing it. The
most common form of plagiarism, especially nowadays, is copying and pasting online material
without crediting the source.
Every student must practice Academic Honesty. Academic misconduct is subject to an academic
penalty by the instructor and/or disciplinary sanction by the College.
I _____________________________ fully understood the definition and description of plagiarism

stated above and I am familiar with the Student Conduct Code. I am aware that I shall be penalized
if plagiarism is found evident on my output which includes, gaining a failing grade.
As a college student and a member of scholarly community, I shall value other people’s ideas.
Thus, I pledged to commit to the following truthful statements:
1. I shall not submit other people’s work and present them as my own.
2. I will not take any passages from their own previous work without adding citations.
3. I will not rewrite someone else’s work without properly citing sources.
4. I shall not use quotations without citing the source.
5. I will not interweave various sources together in my work, without citing.
6. I will not rely too heavily on other people’s work.
7. I shall bring original thought into my own work.
8. I will not disclose any exams/questionnaires/activities after I have taken them.
9. I will not copy any material from another student and submit it as my own.
10. I shall not share my own completed output to another class/stude
__________________________
(Signature over Printed Name)
REFERENCE:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-collegesuccess-lumen1/chapter/academic-honesty/
https://www.business.umt.edu/ethics/academic-honesty.php
Page 4 of 21
Introduction
Like roads, which take us from our home to our destination, airports have taxiways which
take us to and from our runway. Along those roads exist a variety of markings and signs provide
guidance to pilots operating on the airport surface during arrival and departure. These airport
markings and signs, both in the United States and internationally, are standardized by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to enhance safety and improve efficiency.
RUNWAY
According to ICAO a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome

prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft." Runways may be a man-made surface
(often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or
salt).
Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36,

which is generally one tenth of the magnetic azimuth of
the runway's heading: a runway numbered 09 points
east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points
west (270°) and runway 36 points to the north (360°
rather than 0°). When taking off from or landing on
runway 09, a plane would be heading 90° (east).
A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is

named for each direction separately: e.g., "runway 33" in
one direction is "runway 15" when used in the other. The
two numbers always differ by 18 (= 180°).
Runway Orientation
For the operational safety and efficiency of an airport, it is desirable for the primary
runway to be oriented as close as possible to the direction of the prevailing wind. This
reduces the impact of crosswind components during landing or takeoff.
Page 5 of 21
If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways),
each runway is identified by appending Left (L), Center (C) and Right (R) to the number —
for example, Runways One Five Left (15L), One Five Center (15C), and One Five Right
(15R). Runway Zero Three Left (03L) becomes Runway Two One Right (21R) when used in
the opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180 degrees
when approaching from the opposite direction).
Runways may intersect each other. The additional runways enable aircraft to land into
the wind. Single runways can be difficult if there is a strong crosswind. Where there is only
one runway, every effort is made to build the alignment in the direction of the prevailing wind.
The FAA includes over 20 different runway layouts in their advisory materials. There
are 4 basic runway configurations with the rest being variations of the original patterns. The
basic runway configurations are the following:
 Single runway - this is the simplest of the 4 basic configurations. It is one runway optimally
positioned for prevailing winds, noise, land use and other determining factors. During VFR
(visual flight rules) conditions, this one runway should accommodate up to 99 light aircraft
operations per hour. While under IFR (instrument flight rules) conditions, it would
accommodate between 42 to 53 operations per hour depending on the mix of traffic and
navigational aids available at that airport.
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 Parallel runway - There are 4 types of parallel runways (Close Parallel, Intermediate
Parallel, Far Parallel, Double line). These are named according to how closely they are
placed next to each other. Operations per hour will vary depending on the total number of
runways and the mix of aircraft. In IFR conditions for predominantly light aircraft, the number
of operations would range between 64 to 128 per hour.
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 Intersecting runway - two or more runways that cross each other are classified as
intersecting runways. This type of configuration is used when there are relatively strong
prevailing winds from more than one direction during the year. When the winds are strong
from one direction, operations will be limited to only one runway. With relatively light winds,
both runways can be used simultaneously.
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 Non- Intersecting runway - two runways that diverge from different directions but do NOT
intersect form a shape that looks like an "open-V" are called open-V runways. This
configuration is useful when there is little to no wind as it allows for both runways to be used
at the same time.
Factors Affecting Runway Orientation
The following factors should be considered in locating and orienting a runway:

 Wind
 Airspace availability
 Environmental factors (noise, air and water quality)
 Obstructions to navigation
 Air traffic control visibility
 Wildlife hazards
 Terrain and soil considerations
 Natural and man-made obstructions
Page 9 of 21
Runway Length
Runway length requirements for an airport are based on several factors such as airport
elevation, mean maximum temperature of the hottest month, runway gradient, airplane
operating weights, runway surface conditions (i.e., wet or dry), and others. FAA Advisory
Circular 150/5325-4B, Runway Length Requirements for Airport Design, sets guidance on
recommended runway length.
For “small” airplanes (those weighing no more than 12,500 pounds), the classifications are
further divided into two additional categories - small airplanes with fewer than 10 passenger
seats and small airplanes with 10 or more passenger seats. The computer program, using site-
specific data, reflects runway length recommendations by grouping general aviation aircraft into
several categories, reflecting the percentage of the fleet within each category. Table 1
summarizes the FAA’s generalized recommended runway lengths.
The factors that have a bearing on runway length may be grouped into general categories.
 Performance requirements imposed by the government on aircraft manufacturers and

operation.
 Environment at the airport
 Items which established the operating takeoff and landing gross weight for each type of
aircraft
Page 10 of 21
Certain conditions at the airport also influence runway length. The more important of these
conditions are:
 Temperature
 Surface Wind
 Runway slope
 Altitude of the airport
 Condition of the runway surface
The higher the temperature, the longer the runway required because high temperature
reflects lower densities, resulting in lower output thrust.
The greater the headwind downs a runway, the shorter the length and conversely, a
tail wind increases the length of the runway required.
Runway Width
The current runway width of 100 feet exceeds the FAA’s recommended standard of 75
feet for Airplane Design Group II (small) aircraft and runways with visual approaches. It is
recommended that the 100-foot width be maintained. If the existing runway orientation does
not meet the 95% wind coverage recommendation (discussed on previous page) or if an
instrument approach with visibility minimums of lower than 3/4 mile was implemented, the
recommended runway width standard would be satisfied.
Runway Pavement Strength
The most important feature of airfield pavement is its ability to withstand repeated use
by the most weight-demanding aircraft that operates at an airport.
The pavement classification number (PCN) is an International Civil Aviation

Organization standard used in combination with the aircraft classification number (ACN) to
indicate the strength of a runway, taxiway or airport apron (or ramp).
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The PCN is actually expressed as a five-part code, separated by forward-slashes,

describing the piece of pavement concerned.
 The first part is the PCN numerical value, indicating the load-carrying capacity of the
pavement.
 The second part is a letter: either an R or an F, depending on whether the pavement itself is
of a rigid (most typically concrete) or a flexible (most typically asphalt) design.
 The third part is another letter from A to D expressing the strength of what is underneath the
pavement section, known as the subgrade.
Flexible Pavement categories
Category Strength Value
HIGH A CBR 15 (All CBR above 13%)
CBR 10 (For CBR between 8% to

Medium B
13%)
CBR 6 (For CBR between 4% to

Low Strength C
8%)
Ultra Low D CBR 3 (For CBR below 4%)
Rigid Pavement categories
Category Strength Value
k = 150 MN/m3 (550 lb/in3) (All k values above

HIGH A
120 MN/m3)
k = 80 MN/m3 (300 lb/in3) (For values between

Medium B
60 and 120 MN/m3)
k = 40 MN/m3 (150 lb/in3) (For values between

Low Strength C
25 and 60 MN/m3)
Page 12 of 21
k = 20 MN/m3 (75 lb/in3) (All k values below 25

Ultra Low D
MN/m3)
 The fourth part is either a letter or a number with units expressing the maximum tire pressure
that the pavement can support. In terms of letters, W is the highest, indicating that the
pavement can support tires of any pressure. Concrete surfaces can support tire pressures
greater than those of existing commercial aircraft and are therefore nearly always rated W.
Other letter classifications are as follows:
Category Pavement class Maximum tire pressure
Unlimited W No Pressure Limit
High X 1.75 MPa (254 psi)
Medium Y 1.25 MPa (181 psi)
Low Z 0.5 MPa (72 psi)
 The fifth and final part just describes how the first value was worked out, a T indicates
technical evaluation, and a U indicates usage – a physical testing regime.
Sample : 80/R/B/W/T
(So a PCN of 80/R/B/W/T means that the underlying pavement's value indicating load-
carrying capacity is 80 (unitless), is rigid (and thus is likely concrete), is on a medium-
strength subgrade, has no limit on tire pressure, and has been calculated through technical
evaluation.)
Paper Assignment:
Discuss the reason why wind, airspace availability, and terrain/soil considerations affect the runway
orientation.
Page 13 of 21
NAME: ____________________________________ DATE: ____________________

INSTRUCTOR: ______________________________ COURSE YR& SEC _________
Activity 3
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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT - Preliminary Quiz 4 (via Google Classroom)
Key Points:
 Runway is a rectangular area where aircraft take-off and land.

Page 14 of 21
 Direction of the runway is based on the wind direction.

 The faster and bigger the aircraft is, the longer the runway is needed.
 PCN is use to indicate the strength of the runway.
RUNWAY SURFACE MARKINGS
Runway Designators
Runway designators are based on a runway’s magnetic heading, using the 360
degree compass system. All runways have two runway designations and can be used in two
opposite directions.
Runway numbers and letters are determined from the approach direction. The runway
number is the whole number nearest one‐tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the
runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. The letters, differentiate between left
(L), right (R), or center (C), parallel runways, as applicable:
1. For two parallel runways “L” “R.”

2. For three parallel runways “L” “C” “R.”
Runway Centerline Marking
The runway centerline identifies the center of the runway and provides alignment
guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a broken white stripe which
indicates the center of the runway and provides alignment guidance for aircraft.
Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for landing operations and
are coded to provide distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments. These markings
consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs
about the runway centerline.
Runway edge-line
Page 15 of 21
Runway edge line is an unbroken white stripe indicating the edges of the runway, and
the edges of the full-strength pavement.
Runway Aiming Point
This marking serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two
rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway
centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the landing threshold.
Runway shoulder stripes
This marking may be used to supplement runway side stripes to identify pavement
areas contiguous to the runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft.
Runway threshold markings
Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight
longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway
Page 16 of 21
centerline, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width as indicated in the table
below. A threshold marking helps identify the beginning of the runway that is available for
landing. In some instances the landing threshold may be relocated or displaced.
Runway Number of
Width Stripes
60 feet (18 m) 4
75 feet (23 m) 6
100 feet (30 8
m)
150 feet (45 12
m)
200 feet (60 16
m)
Displaced Threshold
It is a threshold that is moved back usually due to obstructions, such as trees, power
lines, or buildings off the end of the runway. This might prohibit you from making a normal
descent to landing on the initial portion of the pavements.
Blast Pad/Stopway Area
Blast pad sometimes referred to as an overrun, it is different from the area preceding a
displaced threshold because it cannot be used for landing, takeoff, or taxiing.
The blast pad is where propeller or jet blast can dissipate without creating a hazard to
others.
Demarcation Bar
A bar that delineates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast pad, stop-way,
or a taxiway that precedes the runway.
Page 17 of 21
Threshold Bar
It is a bar that delineates the beginning of the runway that is available for landing
when the threshold has been relocated or displaced.
Chevrons
These markings are used to show pavement areas aligned with the runway that are
unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are yellow.
Paper Assignment:
How do runways name? Discuss the importance of understanding the different runway surface
markings.
Page 18 of 21
NAME: ____________________________________ DATE: ____________________

INSTRUCTOR: ______________________________ COURSE YR& SEC _________
Activity 4
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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT - Preliminary Quiz 5 (via Google Classroom)
Page 19 of 21
Summary
Runway is a rectangular area on an airport where the aircraft take-off and land. Its orientation
is based on the wind direction, availability of airspace, etc. The runway length and width are
depends on the type of aircraft using it. The pavement of the runway is either concrete or
asphalt and pavement classification number is used to identify the strength of the pavement.
Markings on the runway are painted in color white. These markings were used to guide the
pilot during flight operations. It promotes safety and prevents aircraft accident such as
collision of aircraft.
REFERENCES
Federal Aviation Administration Airfield Standard/Instrument Flying Handbook/ Guide to Ground

Vehicle Operations/Aeronautical Information Manual
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap2_section_3.html
Jeppesen Sanderson, INC., 2005. ICAO Recommended Airport signs, Runway and Taxiway
markings
APPENDIX A
Scoring Rubric for Assignment
Criteria Inadequate Adequate Above Average Exemplary
(Below Standard) (Meets Standard) (Exceeds Standard) (Far Exceeds
Page 20 of 21
Standard)
1 2 3
4
Organization Writing lacks logical Writing is coherent and Writing is coherent and Writing shows high degree of
organization. It shows logically organized. Some logically organized with attention
some points remain misplaced and transitions used between to logic and reasoning of
coherence but ideas lack stray from the topic. ideas and paragraphs to points. Unity
unity. Serious errors. Transitions evident but not create clearly leads the reader to the
used throughout essay. coherence. Overall unity of conclusion and stirs thought
ideas is present regarding
the topic.
Level of Shows some thinking and Content indicates thinking Content indicates original Content indicates synthesis of
reasoning but most ideas and reasoning applied with thinking and develops ideas ideas, indepth analysis and
Content are original thought on a few with sufficient and firm evidences original
underdeveloped and ideas. evidence. thought and support for the
unoriginal. topic.
Development Main points lack detailed Main points are present with Main points well developed Main points well developed
development. Ideas are limited detail and with quality supporting with high
vague with little evidence development. Some critical details and quantity. Critical quality and quantity support.
of thinking is present. thinking is weaved into Reveals
critical thinking. points high degree of critical
thinking.
Grammar & Spelling, punctuation, and Most spelling, punctuation, Essay has few spelling, Essay is free of distracting
grammatical errors create and grammar correct punctuation, and spelling,
Mechanics distraction, making allowing grammatical punctuation, and grammatical
reading reader to progress though errors allowing reader to errors;
difficult; fragments, essay. Some errors remain. follow ideas clearly. Very absent of fragments, comma
comma few fragments or run-ons. splices,
splices, run-ons evident. and run-ons.
Errors are frequent.
Style Mostly in elementary form Approaches college level Attains college level style; Shows outstanding style going
with little or no variety in usage of some variety in tone is appropriate and beyond
sentence structure, diction, sentence patterns, diction, rhetorical devices used to usual college level; rhetorical
rhetorical devices or and enhance content; sentence devices
emphasis. rhetorical devices. variety used effectively. and tone used effectively;
creative use
of sentence structure and
coordination
Format Fails to follow format and Meets format and assignment Meets format and Meets all formal and
assignment requirements; requirements; generally assignment assignment
incorrect margins, spacing correct margins, spacing, and requirements; margins, requirements and evidences
and indentation; neatness indentations; essay is neat spacing, and indentations are attention to
of but correct; essay is neat and detail; all margins, spacing
essay needs attention. may have some assembly correctly assembled. and
errors. indentations are correct; essay
is neat
and correctly assembled with
professional look.
Page 21 of 21

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Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS

At the end of this module you will be able to:

 Discuss the importance of runway and its definition.

Mark Anthony M. Ganal.,MEAM

Course Learning Outcome Module Learning Outcome Topic Learning Outcome

ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

In the academe, it is an adaption or reproduction of an original intellectual creation, be it concepts,

I _____________________________ fully understood the definition and description of plagiarism

According to ICAO a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome

Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36,

A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is

Factors Affecting Runway Orientation

The following factors should be considered in locating and orienting a runway:

 Performance requirements imposed by the government on aircraft manufacturers and

Runway Pavement Strength

The pavement classification number (PCN) is an International Civil Aviation

The PCN is actually expressed as a five-part code, separated by forward-slashes,

Flexible Pavement categories

Category Strength Value

HIGH A CBR 15 (All CBR above 13%)

CBR 10 (For CBR between 8% to

CBR 6 (For CBR between 4% to

Ultra Low D CBR 3 (For CBR below 4%)

Rigid Pavement categories

Category Strength Value

k = 150 MN/m3 (550 lb/in3) (All k values above

k = 80 MN/m3 (300 lb/in3) (For values between

k = 40 MN/m3 (150 lb/in3) (For values between

k = 20 MN/m3 (75 lb/in3) (All k values below 25

Category Pavement class Maximum tire pressure

Unlimited W No Pressure Limit

High X 1.75 MPa (254 psi)

Medium Y 1.25 MPa (181 psi)

Low Z 0.5 MPa (72 psi)

NAME: ____________________________________ DATE: ____________________

 Runway is a rectangular area where aircraft take-off and land.

 Direction of the runway is based on the wind direction.

RUNWAY SURFACE MARKINGS

1. For two parallel runways “L” “R.”

Runway Centerline Marking

Runway Touchdown Zone Markers

Runway shoulder stripes

Runway threshold markings

Blast Pad/Stopway Area

NAME: ____________________________________ DATE: ____________________

Federal Aviation Administration Airfield Standard/Instrument Flying Handbook/ Guide to Ground

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NAME: ________________ DATE:

NAME: ________________ DATE: