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IIT MATHEMATICS
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 RESULTS OF BEST MENTORSHIP BY THE NUCLEUS TEAM

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CHITRAANG MURDIA GOVIND LAHOTI NISHIT AGARWAL AMEY GUPTA
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 RATE MEASURE, TANGENT & NORMAL
1. RATE MEASUREMENT : y dy
Whenever one quantity y varies with = . ........ (i)
x dx
another quantity x, satisfying some rule where the given curve is, y = x – x2
dy dy
y = ƒ(x), then (or ƒ '(x)) represents  = 1 – 2x ........ (ii)
dx dx
the rate of change of y with respect to x d(y 2 ) y
dy  Thus, = (1 – 2x)
and (or ƒ '(a)) represents the d(x )2
x
dx  x a
[from (i) and (ii)]
rate of change of y with respect to x at
d(y 2 ) (x  x 2 )(1  2 x)
x = a. or 2
=
d(x ) x
2
Illustration 1 : d(y )
 = (2x2 – 3x + 1)
The volume of a cube is increasing at a d(x 2 )
rate of 9cm3/s. How fast is the surface The rate of change of the area of second
area increasing when the length of an square with respect to first square is
edge is 10cm ? (2x2 – 3x + 1)
Solution :
Let x be the length of side, V be the Do yourself - 1 :
volume and S be the surface area of the (i) What is the rate of change of the area of
cube. Then V = x3and S = 6x2, a circle with respect to its radius r at
where x is a function of time t. r = 6cm.
dV d dx (ii) A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and
= 9cm3 /s = (x3) = 3x2
dt dt dt waves move in circles at the speed of
dx 3 5cm/s. At the instant when the radius of
 = 2 the circular wave is 8cm, how fast is the
dt x
enclosed area increasing ?
ds d  3  36
= (6x2) = 12x  2  =
dt dt x  x 2. APPROXIMATION USING
dS  DIFFERENTIALS :
 = 3.6 cm2/s.
dt  x 10cm In order to calculate the approximate
value of a function, differentials may be
Illustration 2 : used where the differential of a function
x and y are the sides of two squares is equal to its derivative multiplied by
such that y = x – x2. Find the rate of the differential of the independent
change of the area of the second square variable. In general dy = ƒ '(x)dx or
with respect to the first square. dƒ(x) = ƒ '(x)dx
Solution : Note :
Given x and y are sides of two squares. (i) For the independent variable ‘x’,
Thus the area of two squares are x2 and increment x and differential dx are
dy equal but this is not the case with the
d(y 2
) 2y
dx dependent variable ‘y’ i.e. y dy.
y2 We have to obtain =  Approximate value of y when increment
d(x 2 ) 2x
x is given to independent variable x in
y = ƒ(x) is
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 dy
y + y = ƒ(x + x) = ƒ(x) + .x
dx
(ii) The relation dy = ƒ '(x) dx can be
dy
written as = ƒ '(x) ; thus the quotient
dx
of the differentials of 'y' and 'x' is equal
to the derivative of 'y' w.r.t. 'x'.
Illustration 3 :
Find the approximate value of square
root of 25.2.
Solution :
Let ƒ(x) = x 4. MYTHS ABOUT TANGENT :
Now, ƒ(x + x) – ƒ(x) (a) Myth : A line meeting the curve only at
x one point is a tangent to the curve.
= ƒ '(x) . x = Explanation : A line meeting the curve
2 x
we may write, 25.2 = 25 + 0.2 in one point is not necessarily tangent to
it.
Taking x = 25 and x = 0.2, we have
0.2
ƒ(25.2) – ƒ(25) =
2 25
0.2
or ƒ(25.2) – 25 = = 0.02
10
 ƒ(25.2) = 5.02 Here L is not tangent to C
(b) Myth : A line meeting the curve at
or (25.2) = 5.02
more than one point is not a tangent to
the curve.
Do yourself - 2 : Explanation : A line may meet the
(i) Find the approximate value of curve at several points and may still be
(0.009)1/3. tangent to it at some point

3. TANGENT TO THE CURVE AT A

POINT :
The tangent to the curve at 'P' is the line
through P whose slope is limit of the
secant slopes as Q P from either side.
(c)
Here L is tangent to C at P, and cutting
it again at Q.
Myth : Tangent at a point to the curve
can not cross it at the same point.
Explanation : A line may be tangent to
the curve and also cross it.

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 Here X-axis is tangent to y = x3at i.e. x + y = 0 and x – y = 0
origin.
Illustration 4 :
5. NORMAL TO THE CURVE AT A Find the equation of the tangent to the
POINT : curve y = (x3 – 1)(x – 2)at the points
A line which is perpendicular to the where the curve cuts the x-axis.
tangent at the point of contact is called Solution :
normal to the curve at that point. The equation of the curve is
y = (x3 – 1)(x – 2) .......... (i)
6. POINTS TO REMEMBER : It cuts x-axis at y = 0. So, putting y = 0
(a) The value of the derivative at P(x1, y1) in (i), we get (x3 – 1)(x – 2) = 0
gives the slope of the tangent to the  (x – 1) (x – 2) (x2 + x + 1) = 0
curve at P. Symbolically  x – 1 = 0, x – 2 = 0
dy  [ x2 + x + 1  0]
ƒ '(x1) = = Slope of tangent at
dx  (x1 ,y1 )  x = 1, 2.
P(x1, y1) = m(say). Thus, the points of intersection of curve
(b) Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is ; (i) with x-axis are (1, 0) and (2, 0).
dy  Now,
y – y1 = (x – x1)
dx  (x1 ,y1 ) y = (x3 – 1) (x – 2) 
dy
= 3x2 (x – 2) +
(c) Equation of normal at (x1, y1) is ; dx
1  dy   dy 
y – y1= (x – x1). (x3 – 1)    = –3 and  
dy   dx (1,0)  dx (2,0)
dx  (x1 ,y1 ) =7
The equations of the tangents at (1, 0)
Note :
and (2, 0) are respectively
(i) The point P (x1, y1) will satisfy the
y – 0 = –3(x – 1) and y – 0 = 7 (x – 2)
equation of the curve & the equation of
  y + 3x – 3 = 0 and 7x – y –14 = 0
tangent & normal line.
Ans.
(ii) If the tangent at any point P on the
curve is parallel to the axis of x then
Illustration 5 :
dy/dx = 0 at the point P.
The equation of the normal to the curve
(iii) If the tangent at any point on the curve
is parallel to the axis of y, then dy/dx 
y = x + sin x cos x at x = is -
not defined or dx/dy = 0. 2
(iv) If the tangent at any point on the curve (A) x = 2 (B) x = 
is equally inclined to both the axes then (C) x +  = 0 (D) 2x = 
dy/dx = ±1. Solution :
(v) If a curve passing through the origin be   
 x =  y = + 0 = , so the
given by a rational integral algebraic 2 2 2
equation, then the equation of the  
tangent (or tangents) at the origin is given point =  , 
obtained by equating to zero the terms 2 2
of the lowest degree in the equation. Now from the given equation
e.g. If the equation of a curve be dy
= 1 + cos2 x – sin2x
x2 – y2 + x3 + 3x2y – y3 = 0, the tangents dx
at the origin are given by x2 – y2 = 0
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  dy  7. ANGLE OF INTERSECTION
  =1+0–1=0 BETWEEN TWO CURVES :
 dx   ,  
2 2 Angle of intersection between two
 The curve has vertical normal at curves is defined as the angle between
  the two tangents drawn to the
 , . two curves at their point of intersection.
2 2

the equation to this normal is x =
2

x – = 0  2x =   Ans. (D)
2

Illustration 6 :
The equation of normal to the curve Orthogonal curves :
x + y = xy, where it cuts x – axis is – If the angle between two curves at each
(A) y = x + 1 (B) y = –x + 1 point of intersection is 90° then they are
(C) y = x – 1 (D) y = –x – 1 called orthogonal curves.
Solution : For example, the curves x2 + y2 = r2 &
Given curve is x + y = xy ..........(i) y = mx are orthogonal curves.
at x-axis y = 0,
 x + 0 = x0  x = 1 Illustration 7 :
 Point is A (1, 0) The angle of intersection between the
Now to differentiate x + y = xy take log curve x2 = 32y and y2 = 4x at point
on both sides (16, 8) is-
 log(x + y) = ylog x (A) 60° (B) 90°
1  dy  1 dy 3 4
 1   = y. + (log x) (C) tan–1   (D) tan–1  
x  y  dx  x dx 5 3
 dy  Solution :
Putting x = 1, y = 0 1   = 0 x2 = 32y
 dx 
dy x
 dy   =  y2 = 4x
  = –1 dx 16
 dx (1,0) dy 2
 slope of normal = 1  =
dx y
y0
Equation of normal is, =1  dy   dy  1
x 1 at (16, 8),   = 1,   =
y=x–1 Ans.(C)  dx 1  dx 2 4
So required angle
Do yourself - 3 :  1 
 1 
(i) Find the distance between the point
= tan–1  4  = tan–1  3 
 
(1, 1) and the tangent to the curve  1  1 1   5
y = e2x + x2 drawn at the point where   
 4
the curve cuts y-axis.
Ans. (C)
(ii) Find the equation of a line passing
through (–2, 3) and parallel to tangent at
origin for the circle x2 + y2 + x – y = 0.

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Illustration 8 :  4ax2 = 1 ..... (i)
Check the orthogonality of the curves Now eliminating y from the given
y2 = x & x2 = y. equations we have 1 –ax2 = x2
Solution :  (1 + a)x2 = 1 ..... (ii)
Solving the curves simultaneously we Eliminating x2from (i) and (ii) we get
get points of intersection as (1, 1) and 4a 1
(0, 0). =1 a= Ans. (B)
1 a 3
 dy 
At (1,1) for first curve 2y   = 1 Do yourself -4 :
 dx 1
(i) If two curves y = ax and y = bx intersect
1 at an angle , then find the value of tan
  m1 =
2 
 dy  (ii) Find the angle of intersection of curves
and for second curve 2x =  
 dx 2 y = 4 – x2 and y = x2.
 m2 = 2
8. LENGTH OF TANGENT,
SUBTANGENT, NORMAL AND
SUBNORMAL :

m1m2  –1 at (1, 1).

But at (0, 0) clearly x-axis and y-axis
are their respective tangents hence they
are orthogonal at (0,0) but not at (1, 1).
Hence these curves are not said to be
orthogonal.

Illustration 9 :
If curve y = 1 –ax2 and y = x2 intersect
orthogonally then the value of a is - (a) Length of the tangent (PT)

(A)
1
(B)
1 y1 1  [ƒ '(x1 )]2
2 3 =
ƒ '(x1 )
(C) 2 (D) 3
Solution :
y = 1 – ax2 y1
(b) Length of Sub tangent (MT) =

dy
= –2ax y = x2 ƒ '(x1 )
dx
dy (c) Length of Normal (PN)
  = 2x
dx
= y1 1   ƒ '  x1  
2

Two curves intersect orthogonally if

 dy   dy 
    = –1
 dx 1  dx 2 (d) Length of Subnormal (MN) = y1 ƒ '(x1 )
 (–2ax) (2x) = –1

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Illustration 10 : Do yourself -5 :
The length of the normal to the curve (i) Prove that at any point of a curve, the
x = a ( + sin), y = a (1 – cos ) at product of the length of sub tangent and
 the length of subnormal is equal to
 = is –
2 square of the ordinates of point of
a a contact.
(A) 2a (B) (C) 2a (D) (ii) Find the length of subtangent to the curve
2 2
x2 + y2 + xy = 7 at the point (1, –3).
Solution :
Miscellaneous Illustrations :
 dy 
  
Illustration 12 :
d a sin 
=   =
dy Find the slope of normal at the point
= tan
dx  dx  a(1  cos ) 2 with abcissa x = –2 of the graph of the
 
 d  function ƒ(x) = |x2 – |x||
 dy   Solution :
  = tan   = 1 At x = –2, ƒ(x) becomes
 dx   4 ƒ(x) = x2 + x
2

   dy
= 2x + 1 = –3
Also at = , y = a 1  cos  = a
2  2 dx
 required length of normal 1
Slope of normal =
2 3
 dy 
= y 1   = a 11 = 2a Illustration 13 :
 dx  If y = 4x – 5 is a tangent to the curve
Ans.(C) y2 = px3 + q at (2, 3) then
Illustration 11 : (A) p = 2, q = –7 (B) p = –2, q = 7
The length of the tangent to the curve (C) p = –2, q = –7 (D) p = 2, q = 7
 t Solution :
x = a  cos t  log tan  , y = a sin t is dy
 2 = 4 and 9 = 8p + q
(A) ax (B) ay dx
dy dy
(C) a (D) xy 2y = 3px2 6 = 3p(4)
Solution : dx dx
dy  dy   dx  dy
=     = 2p = 4
dx  dt   dt  dx
a cos t  p = 2 and q = –7
= = tan t
 1 
a   sin t   ANSWERS FOR DO YOURSELF
 sin t  1: (i) 12 cm (ii) 80 cm2/s
 length of the tangent 2: (i) 0.208
2 2
 dy  3: (i) units (ii) x – y + 5 = 0
1   5
 dx  1  tan t
2
=y = a sin t 4 2
 dy  tan t na  nb
  4: (i) (ii) tan–1  
 dx  1  na nb  7 
 sec t  5: (ii) 15
= a sin t   =a Ans.(C)
 tan t 

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 MONOTONICITY
1. MONOTONICITY AT A POINT : Note : If x = a is a boundary point, then
(a) A function ƒ(x) is called an increasing use the appropriate one sides inequality
function at point x = a, if in a to test monotonicity of ƒ(x).
sufficiently small neighbourhood of
x = a ; ƒ(a – h) < ƒ(a) < ƒ(a + h)

(b) A function ƒ(x) is called a decreasing

function at point x = a, if in a (c) Testing of monotonicity of
sufficiently small neighbourhood of differentiable function at a point.
x = a ; ƒ(a – h) > ƒ(a) > ƒ(a + h) (i) If ƒ '(a) > 0, then ƒ(x) is increasing at
x = a.
(ii) If ƒ '(a) < 0, then ƒ(x) is decreasing at
x = a.
(iii) If ƒ '(a) = 0, then examine the sign of ƒ
'(a+) and ƒ '(a–).
(1) If ƒ '(a+) > 0 and ƒ '(a–) > 0, then
increasing
(2) If ƒ '(a+) < 0 and ƒ '(a–) < 0, then
decreasing
(3) otherwise neither increasing nor
decreasing.
Illustration 1 :
Let ƒ(x) = x3 – 3x + 2. Examine the
nature of function at points x = 0, 1 & 2.
Solution :
ƒ(x) = x3 – 3x + 2

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 ƒ '(x) = 3(x2 – 1) = 0 1  2 x 5 
 x = ±1 ƒ '(x) =  3x  
x3  x6  1  2 x6 1 
(i) ƒ '(0) = –3  decreasing at x = 0
(ii) ƒ '(1) = 0 3x 2
= >0
also, ƒ '(1+) = positive and x6 1
ƒ'(1–) = negative  ƒ(x) is increasing.
 neither increasing nor decreasing at
x = 0. Illustration 3 :
(iii) ƒ '(2) = 9 Find the intervals of monotonicity of
 increasing at x = 2 the function y = x2 – loge|x| , (x  0).
Solution :
Do yourself - 1 : Let y = ƒ(x) = x2 – loee|x|
(i) If function ƒ(x) = x3 + x2 – x + 1 is
increasing at x = 0 & decreasing at x =
1, then find the greatest integral value
of . ƒ '(x) = 2x –
1
; for all x (x  0)
x
2. MONOTONICITY OVER AN 2x 2  1
ƒ '(x) =
INTERVAL : x
(a) A function ƒ(x) is said to be
monotonically increasing (MI) in (a, b)  ƒ '(x) =
 2x  1  
2x  1
if ƒ '(x) 0 where equality holds only x
for discrete values of x i.e. ƒ '(x) does So ƒ ' (x) > 0 when
not identically become zero for x  (a,  1   1 
x  ,0  ,   and ƒ '(x) < 0
b) or any sub interval.  2   2 
(b) ƒ(x) is said to be monotonically
decreasing (MD) in (a, b) if ƒ'(x) 0  1   1 
when x   ,     0, 
where equality holds only for discrete  2  2
values of x i.e. ƒ'(x) does not identically ƒ(x) is increasing when
become zero for x  (a, b) or any sub  1   1 
interval. x  ,0  ,
 2   2 
Note :
(i) A function is said to be monotonic if it's and decreasing when
either increasing or decreasing.  1   1 
x   ,     0,  Ans.
(ii) If a function is invertible it has to be  2  2
either increasing or decreasing.
Do yourself - 2 :
Illustration 2 :
Prove that the function (i) If ƒ(x) = sinx + n |secx + tanx| –2x for

ƒ(x)  
= log x 3  x 6  1 is entirely x 
  
  ,  then check the
 2 2
increasing. monotonocity of ƒ(x)
Solution : (ii) Prove that y = ex + sinx is increasing in

Now, ƒ(x) = log x  x  1
3 6
 x R+

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3. GREATEST AND LEAST VALUE (c) If a continuous function y = ƒ(x) is
OF A FUNCTION : decreasing in [a, b], then ƒ(b) is the
(a) Extreme value Theorem : If ƒ is least and ƒ(a) is the greatest value of
continuous on [a, b] then ƒ takes on, a ƒ(x) in [a, b]. (figure-2)
least value m and a greatest value M on
this interval.

(d) If a continuous function y = ƒ(x) is

increasing/decreasing in the (a,b), then
no greatest and least value exist.

Illustration 4 :
x
Show that ƒ(x) = sin–1 – nx is
1 x2
1 
NOTE : decreasing in x   , 3  . Also find
(a) Continuity through the interval [a,b] is  3 
essential for the validity of this theorem. its range.
There is a discontinuity at x = c, c  Solution :
[a,b] . The function has a minimum x
ƒ(x) = sin–1 –nx = tan–1x – nx
value at the x = a and has no maximum 1 x 2

 1  x 2  x 
value.
1 1
 ƒ '(x) = – =
1 x2 x x 1  x 2 
 1 
 ƒ '(x) < 0  x   , 3 
 3 
(b) If a continuous function y = ƒ(x) is  ƒ(x) is decreasing.
increasing in the closed interval [a, b],  1   1
then ƒ(a) is the least value and ƒ(b) is
ƒ(x)|max = ƒ   = + 2 n3
 3 6

 
the greatest value of ƒ(x) in [a, b]  1
(figure-1) and ƒ(x)|min = ƒ 3 = – n3
3 2
 Range of
 1  1 
ƒ(x) =   n3,  n3
3 2 6 2 
Ans.

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Illustration 5 :
Find the greatest and least value of
ƒ(x) = x3 + 5x + ex in [1, 3]
Solution :
ƒ '(x) = 3x2 + 5 + ex ƒ(x) is always
increasing.
Least value = ƒ(1) = 6 + e
greatest value = ƒ(3) = (42 + e3)
Do yourself - 3 :
x3 x 2
(i) Let ƒ(x) =  + 2 in [–2, 2]. Find
3 2
the greatest and least value of ƒ(x) in
[–2, 2]
4. PROVING INEQUALITIES USING
MONOTONICITY :
Comparison of two functions ƒ(x) and
g(x) can be done by analysing their
monotonic behaviour.
5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIGN OF
IInd ORDER DERIVATIVE :
The sign of the 2nd order derivative
determines the concavity of the curve.
If ƒ ''(x) > 0  x  (a, b) then graph of
ƒ(x) is concave upward in (a, b).
Similarly if ƒ ''(x) < 0  x  (a, b) then
graph of ƒ(x) is concave downward in
(a, b).
6. ROLLE'S THEOREM :
Let ƒ be a function that satisfies the
following three conditions:
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(a) ƒ is continuous on the closed interval
[a, b].
(b) ƒ is differentiable on the open interval
(a, b)
(c) ƒ(a) = ƒ(b)
Then there exist at least one number c
in (a, b) such that ƒ '(c) = 0.
Note : If ƒ is differentiable function
then between any two consecutive roots
of ƒ(x) = 0, there is at least one root of
the equation ƒ '(x) = 0.
(d) Geometrical Interpretation :
Geometrically, the Rolle's theorem says
that somewhere between A and B the
curve has at
least one tangent parallel to x-axis.
Illustration 6 :
Verify Rolle's theorem for the function
ƒ(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x in the interval
[0, 2].
Solution :
Here we observe that
(a) ƒ(x) is polynomial and since polynomial
are always continuous, as well as
differentiable. Hence ƒ(x) is continuous
in the [0,2] and differentiable in the
(0, 2). &
(b) ƒ(0) = 0, ƒ(2) = 23 – 3. (2)2 + 2(2) = 0
 ƒ(0) = ƒ(2)
Thus, all the condition of Rolle's
theorem are satisfied.
So, there must exists some c  (0, 2)
such that ƒ'(c) = 0
10
  ƒ '(c) = 3c2 – 6c + 2 = 0 Let ƒ be a function that satisfies the
1 following conditions:
 c=1±1
3 (i) ƒ is continuous in [a, b]
1 (ii) ƒ is differentiable in (a, b).
where both c = 1 ±  (0, 2) thus Then there is a number c in (a, b) such
3
f (b)  f(a)
Rolle's theorem is verified. that ƒ '(c) =
ba
Illustration 7 : (a) Geometrical Interpretation :
Let Rolle's theorem holds for Geometrically, the Mean Value
ƒ(x) = x3 + bx2 + ax, when 1  x  2 at Theorem says that somewhere between
4 A and B the curve has at least one
the point c = , then find a + b. tangent parallel to chord AB.
3 (b) Physical Interpretations :
Solution : If we think of the number
ƒ(1) = ƒ(2) 1 + b + a = 8 + 4b + 2a (ƒ(b) – ƒ(a))/(b – a) as the average
a + 3b + 7 = 0 .......(1) change in ƒ over [a, b] and ƒ'(c) as an
ƒ '(c) = 3x2 + 2bx + a = 0 instantaneous change, then the Mean
16 8b Value Theorem says that at some
 + a = 0  3a + 8b + 16 = 0
3 3 interior point the instantaneous change
.........(2) must equal the average change over the
By solving a = 8, b = –5 entire interval.
Do yourself - 4 : Illustration 8 :
(i) Verify Rolle's theorem for y = 1 – x4/3 Find c of the Lagrange's mean value
on the interval [–1,1] theorem for the function
(ii) (a) Let ƒ(x) = 1 – x2/3. Show that ƒ(–1) = ƒ(x) = 3x2 + 5x + 7 in the interval [1, 3].
ƒ(1) but there is no number c in (–1, 1) Solution :
such that ƒ '(c) = 0. Given ƒ(x) = 3x2 + 5x + 7 ...... (i)
Why does this not contradict Rolle's ƒ(1) = 3 + 5 + 7 = 15 and
Theorem ? ƒ(3) = 27 + 15 + 7 = 49
(b) Let ƒ(x) = (x – 1)–2. Show that ƒ(0) = Again ƒ '(x) = 6x + 5
ƒ(2) but there is no number c in (0, 2) Here a = 1, b = 3
such that ƒ '(c) = 0. Now from Lagrange's mean value
Why does this not contradict Rolle's theorem
Theorem ? f (b)  f(a)
ƒ '(c) =
ba
7. LAGRANGE'S MEAN VALUE f (3)  f(1) 49  15
 6c + 5 = =
THEOREM (LMVT) : 3 1 2
= 17 or c = 2.

Illustration 9 :
If ƒ(x) is continuous and differentiable
over [–2, 5] and – 4  ƒ '(x) 3 for all x
in (–2, 5), then the greatest possible
value of ƒ(5) – ƒ(–2) is –
(A) 7 (B) 9
(C) 15 (D) 21
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Solution : 1 
Apply LMVT  g(x) decreases in x   ,1
2 
f (5)  f (2)
ƒ '(x) = for some x in Case II : If x <(1 – x) x < 1/2
5  (2)
 ƒ '(x) > ƒ '(1 – x)
(–2, 5)
 ƒ '(x) – ƒ '(1 – x) > 0
f (5)  f(2)
Now, –4  3  g'(x) > 0
7  g(x) increases in x  (0, 1/2)
–28  ƒ(5) – ƒ(–2) 
 Greatest possible value of Illustration 11 :
ƒ(5) – ƒ(–2) is 21. Which of the following functions are
 
Do yourself - 5 : decreasing on  0, 
 2
(i) If ƒ(x) = x2 in [a, b], then show that
(A) cos x (B) cos2x
there exist atleast one c in (a, b) such
(C) cos3x (D) tan x
that a, c, b are in A.P.
(ii) Find C of LMVT for ƒ(x) = |x|3 in Solution :
[2, 5].

8. SPECIAL NOTE :
Use of Monotonicity in identifying the
number of roots of the equation in a ƒ(x) = cosx
given interval. Suppose a and b are two
real numbers such that,
(a) Let ƒ(x) is differentiable & either MI or
MD for 0  x  b. ƒ(x) = cos2x
&
(b) ƒ(a) and ƒ(b) have opposite signs.
Then there is one & only one root of the ƒ(x) = cos3x
equation ƒ(x) = 0 in (a, b).
Miscellaneous Illustrations :
Illustration 10 :
If g(x) = ƒ(x) + ƒ(1 – x) and ƒ ''(x) < 0;
Non monotonic
0  x  1, show that g(x) increasing in
 
x(0,1/2) and decreasing in x(1/2, 1) ƒ(x) = tanx is increasing in  0, 
Solution :  2
ƒ ''(x) < 0 Option A and B are correct.
 ƒ '(x) is decreasing function.
Now, g(x) = ƒ(x) + ƒ(1 – x) Illustration 12 :
 g'(x) = ƒ '(x) – ƒ '(1 – x) Prove that the equation e(x–1) + x = 2 has
......... (i) one solution
Case I : If x > (1 – x) Solution :
 x > 1/2 Let ƒ(x) = e(x–1) + x
 ƒ '(x) < ƒ '(1 – x) ƒ '(x) = e(x–1) + 1
ƒ(x) is always an increasing function
 ƒ '(x) – ƒ '(1 – x) < 0
 g'(x) < 0
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 lim ƒ(x) =  and lim ƒ(x) = 0
x  x 

ƒ(x) = 2 has exactly one solution.

ANSWERS FOR DO YOURSELF

1: (i) – 4
2: (i) Increasing
8 8
3: (i) Greatest is and least value is – .
3 3
4: (i) Rolles theorem is valid
(ii) (a) ƒ(x) is non-differentiable at
x = 0 in (–1,1)
(b) ƒ(x) is discontinuous at x = 1 in
(0,2)
117
5: (ii) C =
9

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 MAXIMA-MINIMA
1. INTRODUCTION :
Some of the most important
applications of differential calculus are
optimization problems, in which we are
required to find the optimal (best) way
of doing something. Here are examples
of such problems that we will solve in
this chapter
 What is the shape of a vessel that can
with-stand maximum pressure ?
 What is the maximum acceleration of a
space shuttle ? (This is an important
question to the astronauts who have to
withstand the effects of acceleration)
 What is the radius of a contracted
windpipe that expels air most rapidly
during a cough?
These problems can be reduced to
finding the maximum or minimum
values of a function. Let's first explain
exactly what we mean by maxima and
minima.
(a) Maxima (Local/Relative maxima) :
A function ƒ(x) is said to have a
maxima at x = a if there exist a
neighbourhood
(a – h, a + h) – {a} such that ƒ(a) > ƒ(x)
x  (a – h, a + h) – {a}
(b) Minima (Local/Relative minima) :
A function ƒ(x) is said to have a minima
at x = a if there exist a neighbourhood
(a – h, a + h) – {a} such that ƒ(a) < ƒ(x)
x  (a – h, a + h) – {a}
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(c) Absolute maxima (Global maxima) :
A function ƒ has an absolute maxima
(or global maxima) at c if ƒ(c)  ƒ(x)
for all x in D, where D is the domain of
ƒ. The number ƒ(c) is called the
maximum value of ƒ on D.
(d) Absolute minima (Global minima) :
A function ƒ has an absolute minima at
c if ƒ(c) ƒ(x) for all x in D and the
number ƒ(c) is called the minimum
value of ƒ on D. The maximum and
minimum values of ƒ are called the
extreme values of ƒ.
Note :
(i) the maximum & minima values of a
function are also known as
local/relative maxima or local/relative
minima as these are the greatest & least
values of the function relative to some
neighbourhood of the point in question.
(ii) the term 'extrema' is used both for
maxima or minima.
(iii) a maximum (minimum) value of a
function may not be the greatest (least)
value in a finite interval.
(iv) a function can have several extreme
values & a local minimum value may
even be greater than a local maximum
value.
(v) local maximum & local minimum
values of a continuous function occur
alternately & between two consecutive
local maximum values there is a local
minimum value & vice versa.
2. DERIVATIVE TEST FOR
ASCERTAINING
MAXIMA/MINIMA :
(a) First derivative test :
If ƒ '(x) = 0 at a point (say x = a) and
(i) If ƒ '(x) changes sign from positive to
negative in the neighbourhood of x = a
then x = a is said to be a point local
maxima.
14
(ii) If ƒ '(x) changes sign from negative to Illustration2 :
positive in the neighbourhood of x = a If
then x = a is said to be a point local 3x 2  12x  1,  1  x  2
minima. ƒ(x) =  , then
 37  x, 2  x  3,
(A) ƒ(x) is increasing on [–1, 2)
(B) ƒ(x) is continuous on [–1, 3]
(C) ƒ'(x) does not exist at x = 2
(D) ƒ(x) has the maximum value at
x=2
Solution :
Given,
3x 2  12x  1,  1  x  2
ƒ(x) = 
 37  x, 2  x  3,
6x  12,  1  x  2
 ƒ '(x) = 
  1, 2  x  3,
(A) which shows ƒ '(x) > 0 for x  [–1, 2)
Note : If ƒ '(x) does not change sign i.e. has the So, ƒ(x) is increasing on [–1, 2)
same sign in a certain complete Hence, (A) is correct.
neighbourhood of a, then ƒ(x) is either (B) for continuity of ƒ(x). (check at x = 2)
increasing or decreasing throughout this RHL = 35, LHL = 35 and ƒ(2) = 35
neighbourhood implying that x=a is not So, (B) is correct
a point of extremum of ƒ. (C) Rƒ '(2) = –1 and L ƒ '(2) = 24
so, not differentiable at x = 2.
Illustration 1 : Hence, (C) is correct.
1 (D) we know ƒ(x) is increasing on [–1, 2)
Let ƒ(x) = x+ ; x  0. Discuss the local
x and decreasing on (2, 3],
maximum and local minimum values of Thus maximum at x = 2,
ƒ(x). Hence, (D) is correct.
Solution : (A), (B), (C), (D) all are correct.
1 Ans.
Here, ƒ '(x) = 1 – 2
x Do yourself - 1 :
x 1
2
(x  1)(x  1) (i) Find local maxima and local minima for
= 2
= 2
x x the function ƒ(x) = x3 – 3x.
(ii) If function ƒ(x) = x3 – 62x2 + ax + 9 has
local maxima at x = 1, then find the
Using number line rule, ƒ(x) will have value of a.
local maximum at x = –1 and local
minimum at x = 1 (b)
Second derivative test :
 local maximum value of ƒ(x) = –2 at If ƒ(x) is continuous and differentiable
x = –1 at x = a where ƒ '(a) = 0 and ƒ ''(a) also
and local minimum value of ƒ(x) = 2 at exists then for ascertaining
nd
x=1 Ans. maxima/minima at x = a, 2 derivative
test can be used -
(i) If ƒ ''(a) > 0  x = a is a point of local
minima
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(ii) If ƒ ''(a) < 0  x = a is a point of local Solution :
maxima ex  e x
ƒ(x) = is differentiable at all x
(iii) If ƒ ''(a) = 0  second derivative test 2
fails. To identify maxima/minima at this in its domain.
point either first derivative test or ex  e x
higher derivative test can be used. Then ƒ '(x) = ,
2
Illustration 3 : ex  e x
ƒ "(x) =
If ƒ (x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 6 has local 2
maximum and minimum at x = a and ex  e x
x = b respectively, then ordered pair ƒ '(x) = 0  =0
2
(a, b) is -
e2x = 1 x = 0
(A) (3, –2) (B) (2, –3) ƒ ''(0) = 1
(C) (–2, 3) (D) (–3, 2)
 x = 0 is a point of local minimum
Solution :
Points x = – loge2 and x = loge7 are
ƒ(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 6
extreme points.
ƒ '(x) = 6x2 – 6x – 36 &
Now, check the value of ƒ(x) at all these
ƒ ''(x) = 12x – 6
three points x = –loge2, 0, loge7
Now ƒ '(x) = 0  6(x2 – x – 6) = 0
 (x – 3) (x + 2) = 0  x = –2, 3
ƒ ''(–2) = –30
x = –2 is a point of local maximum
ƒ ''(3) = 30
x = 3 is a point of local minimum
Hence, (–2, 3) is the required ordered
pair. Ans. (C)
e loge 2  e loge 2 5
Illustration 4 :  ƒ(–loge2) = =
Find the point of local maxima of 2 4
0
ƒ(x) = sinx (1+cosx) in x  (0, /2). e e
0
ƒ(0) = =1
Solution : 2
1 eloge 7  e loge 7 25
Let ƒ(x) = sinx (1+ cosx) = sinx + sin ƒ(loge7) = =
2 2 7
2x  x = 0 is absolute minima & x = loge7 is
 ƒ '(x) = cos x + cos 2x absolute maxima
ƒ ''(x) = – sin x – 2sin 2x Hence, absolute/global minimum value
Now ƒ '(x) = 0  cos x + cos2x = 0 of ƒ(x) is 1 at x = 0
 cos 2x = cos (– x) x = /3 and absolute/global maximum value of
25
Also ƒ ''(/3) = – 3 / 2 – 3 < 0 ƒ(x) is at x = loge7 Ans.
7
 ƒ(x) has a maxima at x = /3
Ans. Do yourself - 2 :
Illustration 5 : (i) Find local maximum value of function
Find the global maximum and global nx
ƒ(x) =
ex  e x x
minimum of ƒ(x) = in (ii) If ƒ(x) = x2e–2x (x > 0), then find the
2
[–loge2, loge7]. local maximum value of ƒ(x).

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Illustration 6 : 1
Identify a point of maxima/minima in (f) Volume of a pyramid = area of the
3
ƒ(x) = (x + 1)4. base x height.
Solution : 1
ƒ(x) = (x + 1)4 (g) Curved surface area of a pyramid =
2
ƒ '(x) = 4(x +1)3
(perimeter of the base) x slant height.
dy
(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid
dx are triangles).
at x = –1 ƒ(x) is having local minima 1
 at x = –1 ƒ(x) has point of minima. (h) Volume of a cone =  r2h.
3
Illustration 7 : (i) Curved surface area of a cylinder = 2 
Find point of local maxima and minima rh.
of ƒ(x) = x5 – 5x4 + 5x3 – 1 (j) Total surface area of a cylinder = 2 rh
Solution : + 2 r2.
ƒ(x) = x5 – 5x4 + 5x3 – 1 4
ƒ '(x) = 5x4 – 20x3 + 15x2 (k) Volume of a sphere = r3.
3
= 5x2 (x2 – 4x + 3)
(l) Surface area of a sphere = 4  r2.
= 5x2 (x – 1)(x – 3)
1
ƒ '(x) = 0  x = 0, 1, 3 (m) Area of a circular sector = r2, when
ƒ ''(x) = 10x(2x2 – 6x + 3) 2
But at x = 0, deriavative sign is positive  is in radians.
in its neighbourhood.
Now ƒ ''(1) < 0  Maxima at x = 1 4. SUMMARY OF WORKING RULES
ƒ ''(3) > 0  Minima at x = 3 FOR SOLVING REAL LIFE
OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM :
 Neither maxima nor minima at x = 0.
First : When possible, draw a figure to
Do yourself - 3 : illustrate the problem & label those
(i) Identify the point of local parts that are important in the problem.
maxima/minima in ƒ(x) = (x – 3)10. Constants & variables should be clearly
distinguished.
3. USEFUL FORMULAE OF Second : Write an equation for the
MENSURATION TO REMEMBER : quantity that is to be maximized or
minimized. If this quantity is denoted
(a) Volume of a cuboid = bh. by ‘y’, it must be expressed in terms of
(b) Surface area of a cuboid a single independent variable x. This
= 2 (b + bh + h). may require some algebraic
(c) Volume of a prism = area of the base × manipulations.
height. Third : If y = ƒ (x) is a quantity to be
(d) Lateral surface area of prism = maximum or minimum, find those
perimeter of the base × height. values of x for which dy/dx = ƒ '(x) = 0.
(e) Total surface area of a prism = lateral Fourth : Using derivative test, test each
surface area + 2 area of the base value of x for which ƒ '(x) = 0 to
(Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are determine whether it provides a
all rectangles). maximum or minimum or neither.

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 Fifth : If the derivative fails to exist at Solution :
some point, examine this point as Volume of the box is, V = x(a – 2x)2
possible maximum or minimum. i.e., squares of side x are cut out then
Sixth : If the function y = ƒ(x) is we will get a box with a square base
defined only for x  [a,b] then examine of side (a – 2x) and height x.
x = a & x = b for possible extreme
values.

Illustration 8 :
Determine the largest area of the
rectangle whose base is on the x-axis
and two of its vertices lie on the curve
 x2
y =e .
Solution :
Area of the rectangle will be
 a2
A = 2a. e
For max. area,
dA d a2 a2
= (2a e ) = e [2 – 4a2]
da da

dA 1
=0a=
da 2
dA
& sign of changes from positive to
da
dV
negative at a = +
1  = (a – 2x)2 + x·2(a – 2x)(–2)
dx
2
dV
x =
1
are points of maxima = (a – 2x) (a – 6x)
dx
2
2 dV
 1  For V to be extremum =0
  2
2
Amax = .e  2
= sq units. dx
 x = a/2, a/6
1/2
2 e
Ans. But when x = a/2; V = 0 (minimum)
and we know minimum and maximum
Illustration 9 : occurs alternately in a continuous
A box of maximum volume with top function.
open is to be made by cutting out four Hence, V is maximum when x = a/6.
equal squares from four corners of a Ans.
square tin sheet of side length a ft, and
then folding up the flaps. Find the side
of the square base cut off.

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Illustration 10 : (ii) If from a wire of length 36 metre, a
If a right circular cylinder is inscribed in rectangle of greatest area is made, then
a given cone. Find the dimension of the find its two adjacent sides in metre.
cylinder such that its volume is (iii) If ab = 2a + 3b where a > 0, b > 0, then
maximum. find the minimum value of ab.
Solution : (iv) Of all closed right circular cylinders of
Let x be the radius of cylinder and y be a given volume of 100 cubic
its height centimetres, find the dimensions of
V = x2y cylinder which has minimum surface
x, y can be related by using similar area.
triangles
Important note :
(i) If the sum of two real numbers x and y
is constant then their product is
maximum if they are equal.
1
i.e. xy = [(x + y)2 – (x – y)2]
4
(ii) If the product of two positive numbers
is constant then their sum is least if they
y h h are equal.
=  y = (r – x) i.e. (x + y)2 = (x – y)2 + 4xy
rx r r
h
 V(x) = r2 (r – x) 5. LEAST/GREATEST DISTANCE
r BETWEEN TWO CURVES :
h
 V(x) = (rx2 – x3) Least/Greatest distance between two
r non-intersecting curves always lies
h along the common normal. (Wherever
V'(x) = (2rx – 3x2)
r defined)
2r
V'(x) = 0  x = 0,
3
V''(x) = 2h  x = 0 is point of minima
h
V"(x) = (2r – 6x)
r
 2r  2r Note : Given a fixed point A(a, b) and
V ''   = –2h  x = is point of a moving point P(x, ƒ (x)) on the curve
 3 3 y = ƒ (x). Then AP will be maximum or
maxima minimum if it is normal to the curve at
 2r  P.
Thus volume is maximum at x =  
 3
h
and y = .
3
Do yourself - 4 :
(i) Find the two positive numbers x & y Proof : F(x) = (x – a)2 + (ƒ (x) – b))2
such that their sum is 60 and xy3 is  F '(x) = 2(x – a) + 2(ƒ (x) – b) . ƒ '(x)
maximum.  x a 
ƒ '(x) = –  .
 f (x)  b 
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 f (x)  b d2 y
Also mAP= . point at which = 0& changes its
x a dx 2
Hence ƒ '(x) . mAP = 1. sign is the point of inflection.
Illustration 11 :
Find the co-ordinates of the point on the
curve x2 = 4y, which is at least distance
from the line y = x – 4.
Solution :
Let P(x1y1) be a point on the curve
x2 = 4y at which normal is also a
d2 y
perpendicular to the line y = x – 4. Note : If at any point does not exist
dx 2
d2 y
but sign of changes about this point
dx 2
then it is also called point of inflection.

Illustration 12 :
Find the critical point(s) & stationary
Slope of the tangent at (x1, y1) is point(s) of the function
2x = 4
dy

dy x
= 1 ƒ(x) = (x–2)2/3(2x + 1)
dx dx (x ,y )
1 1
2 Solution :
x ƒ(x) = (x – 2)2/3(2x + 1)
 1 = 1  x1 = 2 2
2 ƒ '(x) = (x – 2)2/3 . 2 + (2x + 1) (x –
 x12 = 4y1 y1 = 1 3
2 1
Hence required point is (2, 1) 2)–1/3 = 2(x – 2)2/3 + (2x + 1)
3 (x  2)1/3
Do yourself - 5 :  2  1
(i) Find the coordinates of point on the =  2(x  2)  (2 x 1) 
 3  (x  2)1/3
curve y2 =8x, which is at minimum
2(5 x  5)
distance from the line x + y = –2. =
3(x  2)1/3
6. SOME SPECIAL POINTS ON A
ƒ '(x) does not exist at x = 2 and
CURVE :
(a) Critical points : The points of domain ƒ '(x) = 0 at x = 1
for which ƒ '(x) is equal to zero or  x = 1, 2 are critical points and x = 1
doesn't exist are called critical points. is stationary point.
(b) Stationary points: The stationary Illustration 13 :
points are the points of domain where ƒ The point of inflection for the curve
'(x) = 0 . 5

Note : Every stationary point is a y = x 3 is -

critical point but vice-versa is not true. (A) (1, 1) (B) (0, 0)
(c) Point of inflection : A point where the (C) (1, 0) (D) (0, 1)
graph of a function has a tangent line Solution :
and where the concavity changes is d2 y 10
Here =
called a point of inflection. If function dx 2
9x1/3
y = ƒ(x) is double differentiable then the

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 From the given points we find that (ii) Find the point of inflection for the curve
(0, 0) is the point of the curve where y = x3 – 6x2 + 12x + 5
d2 y d2 y (iii) Find the intervals for
does not exist but sign of
dx 2 dx 2 x 4 5x 3
ƒ(x) =   3x 2  7 in which it is
changes about this point. 12 6
(0, 0) is the required point (a) concave upward.
Ans. (B) (b) concave downward.
Illustration 14 : (c) Hence find the points of inflection of
Find the inflection point of ƒ(x) = 3x4 – ƒ(x).
4x3. Also draw the graph of ƒ(x) giving
due importance to maxima, minima and
Miscellaneous Illustrations :
concavity.
Solution : Illustration 15 :
ƒ(x) = 3x4 – 4x3 Let a cuboid having square base has
area 6. Then find its maximum volume.
Solution :
ƒ '(x) = 12x3 – 12x2 Total area = 2a2 + 4ah = 6
ƒ '(x) = 12x2(x – 1) (6  2 a 2 ) a 2 (6  2 a 2 )
h=  V = a2h =
ƒ '(x) = 0  x = 0, 1 4a 4a
examining sign change of f '(x) dv
thus x = 1 is a point of local minima = 6 – 6a2 = 0
da
d2v
a = 1 and = –ve
ƒ ''(x) = 12(3x2 – 2x) da 2
ƒ ''(x) = 12x(3x – 2) Minimum V = 1
ƒ''(x) = 0 ANSWERS FOR DO YOURSELF
2
 x = 0, 1: (i) local max. at x = –1, local min. at x =
3
1 (ii) 121
2: (i) 1/e (ii) 1/e2
3: (i) local minima at x = 3
4: (i) x = 15 & y = 45
(ii) 9 & 9 (iii) 24
1/3 1/3
 50   50 
(iv) r =   cm. and h =2   cm.
   
Again examining sign of ƒ ''(x) thus 5: (i) (2,–4)
2 6: (i) x = 1 is a critical point as well as
x = 0, stationary point (Note x = 0 is not in the
3
are the inflection points Hence the domain of ƒ (x))
graph of ƒ(x) is (ii) x = 2 (iii) (a) (–, 2) (3,)
(b) (2, 3) (c) x = 2 & x = 3
Do yourself - 6 :
(i) Find the critical points and stationary
ex
point of the function ƒ (x) =
x

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 2019

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