Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit 4: Sociology
Unit 5: Politics
Unit 6: Geography
Introduction
T
his unit will help you understand the concept of Social Studies and Social
Sciences. Understanding the foundation of social studies and social science
is relevant for you because it will help you deepened your knowledge about
the topic.
In this lesson, you will learn the meaning of Social Studies and Social
Science, the different disciplines, branches, and scope of Social Science, and the
difference between Natural and Social science. This module's primary role is to
understand the confusing matters between social studies and social science as well
as their differences and similarities. As a future teacher of Social Studies, you must
be familiar n the terminologies on this subject for your future use. At the end of the
lesson, you need to realize that Social Studies is more than just memorizing facts.
In fact, the subject demands you to be aware on various issues in society to become
a productive citizen of our country.
Objectives/ Competencies
1|Page
Question And
Answer!
1. What the definition of social studies according to National Council for social
studies?
A. The integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic
competence” social studies is mastery of learning which acquires knowledge
and produce active citizens.
B. Social science is the field of sciences concerned with the studies of the
social life of human groups and individuals
C. A group of academic disciplines dedicated to examining society. This branch
of science studies how people interact with each other, behave, develop as
a culture, and influence the world
A. All of the above
2. What is the definition of social science?
A. The integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic
competence” social studies is mastery of learning which acquires knowledge
and produce active citizens.
B. Social science is the field of sciences concerned with the studies of the social
life of human groups and individuals
C. A group of academic disciplines dedicated to examining society. This branch
of science studies how people interact with each other, behave, develop as
a culture, and influence the world
D. All of the above
A. Anthropology
B. Sociology
C. Biology
D. Law
4. What is the discipline that study of how people and society choose, with or
without the use of money, to employ scarce productive resources which could
have alternative services, to produce various commodities over time?
A. Economics
B. Political science
C. Law
D. All of the above
5. What discipline deals with the study of the chronological record of events?
A. Economics
B. History
2|Page
C. Archeology
D. Sociology
A. Anthropology
B. Archaeology
C. Sociology
D. History
7. What is the discipline on how the human brain works how we think,
remember, and learn, and it is called the science of mind?
A. Sociology
B. Law
C. Psychology
D. Anthropology
10. What discipline deals with the relation to that which they regard as
holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence. It
is also commonly regarded as how people deal with ultimate concerns about
their lives and their fate after death.
A. Religion
B. Anthropology
C. Sociology
D. Philosophy
Guess it!!!
Question. Base on your understanding, what is the difference between Social
Studies and Social Science? State your answer on a separate sheet of paper using
3-5 sentences.
3|Page
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Guess the correct word for the given pictures below.
1 2 3
__I_E
___A_I_N
b) In what particular studies or SPECIFIC subject area that the above photos
will fall?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4|Page
Discussion
Social Studies
The National
Council has described
Social Studies for Social
Studies as "an integrated
study of social sciences
and humanities to promote
civic competence."
Social studies is a
mastery of learning which
acquires knowledge and
produce active citizens.
Social Science
Social sciences are
group of academic
fields that focus on the
study of society. This
branch of science
analyze how people
interact with each other,
behave, develop as a
culture, and influence the
world.
5|Page
Lesson 2: Distinctive Characteristics of Social
Sciences
SOCIAL STUDIES
It represents a child-approach.
It has simplified portions of social sciences to be
taught at the primary level.
Social Studies is the practical part of human
affairs and give insight into various aspects of
6|Page
man and society.
SOCIAL SCIENCE
The field of science dealing with the study of the social life of human
groups and individuals is social science. Social science is a term
used to describe the extensive study of different fields, including past
and present human behavior and relationships.
REMEMBER!!
7|Page
Lesson 3: Disciplines of Social
Sciences
Economics
Government
Law
Psychology
Sociology
Anthropology
DISCIPLINE DEFINITION
8|Page
Archeology Archeology is the study of the ancient and
recent human past through materials remains. It
includes human artifacts from the earliest stone
tools to the human-made objects buried or
thrown away in the present day.
Anthropology comes from the Greek
word Archaia (“ancient things”) and logos
(“theory” or “science”).
9|Page
Law
It is a discipline and profession dealing
with the traditions, practices, and rules of
conduct of a society accepted as binding on
society.
It is by a regulating authority to enforce
the structure of laws. The law serves many
purposes. Four principal ones are establishing
standards, maintaining order, resolving
disputes, and protecting liberties and rights.
Philosophy
It is the rational, abstract, and methodical
interpretation of the truth of human life and
experience as a whole or essential dimension.
The analysis of general and essential
topics, such as those related to truth, existence,
knowledge, beliefs, purpose, mind, and
language, is called philosophy. A key factor in
the intellectual history of many civilizations is
philosophical inquiry.
Political Science
It is the systematic study of governance
through the use of empirical and typically
scientific methods of analysis. Political science
explores the state and its organs and
organizations, as historically described and
examined.
However, contemporary discipline is far
more comprehensive than this, encompassing
analyses of all the societal, cultural, and
psychological influences that have a common
effect on government and the political body's
functioning.
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Religion It is a discipline by which people regard holy,
divine, absolute, sacred, spiritual, or worthy of
special reverence. And also regarded as consisting
of the way people deal with ultimate concerns
about their lives and their fate after death. In many
traditions, this relation and these concerns are
expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or
attitude toward gods or spirits.
11 | P a g e
Mathematics Mathematics is a science of order,
form, and relation that has evolved from the
basic method of calculating, counting, and
defining objects' shapes.
It deals with quantitative calculations
and logical reasoning. Mathematics
development has involved an increasing
degree of the idealization and abstraction of
the subject matter.
Geography
History
current events
Interdisciplinary
Understanding
The primary goal of social studies is to help young people make wise choices
and decisions for the public good as members of a culturally diverse, democratic
society in an interdependent world.
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1. Vast and wide as the world. 2. A functional study of Natural
Social studies is the study of and Physical Sciences as well
human relationships in areas as the study of Fine Arts.
such as:
- social science
a) People of one’s own - natural science
nationality and people
- physical science:
across the world.
b) People and various
kinds of institutions. These disciplines are
c) People and earth. interrelated on each other and
d) People and time. change in one field may affect
e) People and resources. others.
4. A Study leading to
international understanding.
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Lesson 5: Natural Science & Social
Science
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The students who study social
The students who study science can become a historian,
natural science can become teacher, lawyer linguistic.
a medical doctor, nurse,
engineer, biologist,
chemist, astronomer, etc.
Application
2. What are the differences between Social Science and Social Studies?
Directions: On a yellow pad paper, choose and Write three (3) disciplines that you
think are the most helpful or essential for becoming an effective teacher of Social
Studies in the future.
In your own opinion, how does Social Science and Social Studies
affect individuals and communities?
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Post Assessment!
4. Semi Social Sciences include the study of life, literature and languages.
5. Law talks about the enforcement of rules and regulations.
6. Social Studies is an integrated body of content drawn from the Social
sciences and the humanities.
7. Students who studied Natural Science may become a historian in the future.
8. Religion is a discipline by which people are
influenced by the aspect of holiness and God.
9. Economics is the study of the allocation and consumption of goods in a society.
10. There are 3 disciplines of Social Studies: Geography,
History, Contemporary Issues and Government.
Glossary
National Council for the Social Studies - is the largest professional
association devoted solely to social studies education founded in 1921.
Natural Science - a branch of science which deals with the physical world,
e.g., biology, physics, chemistry, geology, etc.
Social Studies - an integrated study of social sciences and humanities to
promote civic competence.
Social Science - Social sciences are a group of academic fields that focuses
on the study of society.
Scientific method - a method of procedure that has characterized natural
science since the 17th century
Suggested Readings
Teaching of Social Studies by R.P. Pathak.PDF retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-
science
References
https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ALeKk02Od5bCtyWlJdNlrDXVPdl3-
1zOaw%3A1598360340909&ei=FAtFX5TwNpyVr7wP6MWayAY&q=National+Council+for+the
+Social
+Studies+defined+Social+Studies+as+%E2%80%9Cthe+integrated+study+of+the+social+scie
nces+and+humanities+to+promote+civic+competence&oq=National+Council+for+the+Social+
Studies+define d+Social+Studies+as
In Critical Issues in Social Studies Research for the 21st Century, edited by William B .
Stanley. Greenwich, Conn. : Information Age Publishing, 2001.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/historyhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/law
16 | P a g e
UNIT 2: History of Social Science
Introduction
D o you have any thoughts or ideas about the history of Social Science or Social
Studies and its importance to your life?
In your previous lesson, you have learned the definition of Social Science and
Social Studies. In this module, you will learn the historical background of Social
Science during pre-classical up to the 21st century. These lessons will help you to
understand the proponents and scholars of Social Science.
One of these lessons' primary purposes is for you to familiarize yourself with
terminologies and different disciplines. You will understand the views, beliefs,
perspectives, theories, and scientific explanations of various scholars in their times.
This lesson will boost your critical thinking to choose your own belief and rspective in
life. You will observe in this topic how scholars explain their own idea to make the world
a better place.
Objectives/
Competencies
B. Identify how and who build the different perspective in Social Science;
D. Justify which proponent or scholar had the best influence in Social Science
today.
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PreliminaryTask!
FAMOUS PROPONENT/
SCHOLAR COUNTRY OR ORIGIN
a. Plato
b. Socrates
c. Rene Descartes
d. John Locke
e. Max Weber
f. David Hume
g. Francis Bacon
h. Karl Marx
i. Auguste Comte
j. Karl Popper
Question And
Answer!
True or False. Write T if the statement is true and write F if the statement is false.
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Discussion
Pre Classical
Classical Age
Metaphysics Theology
Philosophy is concerned with the The study of a God or
perception of the true meaning of gods.
truth. Aristotle had called the Universal science
subject matter of the treatise “first The study of first
philosophy” or “theology. principles, upon
which logic is based.
Ontology
The study of being and existence,
the philosophical analysis of
being in general, or the neutral Law of Non-
application of everything real. It Contradiction
was called “first philosophy” by
Aristotle in Book IV of his (P is not non P)
Metaphysics.
The rule of non-
contradiction states that an
assertion cannot be
accurate or false at the
same time at the same
place. For example,
Bulacan is experiencing
Logic rainfall today but it does not
The study of necessary mean that
correct reasoning, Aristotle Manila is experiencing
defined logic as "new and rainfall as well. The two
necessary reasoning," opposite statements
"new" because it allows us cannot be factual both at
to understand what we do the same time and in the
not know, and "necessary" same way.
because its conclusions
are inescapable.
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16th CENTURY
17th CENTURY
David Hume
Philosophy of Mind
The branch of philosophy studies the
nature of the mind like consciousness, mental
functions, mental events, and mental
properties and its relationship to the physical
body.
Hume is a Scottish philosopher, economist and historian of the Age of Enlightenment. Although
David Hume is commonly known for his philosophical skepticism and empiricist theory of knowledge,
he also made many significant moral philosophies. He was a major figure in the Scottish
Enlightenment and one of the three main figures of the influential British Empiricism movement, along
with John Locke and Bishop George Berkeley. He was a fierce critic of Descartes, Leibniz, and
Spinoza's rationalism, as well as an atheist. Combining empirical and skeptical arguments, Hume
claimed that neither inductive nor deductive proof could determine the validity of reality. Knowledge
may consist of intuitively visible matters or demonstrable links between thoughts, but not of anything
beyond experience; the mind may discover no necessary connections within the experience or root
causes of experience. Beliefs about the world are based not upon reason or evidence, nor even upon
appeal to nature's uniformity, but only on habit and custom.
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Natural Philosophy
Fusion of Rationalism and Empiricism
18th CENTURY
Kant's theories led to the development of German Idealism, which later influenced the
development of interpretive methods such as phenomenology, hermeneutics, and
critical social theory. German Idealism is an intellectual movement centered in
Germany during the period of Enlightenment in the late 18th and early 19th Centuries.
It evolved out of the work of Immanuel Kant and is closely associated with the
Romanticism movement. Often, it is known as Kantianism.
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Auguste Comte The French philosopher Auguste Comte
(1798–1857), founder of the sociology
discipline, attempted to blend
empiricism and rationalism in a new doctrine
called positivism. In the nineteenth century, he was the first
to coin the word "social science”. He suggested that
observations and theory have circular dependence on each
other. While theories are created via reasoning, they are
only authentic if they can be verified through observations.
During the French Revolution, he was also a prominent
figure who advocated for a science-based doctrine. His goal as a philosopher was to
understand human society and recommend a framework in which we could bring order
out of chaos and transform society for the better. Later on, he developed what he called
a positive philosophy system in which mathematics and logic, combined with sensory
experience, could better assist in understanding human relationships and action. In the
same way, the scientific method had allowed an understanding of the natural world.
The emphasis on verification started to distinguish modern science from philosophy
and metaphysics, and the "scientific method" was further developed as the primary
means of validating scientific claims. Emile Durkheim expanded Comte's ideas in his
development of sociological positivism (positivism as a foundation for social research)
and Ludwig Wittgenstein in logical positivism. The scientific method refers to a
systematic and standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such
as how to make valid observations, analyze the findings, and generalize the results.
19th CENTURY
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situations and rebuilding the world.
According to Marx, it was not the population's pressure that reduced wages or
income to the subsistence level, but rather the presence of a vast army of unemployed,
which he blamed on the bourgeoisie or capitalist. He maintained that labor was a mere
commodity within the capitalist system and could only gain subsistence wages.
Capitalists, however, may force workers to spend more time at work than necessary
to earn their subsistence and then appropriate the excess commodity or surplus value
produced by the workers.
In Marx's opinion, history's dialectical nature is expressed in the conflict of
classes with capitalism's growth; the class struggle is taking on an acute form. Two
basic classes, through which other less important classes are clustered, contradict
each other in the capitalist system: the ownership of the means of production, called
the bourgeoisie, and the workers, or the proletariat. "The bourgeoisie creates its own
grave-diggers, and the collapse of the bourgeoisie and the victory or triumph of the
proletariat are equally inevitable.” When people become aware of their failure, of their
isolation as a universal non-human condition, they would be able to make a radical
transformation and drastic change of their situation by revolution. This movement
would be the prelude to the creation of communism and the reign of the sovereignty
of liberty. "In the position of the old bourgeois society, with its inequalities and social
antagonisms, there would be an interaction in which the free development of one is a
condition for the free development of everyone."
Critical Theory
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Paul Felix Paul Felix Lazarsfeld is an Austrian-
Lazarsfeld American popularly known as the founder
of a modern research survey, made
considerable contributions towards
statistical survey analysis, contextual
analysis, latent structure analysis, and panel
methods.
In the early 1930s, Lazarsfeld was introduced to research through the use of surveys
by conducting a study of Marienthal, a small industrial place near Vienna, which
suffered from a high unemployment rate. He published a paper in 1933 entitled
'Marienthal: The Sociography of an Unemployed Community,' which provides insight
into Lazarsfeld's ability to qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Ideal type, a mental construct in the social sciences, is extracted from observable
reality, although not in-depth due to deliberate simplification and exaggeration. It is just
not ideal in the sense that it is outstanding or average; instead, it is a constructed ideal
used to approximate truth by choosing and accentuating certain elements. German
sociologist Max Weber developed the ideal type concept, who used it as an analytic
tool for his historical studies. As a methodological tool for comparative sociology,
Weber created the ideal type. In analyzing Western societies' history, Weber focused
on rationalism as a unique and central force shaping all Western institutions, including
family, religion, politics, music, and stratification systems. The development of
subsequent, more specialized sociological studies has had a decisive effect on these
typologies.
George Simmel
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One of the social science theories is symbolic interaction. The theory
claims that facts are based on and directed by symbols. The foundation of
this theory is meanings. Symbolic interaction tests the meanings that result
from the reciprocal communication between individuals and others in a
social environment and focuses on the question of "what symbols and
meanings originate from interaction between individuals?"
Phenomenology
A philosophical movement that originated in the
20th century. The primary objective of this theory is
to analyze, investigate and explain phenomena as
a conscious experience without causal
interpretation of unexamined preconceptions and
presupposition
28 | P a g e
According to Popper, a scientific theory should make predictions that can
be checked. He argue that theory can be discarded if the predictions
made are found not to be accurate. He proposed that science would make
the most progress using deductive reasoning, known as critical
rationalism, as its main emphasis. For example, if Europeans have been
studying millions of white swans for thousands of years, we might come
up with the idea, using inductive evidence, that all swans are white.
However, the exploration of Australasia introduced black swans to
Europeans. The point of Poppers is this: no matter how many discoveries
are made to support a theory, there is still the risk that the next discovery
may dispute it. He believe that it is possible to reject false beliefs using
positivist notion of objective truth and its emphasis on the scientific
method.
Application
Create your own thoughts about the lesson. Choose the best scholar for you and
explain why his idea/s is/are the best for you. Limit your answer in to 5 sentences.
29 | P a g e
Post Assessment!
Direction: Read the following question carefully. Write the correct answer before each
number.
A. Socratic Method
B. Deductive Method
C. Inductive Method
D. None of the above
A. Deductive
B. Inductive
C. Rationalism
D. Empiricism
30 | P a g e
7. What is a philosophical system that holds that every rationally justifiable
assertion can be scientifically verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof
and blending of rationalism and empiricism?
A. Positivism
B. Anti-positivism
C. Post-positivism
D. All of the above
8. Which of the following is a philosophical movement with a primary
objective of direct investigation and description of phenomena as consciously
experienced, without emphasizing about their causal explanation?
A. Atheism
B. Phenomenology
C. Symbolic interaction
D. All of the above
9. Which of the following is true about capitalism according to Karl Marx?
A. Marx Capitalism is the most effective system in the economy and believe
that the capitalist will provide the capital so that people can get a job.
B. Marx believed that capitalism contained the seeds of its own destruction
and described how the wealth of the bourgeoisie depended on the work
of the proletariat.
C. Marx believed that in the system of capitalism the wealth of proletariat is
depend on the production of the bourgeoisie.
D. Marx believed that the capitalism is almost the same with communism.
10. Which of the following philosopher combined the empirical and skeptical
arguments and asserted that neither inductive nor deductive evidence can establish
the truth of any matter of fact?
a. David Hume B. Rene Descartes C. Francis Bacon D. Max Weber
Glossary
Anti-positivism - is the view in sociology that social sciences need to create and use
different scientific methods than those used in the field of natural sciences.
Empiricism, in philosophy, the view that all concepts originate in experience
Rationalism - is the philosophical view that knowledge is acquired through reason,
without the aid of the senses.
Positivism, - in Western philosophy, generally, any system that confines itself to the
data of experience and excludes a priori or metaphysical speculations.
Post positivism - In philosophy and models of scientific inquiry, and also called post
empiricism is a Meta theoretical stance that critiques and amends positivism.
Suggested Readings
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Social_Work/Book%3A_Social_Science_Resear
ch_Principles_Methods_and_Practices_(Bhattacherjee)/01%3A_Science_and_Scientific_R
esearch/1.06%3A_History_of_Scientific_Thought
31 | P a g e
References
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Social_sciences
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Social_Work/Book%3A_Social_Science_Researc
h_-
_Principles_Methods_and_Practices_(Bhattacherjee)/01%3A_Science_and_Scientific_Resea
rch/1.06%3A_History_of_Scientific_Thought
https://openpress.usask.ca/soc112/http://paleeri.blogspot.com/2019/09/m
eaning-and-definition-of-
social.htmlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/social-
sciencehttps://www.philosophybasics.com/movements_rationalism.htmlhtt
ps://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers_hume.htmlhttp://psulibrary.
palawan.edu.ph/wtbooks/resources/pdf/908382.pdfhttps://gtu.ge/Agro-
Lib/RESEARCH%20METHOD%20COHEN%20ok.pdf
https://www.pearson.com/us/about/news-events/news/2014/11/pearson-unveils-new-
approach-to-social-studies-education.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/
https://www.jstor.org/stable/368079?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchT
ext=history+of+social+studies&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQ
uery%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bsocial%2Bstudies%26filter%3D&ab_segments=0%2
Fbasic_SYC-5187_SYC-5188%2F5187&refreqid=fastly-
default%3A1274aedcebbf982cd4d67cefcebd3a06&seq=1
https://www.academia.edu/9091881/SOCIAL_STUDIES_DEVELOPMENT_SIN
CE_THE_EARLY_OF_THE_20TH_CENTURY
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UNIT 3: History of Social Studies
Introduction
D
o you have any idea how Social Studies came into progress? Before you pursue
this course, have you ever wondered how history of social studies started?
Perhaps the Philippines has an educational system during the Spanish era, but
the education at that time was religion-oriented, and it was for the elite. During
American colonization, one of the most significant contributions of Americans in the
Philippines is Free Education, and the first teacher is called Thomasites. One of
Americans' goals is to educate and train Filipinos in science of self-government and
build a classroom in their assigned location. That is why this module focuses on the
development of social studies in the West, specifically in the United States of America.
The primary purpose of this lesson is for you to know the development of Social
Studies. This will guide you to become more knowledgeable about the important details
of its history, development, and familiarization with different scholars' accounts in
creating Social Studies. Understanding this lesson will allow you to have a broader
knowledge and be open-minded about the changes in the past study of Social Studies
until the changing environment happening in the 21st century.
Objectives/Competencies
33 | P a g e
Question and Answer!
a. 1783 c.1785
b. 1784 d.1786
3. When did the word Social Studies officially used to indicate the whole field of
subjects dealing with human relationships?
a..1915 c. 1917
b. 1916 d. 1918
4. He gave critical impetus to the birth of new academic disciplines such as sociology
as well as to the significant reorientation in law, economics, political science, and
religious studies.
a. Robinson c. Marshall
b. Adams d. Comte
8. These are the dominant social science courses found in the early American
elementary and secondary curricula except.
a. Geography c. Economics
b. History d. Civics
c.
9. Which of the following organizations promote Social Studies in the 21stcentury
34 | P a g e
a. National Committee on Social Studies
b. National Council for the Social Studies
c. National Counsel for Social Studies
d. None of the above
10. What is the importance of Social Studies in your students?
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Analyze the photo below. Write your insights on the blank provided.
Discussion
The year 1783 marked the end of the American Revolution and set this nation
on its path as the "United" States of America. At this time, the majority of Americans
remained uneducated. Family, jobs, and church all played a larger role in education
than the schools (Barr, Barth, and Shermis, 1977). However, the citizens of the United
States would need to be educated in the values and responsibilities necessary for
national cohesion and survival.
When the Americans began their self-government experiment, the seeds for
what we call "social studies" were planted to ensure the nation's survival. Benjamin
Franklin and other prominent citizens saw the need for an education system that would
establish a sense of patriotism and nationalist values among students. They promoted
instruction to promote "moral training, citizen readiness, judgment and imagination"
(Hooper and Smith 1993).
The concepts that would become part of "social studies" started by some of the
early nineteenth century's brilliant minds as a vital aspect of education.
35 | P a g e
The thinking of Thomas Jefferson inspired educational thought. Jefferson
announced in 1818, as Chairman of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia,
that history and geography were appropriate and essential subjects for primary. He
also believed that these subjects were necessary for achieving a higher education
goal, with political economy and nature and nations' law.
Darwin Warren Saxe believed that the "foundations" of social studies originated
in Britain in the 1820s and spread rapidly to the United States. Social studies first
developed as an attempt to use education as a tool for promoting social welfare, and
its subsequent growth has been inspired by both Americans and others. According to
Jarolimek (1981), the dominant social science courses of the early American
elementary and secondary curricula are history, geography, and civics. It seems
necessary to examine these types of texts for hints as to the content of early social
sciences, the precursor to social studies.
Lesson 2: History and the Social Sciences
36 | P a g e
problems facing the 20th century in America. The social sciences have increasingly
viewed as a tool for studying and offering solutions to the problems resulting from a
dynamic and evolving American landscape. With increasing immigration and the rise
of industrialization and urbanization, American society was viewed to be experiencing
rapid and unprecedented change (Hofstadter 1955; Ross 1991). Social studies
students would focus on first understanding and improving a rapidly changing,
contemporary American society through the social sciences. Social studies, its
advocates argued, would properly educate democratic people to live in their present
society. In the Thesis of Andrew Norman Cruikshanks, he summarized the social
studies curriculum of 1893 - 1915 as one in which the subject matter in secondary
social studies was stabilized, with the content being determined mostly by historians.
"Government" became "Civics," a more practical course. Geography has been taught
either as part of history or mostly as physical geography. Economics seemed to be
well developed in the curriculum. By 1911, sociology had been introduced but was
rarely found in schools.
Application
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Reflections & Insights
What do you think are the possible effect if Social Studies will no longer be included
in our curriculum?
Post Assessment!
Glossary
39 | P a g e
Suggested Readings
Book: Defining the social studies / Robert D. Barr, James L. Barth, S. Samuel
Shermis Social Studies: Past Present Future by: J.J Cogan
References
http://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/publications/se/5907/590702.htmlh
ttps://www.britannica.com/topic/social-
sciencehttps://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/american-
historical-reviewhttp://paleeri.blogspot.com/2019/09/meaning-and-definition-of-
social.html
https://www.academia.edu/9091881/SOCIAL_STUDIES_DEVELOPMENT_SINC
E_THE_EARLY_OF_THE_20TH_CENTURY
https://www.k12academics.com/Education%20Worldwide/Education%20in%20the%
20Philippines/history-education-philippines
https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ApIFnctnFGgC&hl=en_GB&pg=GBS.PA16
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UNIT 4: Sociology
Introduction
H
ave you ever wondered why individuals and societies are so varied? Do you
ask what social forces have shape different existence? Are you curious why
our conditions of life are so different from those our parents and grandparents?
Since ancient times, many have been fascinated by the relationship of people
and societies to which they belong. From the challenges and opportunities
brought by industrialization and to the rise of capitalism, many philosophers
and theorists had seek explanations to various changes happened in our
world.
Today, in a world that is intensely worrying, yet full of the most extraordinary promise
for the future. A world marked by deep conflicts, tensions, social divisions, destructive
onslaught of illnesses and calamities as well as challenges brought by modern
technology on the natural environment, the quest to understand society still continue
to exist. Making sense of the societies we belong still pose importance because if we
cannot understand the social world, we are more likely to become overwhelmed by it.
It is the prime concern of sociology to help us understand our world better since it
examine how social world influence the way we think, feel and act. In this unit, we will
discuss sociological concepts and perspectives in culture and society. We will
determine the concept behind society and culture and how, when they are combined,
become a complex structure that affects human lives. This lesson will help you to
effectively engage with and apply “sociological imagination” on your everyday life, to
think critically about the social world, and to have more holistic appreciation on your
active role in society.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you must be able to:
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b) Explain society and culture as a complex whole;
c) Create an essay that will discuss distinct culture in a region and its effect on the
people;
d) Analyze the concept of social mobility, stratification and social inequality;
e) Determine the effects of globalization in society and people,
PRETEST:
Direction: Select the best answer. Write your letter of your answer on the space
provided before each number.
1. In contrast to functionalism, which sociological theory from Marx believe that
competition not consensus is the essential cause of social change?
a. Conflict theory b. Symbolic Interaction c. Post modernism d. Feminism
2. Who is the father of sociology?
a. Emile Durkheim b. Auguste Comte c. Karl Marx d. Albert Bandura
3. It refers to any behavior, belief or condition that violates significant social
norms of the society or group in which it occurs.
a. Crime b. Stigma c. Violence d. Deviance
4. This perspective focuses on how individuals act with one another in daily
situations.
a. Functionalist b. Conflict theory c. Symbolic Interactionism d. Structuralism
5. Which theory states that society is a system of interconnected parts that
work together to maintain balance?
a. Structural Functionalism b. Conflict theory
c. Symbolic Interactionism d. Connectionism
6. Which theory views society as composed of different groups and interests
competing for power and resources?
a. Functionalist b. Conflict theory c. Symbolic Interactionism d. Connectionism
7. Functionalism and Conflict theory tend to focus on , or larger
scale patterns of society in conducting their analysis.
a. Macro level b. Interactionist level c. Symbolic level d. Micro level
8. It is the feeling of aimlessness and despair provoked by modern social life
where many individual feel that their daily life lack meaning.
a. Conformity b. Conflict c. Anomie d. Positivism
9. All the following are basic elements that make up culture except what?
a. literature b. animals c. religion d. art
10. Which of the following is not part of a persons’ culture?
a. Holidays b. food c. height d. beliefs
11. Which dimension of power is given by respecting a doctor?
a. prestige b. power c. wealth d. assets
12. Which of the following is the most distinguishing characteristic of caste
system?
a. People can change their social status easily.
b. People can choose their social status.
c. Social status can be change through education and hard work.
d. Social status is inherited and cannot be changed.
21. Kind of status achieve at some point of life after birth through effort.
a. Ascribed Status b. Achieved Status c. Status Symbol d. Status Set
22. It is a behavior expected of someone within a certain status.
a. Responsibility b. Duties c. Role d. Status Set
23. It is the basic unit of the society.
a. Religion b. Family c. Education d. Government
24. Which of the following best describe globalization?
a. Term use to describe the unity of different countries.
b. Term use to explain migration and urbanization.
c. Term use to describe the removal of borders for international expansion of
markets.
d. Term given to the cause of global warming and climate change.
25. Which of the following is true about race?
a. Racial categories are biologically determined.
b. Some races have natural advantage over others.
c. Racial differences play a significant role in genetics.
d. Race determine the social status of the people.
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Cite one personal problem that you or your family is experiencing today on each
sector of the society. List down its possible causes and identify its effect on you or your
family. The table below will serve as your guide in doing the activity.
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• Personal Problem: • Personal Problem: • Personal Problem:
Health/ Health
Education Work
care system
Discussion
Early theorists
1. Auguste Comte(1798-1857)
French author who coined the term Sociology. He live
during French Revolution when significant changes in the
society is introduce and growth of industrialization alter
human lives. Comte vision for sociology was that of
positive science. He believed that sociology should
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apply the same rigorous scientific method to study society. Positivism hold that
science should be concerned only with observable entities that are known directly to
experience. A positive approach to sociology believes in the production of knowledge
about society based on empirical evidence drawn from observation, comparison and
experimentation.
2. Emile Durkheim(1858-1917)
French author that proposes that the main intellectual
concern of sociology is the study of social facts.
According to him, rather than applying sociological
methods to study individual, sociologists should instead
examine social facts. Social facts are aspect of social life
that shape our actions as individuals such as the state of
the economy and influence of religion. It is the way of
acting, thinking and feeling that are external t individuals
and have their own reality outside the lives and
perceptions of individual people. Another attribute of
social facts is that they exercise a coercive power over
individuals.
The constraining nature of social facts is often not recognized by people as coercive because
people generally comply with social facts freely believing they are acting out of choice. Social
facts can constrain human actions in variety of ways such as punishment for crimes and social
rejection in case of unacceptable behavior. Another concept introduce by Durkheim is the
anomie. Because the process of change in the modern word is rapid and intense, they gave
rise to major social difficulties. Anomie is the feeling of aimlessness and despair provoked by
modern social life where many individuals in modern societies feel that their daily lives lack
meaning.
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4. Max Weber (1864-1920)
Also, unlike Durkheim and Comte, he argued that human motivation and ideas were
the forces behind change. Individuals‟ have the ability to act freely and to shape the
future. Because of these, he believed that sociology should focus on social action not
structures. Some of important sociological perspectives of Weber are the ideal type
and rationalization. Ideal type as a conceptual model did not mean perfect or desirable
goal of society. It is because in real world, ideal types can be rarely seen or if ever
exists, only some of its attributes will be present. However, this can serve as a fixed
point of reference in analyzing society specially when discussing about bureaucracy
and market. Rationalization, on the other hand, is the term use to collectively describe
the development of science, modern technology and bureaucracy. It is, according to
him, the organization of social and economic life according to the principle of efficiency
and on the basis of technological knowledge. In Weber’s viewpoint, Industrial
Revolution and the rise of capitalism were proof of larger tend towards rationalization?
Capitalism is not dominated by class conflict, as Marx believed, but by the rise of
science and large scale organizations.
The early sociologist were united in their desire to make sense of the
challenging society in which they live. They wanted to do more than simply depict and
interpret events in history. However, differences of perspectives as seen by previous
theorists give rise to the three recent theoretical approaches.
1. Functionalism/ Structural Functionalism
Society is a complex system whose various parts work together to produce stability
and solidarity. Functionalists, including Comte and Durkheim, have often use the term
organic analogy to compare the society to that of living organism. They argue that
parts of society work together just as how various parts of our body works for the
benefit of the body as a whole. Merton’s version of functionalism broaden the theory
by introducing manifest and latent function. Manifest function are those known to
and intended by the participants as the outcome. Latent functions are consequences
of that activity of which the participants are unaware. To illustrate the distinction,
Merton provide an example of rain dance performed by Hopi Tribe of Arizona and New
Mexico. The Hopi believe that the ceremony will bring rain (manifest function) but by
doing and participation on it, Hopi also promote their society and unity (latent function).
2. Social Conflict
This theory reject functionalism idea of consensus instead put emphasis on divisions
in society. By doing do, they concentrate on issues about power, inequality and class
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struggle. They tend to see society as composed of distinct groups pursuing their own
interest. The existence of separate interests means that the potential for conflict is
always present and that certain groups will benefit more than the other.
3. Symbolic Interactionism
George Mead, an American philosopher, had an important influence in sociological
thought in particular through symbolic interaction. This perspective is concern with
language and meaning. The key element here is the symbol which is something that
stand for something else. Symbolic interaction directs our attention to the detail of
interpersonal interaction and how that details used to make sense of what others say
and do. Sociologists influence by this often focus on face to face interaction in the
context of everyday life. They stress the ole of such interaction in creating society and
its institutions.
Application
Direction: Analyze the cartoon below and answer the question for each number. Limit
your answer into 5 sentences.
Retrieved from:
https://cartoonmovement.com/cartoon/economic-inequality-philippines
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Reflections and Insights
What do you think is the importance of the theories that we discussed in different
social issues that we are experiencing today? Explain your answer.
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Across the world, there are people or group of people who have not been
swayed by the technological advancement but rather maintained their traditional way
of life. The concept of beauty is one of the aspect of culture that seems to be
untouched by this advancement. In this activity, you are tasked to compare beauty
standards of some countries to the beauty standards in the Philippines. Note the
differences or similarities and answer the given questions below. Limit your answer
into five sentences.
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1. Describe how beauty standards differ from each country.
2. How can you relate these beauty standards in the Philippines?
3. What do you think is the relation of culture on these beauty standards?
Discussion
4. Learned
Behavior pattern that constitute a specific culture are not genetically and
biologically determined. Every individual has the potential to learned culture as he/she
grows and survive on the various stages of life. Through the process of socialization,
a person eventually acquire the prevailing attitude and beliefs, the form of behavior
appropriate to the social roles he/she occupies and the behavioral patterns and values
of the society into which he/she is born.
Application
Direction: Read the article of Marvin Harris about the Abominable Pig and make a 1
or 2 page/s essay using the guide questions below. Follow the format given by the
teacher.
1. Explain the reasons why pigs are forbidden and abominable.
2. How can religion and science be reconciled to explain restrictions in society?
3. What is the importance of the article in understanding culture?
Reading: Harris, M. (1987). The Abominable Pig. The Sacred Cow and the
Abominable Pig: Riddles of Food and Culture. Touchstone Book, Pp 67-
79.
Article Link:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://etnologija.etnoinfolab.org/d
okumenti/82/2/2009/harris_1521.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjL2PnCv6_rAhVyFqYKHdoMB2IQFjAH
egQIBRAB&usg=AOvVaw1vZzUv-V-vjZNU8kzUNhM8
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Reflections and Insights
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Find and encircle the terms hidden on the grid which are related on the
discussion of social structures.
M R S B Y L I M A F
C C T D E F B G H S
S T A T U S S E T E
I J T M E D I A K L
L M U N B C O P Q O
R A S C R I B E D R
Discussion
Social life is composed of many levels of building blocks, from the very micro to macro
components. These building blocks combine to form the social structure. Social
structure refers to the social patterns through which a society is organized. It is a
distinctive arrangement of institutions where human beings in a society interact and
live together. Social institutions, status and roles, and social groups form an
interrelated whole of what social structure are.
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Society
Traditional Emergent
Primary Secondary
Family Sports Groups Groups
Ascribed
Religion Media Achieved Schools
Status
Education Science/ Status Churches
Medicine Family
Government Corporations
Military Friends/ Peers
Economy
Status- Status has many meaning in sociology, but for now, we will define it as the position
that someone occupies in the society. Every individual occupies several status at the same
time. For example, you can be a student inside your class, a part- time worker in your
workplace, a son or daughter in your family or even mother or father on your child. We call all
the position an individual occupies as the status set. There are two types of status. Ascribed
status are the status that someone is born with and has no control over with. Example of this
is the race, ethnicity, gender, and religion where you belong. Achieved status, on the other
hand, are status achieved at some point after birth through direct efforts. This can be your
position, job or a marital status. Whatever status we occupy, certain objects can signify your
particular status. These objects are called status symbol. Example: Wearing a wedding ring
proclaims that a person is married or owning a luxury car can mean that a person is wealthy.
Roles- Whatever its type, every status is accompanied by a certain role. Role are the behavior
expected of someone with a certain status. Example, your role as a student includes going to
class regularly, studying your best for the exam and finishing or submitting school projects.
However, sometimes having too much role can cause conflict. Role conflict occurs when
fulfilling the role expectations of one status makes it difficult to fulfill the role expectations of
another status. Example: To be a student, you need to study hard to get high grades but as
a part time worker you need to allot time to accomplish your work tasks. On the other hand,
Role Strain can happened when a person has a difficulty meeting the role expectations of a
single status due to the difficulty of balancing self-interest and others interest. Example: As a
student, you need to do well on your classes without making other students feel bad about
their selves or as a boss, you need to maintain workers morale while getting your workers
work long hours of overtime.
Social groups
A social group consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share
common identity and feeling of interdependence. Primary group are generally small
in size. Interaction between its members are relatively longer and intimate. Example
of this is or family members or friends. Secondary group pertains to a larger group.
Interaction are relatively short and often temporary. There are little intimacy or mutual
understanding and the relationship is more formal and impersonal. Example of such
group are schools, churches and corporations.
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Social institutions
Another component of social structure is the social institutions or patterns of beliefs
and behavior at help society meet its basic needs. Modern society is filled with many
social institutions that all help society to achieve its goals. Example of social institutions
are the following.
Family
Economy
Media
Government
Education
Religion
Healthcare institution
Sports
Military
Application
Direction: Make a table about your own status and roles in a short bond paper.
Example is given below to serve as your guide.
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Reflections and Insights
Preliminary Task!
Direction: There are huge differences in opportunities, lifestyle and privileges between rich and
poor. Now, cite at least 3 differences on each one of them on the column below.
In studying stratification, we also need to consider not only the differences between
economic position and occupation but also on what happens to individuals who occupy
them. The term social mobility refers to the movement of individuals and groups
between socio economic positions. The ease or difficulty an individual experience in
moving from one social position to another is highly dependent on the type of society
he/she lives in the two kinds of society are Open Society and Closed Society.
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A. Open Society is a type of society when stratification is based on social classes
where people’s social position or status are determined by economic wealth and
income. Example: A poor family can improve their social and economic status
through hard work and perseverance. Education play a vital role because it allows
people to move upwards the social order.
B. Closed Society is a society that limit or prohibit social changes. This can
happened due to the prevailing cultural norms laid down by the society. Example:
India has a caste system where people in their social class inherit their status
from their parents and remain like this for the rest of their lives.
Social inequality
Social stratification gave rise to social inequality. Social inequality refers to the
unequal access to social, political and symbolic capital in society. This phenomena
exists every time individuals are categorized and differentiated.
People with disabilities do not just suffer inequality because they are handicapped.
They further experience inequality because some societies do not cater on their
needs. Stereotyping of people with disabilities as useless also limits their opportunities
in society.
Global Inequality
Global inequality includes the concentration of resources in certain powerful countries
while other countries are left behind; thus affecting the opportunities and lives of
people in a less powerful countries. Globalization may create unbalanced outcomes
because while wealth is created in powerful economies, some countries and people
are unable to enjoy the benefits of globalization.
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Application
Direction: Read and watch the history about Apartheid system in South Africa. You
can use the link for your reference to answer the questions below. Limit your answer
in 5 sentences.
Article link:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apartheidhttp
s://www.history.com/topics/africa/aparthed
Video link: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=2f2k6iDFCL4
Questions:
1. How does South Africa categorize their citizens? What are the differences in rights
between the categories?
2. What do you think are the dangers of categorizing citizens?
3. What ways can we do to avoid this scenario to happen again?
Lesson 5: Globalization
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Identify words or phrases you can relate with the term globalization.
2.
1. 3.
Globalization
5. 4.
Discussion
The concept of globalization has become widely used in debates in politics, business and
media over the past few years. A decade ago, the term globalization was relatively unknown.
Today, it seems to be the tip of everyone’s tongue.
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Globalization is a word used to describe the growing interdependence of the
world’s economies, culture and population brought about by cross border trade in
goods and services, technology, flow of
investment, people and information. There are
three major factors contributing on the rise of
globalization.
Second is the economic factor. Globalization is also being driven forward by the
integration of the world economy. In contrast to previous eras, the global economy is
no longer primarily agricultural or industrial in its basis. Rather, it is increasingly
dominated by activity that is weightless. The weightless economy is one that is
characterized by intangible products and services. Similar terms include „post-
industrial economy‟ and “new economy‟. The weightless economy is made possible
by information technology and intellectual property. Computer software, media,
entertainment products and internet based services are some of the products under
the weightless economy. Also, the rise of transnational companies (TNCs) that
produce goods or market services I more than one country is particularly important. A
transnational corporation is any enterprise that undertake foreign direct investment,
owns or controls income- gathering assets in more than one country which produces
goods and services outside its country of origin or engages in international production.
Third factor in the rise of globalization is the political changes. The growth of
international and regional mechanism of government such as United Nations (UN) and
European Union (EU) bring together nation states into a common political forum.
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Effects of Globalization
Application
Direction: This activity aim to know how connected you are to other countries in terms
on the products you use. What you need to do is list down 3 things (any products will
do) that you have and identify its manufacturer and the country where it was
manufactured. Then, you will need to provide short reflection about the outcome of the
activity. You can use the table below as your guide.
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Name: Section:
What do you think is the importance of globalization in our society? Explain your
answer.
hing to B
a. Sociological imagination of C. Wright Mills allow us to see that many
events that seem to concern only the individual actually reflect
larger issues.
b. Early theorists of Sociology examine changes using different
lenses. Comte uses Positivism, Durkheim concerns himself with the
study of social facts, Marx with class struggle and Weber with the
connection of values and ideas in social change.
c. Society and culture are closely connected to each other. It is culture
that give meaning to society. There are various aspects of culture
which includes being dynamic, shared, learned and transmitted.
d. Society is organized using social structures. Social structures can
be describe by social institutions, individual status and roles as well
as social groups.
e. Social stratification refers to the division of individual or group within
the society. Some countries are open for social mobility
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Test I. Read the sentences below. Write T if it is true and F if false.
1. Symbolic Interaction focus on microsociology.
2. Conflict theory is often criticized for over emphasizing the harmony and
stability that exist in the society.
3. Marx introduced into sociology the idea of class and explanation of social
inequality.
4. Social stratification is the study of social mobility in society.
5. Max Weber states that the culture of the society is the culture of the ruling
class.
6. People are born with culture.
7. Typically, an individual occupies many statuses simultaneously.
8. Culture refers to visible or tangible objects and artifacts.
9. All countries permits easy social mobility.
______10. Class conflict is Durkheim’s term for struggle between the capitalists who own the
means of production and the proletariat who does not.
11. UNESCO tagged tangible form of culture as the only cultural heritage
present.
12. Every status is occupied by a role.
13. Culture is dynamic and flexible.
14. Language is an important part of culture.
15. Tagging women as weak and men as strong is an example of racism.
Test II. Direction: Select the best answer. Write your letter of your
answer on the space provided before each number.
16. Which of the following is the most distinguishing characteristic of caste
system?
a. People can change their social status easily.
b. People can choose their social status.
c. Social status can be change through education and hard work.
d. Social status is inherited and cannot be changed.
17. Which of the following describe a transnational company?
a. Exporting and importing products.
b. Large global firms that operate in a number of different countries.
c. Getting a job from the company outside your country.
d. Selling goods to countries.
18. A society in which a people frequently can, by acquiring skills and working hard,
move from one level of social stratification to a higher level of social stratification.
a. Social mobility b. Close Society c. Open Society d. Vertical Mobility
19. How globalization affects politics and government?
a. Rise in popularity of K-Pop.
b. Technological innovation
c. Increase supply of Japan surplus in the Philippines.
d. Growth of international organization.
20. Which of the following activities pertain to the time-space compression due
to globalization?
a. Using computer to type important document.
b. Using video call to contact relatives abroad.
c. Using bus to go to province.
d. Using google in researching.
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FINAL REQUIREMENT: (ARTICLE REVIEW)
Direction: Read the article below. Analyze its major points and write a 1-2 page/s
essay using the guide questions.
1. What is a damaged culture?
2. How does Fallows describe the culture in the Philippines?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Fallows argument? Cite example.
4. What is the relevance of the article in understanding our society today?
SUGGESTED READINGS:
Article
Fallows, J. (1987). A Damaged Culture. The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved from:
https://www.scribd.com/doc/7254660/A-Damaged-Culture-by-James-Fallows-
the-Atlantic-Monthly-November-1987
Harris, M. (1987). The Abominable Pig. The Sacred Cow and the Abominable Pig:
Riddles of Food and Culture. Touchstone Book, Pp 67-79.
References
Books
Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology. USA: Polity Press
Santarita, J. & Madrid, R. (2016). Understanding Culture, Society and Politics.
Araneta Avenue, QC: Vibal Group Inc.
Steger, M. (2003). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. New York, NY: Oxford
University Inc.
Tonnies, F. (1963). Community and Society. New York, NY: Harper and Row
Website
https://www.google.com/amp/s/marketbusinessnews.com/financial-
glossary/weightless-economy-definition-meaning/
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/transnational-
corporationshttps://www.piie.com/microsites/globalization/what-is-
globalizationhttps://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/effects-economic-
globalization/9th-grade/https://www.globalpolicy.org/globalization/globalization-o-
politics.htmlhttp://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Globalization_and_its_Effect_on_Cultural
_Diversityhttps://www.google.com/amp/s/topyaps.com/weird-beauty-
standards/amp/https://hadithi.africa/2019/01/25/the-beauty-in-what-looks-like-
torture-that-comes-with-lip-plates/
Pictures Sources
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/567383253028533312/https://sayaglo
bal.weebly.com/transnational-
corporations.htmlhttps://www.economicshelp.org/trade2/globalisati
on_uk_economy/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Emile-
Durkheimhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Auguste-
Comtehttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Marx
https://cartoonmovement.com/cartoon/economic-inequality-philippines
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UNIT 5: POLITICS
Introduction
ll of us live in a social world dramatically altered and recreated in recent
A
decades. It is a world still undergoing rapid economic, social, and political
change in lifestyle, in gender roles, in the running of the state, and in the very
definition of society in a globalized world.
For many, the question “what is politics? ‟ merits a straightforward and
probably brief answer. For some, it can be a complex scheme of legalities and policies.
Recent news about politics can also make us doubtful, enraged, or confused. However,
whatever meaning we attached to politics, it is true that many aspects of our lives
remain very “political‟. This module aims to introduce the basic concept in Politics and
Government. The goal is to help you understand its role, importance, structure and
how can it affect our everyday life.
Objectives/
Competencies
At the end of the lesson you will be able to:
a) Explain basic concepts in politics and government.
b) Describe how politics affect us in our everyday life.
c) Differentiate different government systems in the world.
d) Discuss the concept of power and authority in the government.
e) Determine the importance of the rule of law and its connection in the
Constitution.
Test I. Direction: Select the best answer. Write the letter of your answer on the space
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c. Branch of government that enforces the law
d. Government ability to exercise power without resorting to force
12. Constitution used after the People Power Revolution that toppled the
Marcos government?
a. 1899 Constitution b. 1972 Constitution
c. 1935 Constitution d. 1987 Constitution
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13. Which of the following is not a basic element of state?
A. People b. territory
c. Culture d. government
14. Refers to the power of the state to rule over its citizen free from the control
of the foreign state.
a. Supremacy b. Identity
c. Integrity d. Sovereignty
15. Refers to the definite geographical area occupied by the citizens of the
state.
a. Terrestrial b. Identity
c. Territory d. Sovereignty
Test II. Direction: Read the sentences below. Write T if it is true and F if false.
16. Legislative, judiciary and executive branches are independent and co-
equal in a democratic country.
17. The Philippines as a Catholic nation does not reinforce the separation
between church and state.
18. Politics can only be found in the government.
19. Political ideology is the people’s own set of values, of understandings and
beliefs.
20. The government refers to the body of people and different agencies that
make and enforce laws.
Preliminary Task!
Take a closer look at the caricature below and enumerate at least five duties of the
government to address the issue.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Discussion
In every society, individuals become acquainted with a political system in ways that
often structure their reaction to political events and their perception of what politics is
about. People, in this sense, have, at some level, to „learn‟ what political issues and
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politics are. Most people live their lives sticking to their own political ideology. Political
ideology is the people’s own set of values, of understandings and beliefs. This is, of
course, usually inconsistent over time. This can change depending on self- interest,
and self-evident truths, inconsistent or partially understood ideology, personalized
reference points, life history experiences and interactions with other politically-
motivated individuals, organizations, and groups.
In the broadest meaning, Politics is the process of decision making and
decision enforcing in any group that makes and enforces rules for its members. In that
sense, there is politics even at home because decision making and decision enforcing
take place there. There are also politics in the classroom when we organize ourselves
in class and there is politics in non-government organizations because organizations
are involved in decision asking and decision enforcing processes.
However, decision making and decision enforcing also conflict. This is
between and among those who decide and enforce it and those who are supposed to
abide by the decision. In that respect, politics can initiate conflict and it is through
politics that conflict can also be resolved and settled. Conflict is the natural outcome
of people relating to one another in social environments.
The question on who controls and who will be controlled, what and who
dispenses rules, and for whom and how these rules can be used is also a vital
question. This gives rise to the importance of power. Power is an element of politics
which does not mean force but rather the ability of one person or group of person to
influence the thoughts or behavior of others. Hence, Giddens (1985) argues that power
can be seen as a transforming capacity in all humans. It allows people to intervene
in a variety of events throughout the world in order to alter them. By
„power‟, an individual or a social group can have the ability to pursue a course of
action (to make and implement decisions, and more broadly to determine the agenda
for decision making) if necessary against the interests, and even against the
opposition, of other individuals or groups (Bottomore, 1979).
There are also different sources of Power. Mann (1986) suggests that power
emerges constantly in human societies and further identifies four organizational
sources of power as follows:
Ideological Power, which emerges from the fact that humans seek to operate
in terms of meanings, norms, and rituals. It is ideologies that meet these needs.
As such, ideological power can be “transcendent‟, standing apart from society
in a sacred way, such as religion, or “immanent‟, dispersed through society by
group cohesion and a sense of shared membership.
Economic Power, which derives from production, distribution, exchange, and
consumption. It is best expressed through a class structure.
Military Power from competition for physical survival. It produces direct control
within a concentrated center and the effect of indirect coercion on surrounding
areas.
Political Power, which comes from the control of physical territory and its
population by a centrally administered regulation, concentrated in the state.
In addition, Power can also be derived from social class (material wealth can equal
power), resource currency (material items such as money, property, food),
personal or group charisma, ascribed power, or social influences like religion. In
discussing government, political power is a vital subject. Without it, a political
system would not be I order and is useless. However, if power was used not to
serve the citizens, it could also be destructive.
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Power and Authority
Weber perceives power into two types. Legitimate power and illegitimate power.
Legitimate power is known as an authority. It is the power a people accept as right.
Illegitimate power is known as coercion. It is the type of power that people do not
accept.
The use of either power is a business of the government (the formal organization that
directs the political life of society). However, it is through the authority that the
government can make itself seem to legitimize in the eyes of the citizens.
The table below shows the different types of authority.
Traditional Authority
Charismatic Authority
Application
Direction: Cite 1 existing law in the Philippines that is related on each criteria below.
Discuss what is it about and explain its relevance on you or on other people. The table
below will serve as your guide in doing the activity.
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• Title of the law: • Title of the law: • Title of the law:
What do you think is the relevance of understanding politics in our society today?
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Find and encircle six terms hidden on the grid which are related to the
discussion of social structures.
P L U R A L I S T A
B E F H G J L M K E
C Y R O T I R R E T
M A R X I S T Q R A
D T S I N I M E F T
P E O P L E N O P S
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Discussion
What is a State?
When we are born, we automatically become a member of a family. It is an involuntary
membership to a basic unit of a human group. However, as our horizon broaden, we
also become a member of various institutions, organizations, or religious group.
Greater than these, we also become a member of a very large and complex
organization called state. The state can be defined in many ways. However, for the
discussion, we will refer state as the political organization of society where a
community of persons is permanently occupying a definite territory under an organized
government to which they render habitual obedience and enjoying freedom from
foreign control. From this definition, we can identify the major elements of the state
such as people (inhabitants of the population of the state which is called the citizen),
territory (definite geographical area occupied by people), government (body of
people and different agencies that make and enforce the law) and sovereignty
(supreme power of the state to rule over the citizen free from the foreign control).
However, not all societies possess the four elements stated above. These kinds
of societies can be referred to as „stateless’. The Nuer of southern Sudan and the
Jale of the highlands of New Guinea are two examples of such societies. These are
often based on hunter-gatherer economies and do not have the need to coordinate
large numbers of people or control the use of stored resources, within a fixed territory.
They, therefore, tend not to depend on central organizations or have a recognizable
state organization. Likewise, small-scale agrarian societies, while often operating
within a fixed geographical location, rarely have clearly demarcated boundaries or a
clear political organization. Also, some countries can also be stateless when the
people who have a government have no territory of their own. An example of this is
the Palestinian Arabs who are at bitter territorial war with the Jews of the state of Israel
over Palestine. The Kurds of Iraq are also stateless. Living in the mountainous border
of Iraq and Turkey, they too are striving to form their own state.
Political Theory
After identifying what is State, the next question that we can ask is how should
a state be governed? Political theory helps us better understand the concepts that
have shaped our politics, including freedom, equality, individuality, democracy, and
justice. Importantly, it is a part of Political Science that explores what a better political
world would look like and how we can create it.
McAuley (2003) presented six fundamental sociological approaches, which can
provide the tools to understand central notions of power, politics, and the state in
democratic capitalist societies. These approaches are elitism; pluralism; Marxism;
corporatism; feminism and Foucault's perspectives.
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education, and life experiences all supported this. For Pareto, elites were not
necessarily based on the qualities of the individuals involved. Rather, they were an
inherent characteristic of organizations once they grew beyond a certain size.
Important decision-making in large-scale organizations or complex societies simply
cannot concern all of those involved. Rather, what inevitably happens is that decision-
making is condensed in the hands of a small number. A further consequence of this is
that the elite becomes self-perpetuating, with its own interests, not necessarily in
harmony with those of the larger organization. Such an elite becomes entrenched and
extremely difficult tore place.
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5. Feminist theory, politics and the state
Bryson (1992) clearly identifies the most commonly held feminist views on
power, politics, and the state. They include the following perspectives:
Liberal feminists: who believe essentially women are rational beings just like
men. Hence, they are entitled to the same legal, social, and political rights.
Marxist feminists: believe that those rights outlined above can only benefit a
few middle-class women. Most women and men remain oppressed by
capitalism. The key to women’s liberation is therefore the class struggle.
Socialist feminists: who seek to take the „best‟ of Marxist Feminism and
Radical Feminism to explain how class and sex oppression act together within
capitalism.
Radical feminists: who claim that the above ideas ignore the central feature
of male power and that because the „personal is political‟ power and politics
have to be redefined in our society.
All the above feminist theories are, to a greater or lesser extent, tied up with the
broader notion of social change.
Application
Direction: Traditionally, there are many men that become a leader and ruler of the
state. However, this does not mean that women have no contribution in the political
arena. In this activity, you need to research some influential women in the world of
politics and identify the things that they have done for their country. The diagram below
will serve as your guide in answering.
WOMEN LEADER COUNTRY POSITION IN ACCOMPLISHMENTS
THE
GOVERNMENT
1. Angela Merkel
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2. Aung San Su Kyi
3. Tsai Ing-Wen
4. Ellen Johnson
Sirleaf
5. Corazon Aquino
How can political theories related on the concept of state and politics?
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Identify types of government that you can think of to fill out the diagram below
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Types of Government
1. 2. 3.
Discussion
As discussed, politics is the process by which people decide how to live together-
whether it is a family, school, or nation. On the other hand, the government refers to
the body of people and different agencies that make and enforce laws. In this lesson,
we will discuss and identify the different systems of government. One of the earliest
and well-known systems of classification of government was developed by Aristotle.
He classified the different city-states during his time based on two criteria. The one
who rules and I whose interest they rule. Aristotle was of the view that when the rulers
aimed at the good of the community, the states would be a pure form of state. When
the rulers in such a state become selfish, the state would be called a corrupt state.
Aristotle’s Classification of Government
Legitimate Forms Corrupt Forms
Number of Persons who
Rule Rule in the interest of Rule in the interst of
All selves
• ONE • MONARCHY • TYRANNY
• FEW • ARISTOCRACY • OLIGARCHY
• MANY • POLITY • DEMOCRACY
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it mobocracy or the rule of the poor. For Aristotle, the worst form of government is
democracy. However, he has a different meaning of democracy as we understand it
today. though he describes democracy as the government in which the desire of the
majority of the people prevail, democracy as the rule is also synonymous with the rule
of the poor who lack education, tend to elect popular but lacking people in the office
and blindly follow self-serving politicians.
Aristotle’s classical classification of the government was simple and used fora
long time. But today, owning to the development of complex societies, the creation of
the modern classification of the government becomes necessary. The following is the
modern classification of the government based on a specified criterion.
• Monarchy- Monarchy can be absolute (monarch hold all the power of the
state) or Constitutional (the power of the monarch is limited by the
constitution).
Application
Philippines is a democratic country. We choose and elect leaders who will hold
government office. The pictures below are some of the elected officials of the country.
Cite the name, position, and role of each person listed below.
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1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
Position:
Duties:
How can you describe the political structure here in the Philippines?
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Fill out the diagram by asking 3 persons about their own understanding
about the rule of law. Then, define the rule of law base on the answers that you
gathered.
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Person 1
Person 2
Person 3
DEFINITION
Discussion
Rule of law refers to the mechanism, institution, and practice or norm that supports
the equality of all citizens under the law, secure a non-arbitrary form of government,
and more generally prevents supremacy of one group. Ideas about the rule of law have
been central to political and legal thought since at least the 4thcentury where Aristotle
distinguished the rule of law from that of any individual. In the 18 thcentury, the French
political philosopher Montesquieu elaborated on the doctrine of the rule of law that
contested the legitimate authority of monarchs who become despots. Since then, the
concept of the rule of law profoundly influenced Western liberal law.
There are four universal principles that governed the rule of law. First is the
accountability that declares that the government, as well as private actors, are
accountable under the law. Second, just laws. The laws should be clear and stable,
are applied evenly, and can protect fundamental rights including the security of the
persons and contact, property, and human rights. The third principle focuses on having
an open government. This pertains to how processes by which the laws are enacted,
administered, and enforced should be accessible, fair, and efficient. Fourth,
accessible justice. Justice must be delivered timely by competent, ethical, and
independent representatives who are accessible, have adequate resources, and
embody respect in the laws of the communities they serve. These four universal
principles constitute a working definition of the rule of law and developed in
accordance with internationally accepted standards and norms.
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1. Plato
The role that law plays in society was the subject of philosophical discussions in Greek
and Roman antiquity. In one of his last dialogues, The Laws (circa 360 B.C.), Plato is
credited with positing the idea that the government should be subservient to the
law.
2. Aristotle
The idea of Plato was further refined by his student Aristotle in his work The Politics
(circa 350 B.C.) in which he contrasted the rule of law and reason with the rule of man
and passion to explain why the government should be bound by the law as means to
prevent arbitrary rule and the abuse of power. Both philosophers agreed, then, that
laws must be promulgated for the common good.
3. Thomas Aquinas
Later on, in the medieval period, the rediscovery of classical texts including those of
Aristotle meant they became available again to European scholars. The Catholic priest
Thomas Aquinas developed a theory of natural law in Summa Theology (1265 to
1274) in which he affirmed Aristotle’s views that law is based on human reason and
must be promulgated for the common good. Although Aquinas acknowledged that the
sovereign was exempt from the law because no other person was competent to pass
a sentence on him, he reasoned that it was proper for kings to submit to the law
because whatever law a sovereign makes he should also respect it himself.
4. John Locke
For the English philosopher John Locke, which is considered by many as the “father”
of liberalism, liberty means to be free from restraint and violence with law playing a
role in preserving and enlarging freedom. In Two Treatises of Government (1690),
Locke formulated his idea of the “social contract” under which individuals voluntarily
agree to be governed in exchange for the government agreeing to protect their
personal freedoms and property. From Locke’s perspective, the government’s primary
purpose was the defense of individual rights and particularly the “preservation of the
property of all the members of that society, as far as is possible”.
5. Baron de Montesquieu
Montesquieu formulated a theory for the separation of powers as a means to prevent
governmental abuse and preserve liberty, which he defined as “the right of doing
whatever the laws permit”. In his view, “power should be a check to power” and so that
the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government should all be held in
separate hands.
6. Albert V. Dicey
The phrase “rule of law” only entered the discussion in the nineteenth century thanks
to the writings of British constitutionalist Albert V. Dicey. His Introduction to Study of
the Laws of the Constitution (1885) provides the first major explanation of what the
rule of law entails in a liberal democracy. According to Dicey, the rule of law
consisted of three inter-connected elements. Firstly, the rule of law demands that
no person should be subject to punishment except for a breach of a pre-established
law. Second, under the rule of law, everyone is equal in the eyes of the law. This
implies that government officials should not enjoy special immunities and should be
held accountable for their actions before the courts. Third, at least in the United
Kingdom where there is no comprehensive written constitution, the rule of law flows
from the judicial recognition of individuals‟ rights.
7. Friedrich Hayek
Sixty years after Dicey first gave us an explanation of what the rule of law should entail,
economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek echoed many of Dicey’s prescriptions in
The Road to Serfdom (1944). For Hayek, the rule of law requires that laws should be
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general, equal, and certain and lastly, the law must provide for recourse to judicial
review.
The Constitution
A constitution is a set of rules, principles, and customs that establish the limit
and distribute the fundamental powers of the government and define its relations
with the citizen. From this definition, we can infer that the constitution has three basic
functions. First, it is the collection of fundamental laws of the state. It contains the
legal rules and principles that the people in a political community are governed.
Second, it sets and limits the power of the government and its agencies. The
constitution specifies the structure of government and the powers each component
agencies may exercise. Third, it defines the relationship between the government
and its citizens. The constitution states the power of government and the rights of the
citizens to prevent the government from intruding upon these rights.
Theoretically, there are four roles of the constitution. First, the constitution is
an expression of national ideals and unity. This is the reason why a preamble
preceded a constitution. The preamble enumerates people's ideals, values, and
aspirations. The preamble of the Philippine constitution states people’s aim of the
just and humane society and a government have the duty to embody these ideals.
Second, it is a symbol of government legitimacy. A constitution is written to
establish the right of a government. People’s acceptance of a government is
formalized under the constitution. Hence, the constitution legitimizes the power of the
government to enforce obedience to its citizens. Third, it serves as an outline of the
government structure. The constitution outlines and enumerates, in general, the
details of government organizations, its functions, and limitation to its power. It also
outlines the division of powers between and among its branches and between the
national and local governments. Fourth, it is an instrument of political stability.
The constitution states clearly the manner by which an elected official can assume
the powers of the government. I also provide for a smooth transfer of the power and
continuity of government functions in case of death or vacancy by those in the office
Application
Direction: Artwork depicting the Lady of Justice Statue,
whether in the form of painting or sculpture, throughout the
world has a very iconic characteristics. It is in the form of
women standing or in some cases sitting, holds a balance
and a sword and wears blindfold over her eyes. Now in this
activity, you need to research why does the Lady of Justice
look like this and make a 1-2 page/s essay by answering
the guide questions below. Follow the format given by your
teacher.
Questions:
What are the symbolism on the image of Lady Justice?
(Explain its meaning)
How does the image embody the basic principle of the
rule of law?
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FINAL REQUIREMENT: (ARTICLE REVIEW)
Direction: Read the article below. Analyze its major points and write a 1-2 page/s
essay using the guide questions.
1. How does Ileto describe the democracy in the Philippines?
2. What is the relationship between America and Philippines according to Ileto?
3. What is the relevance of the article in understanding our society today?
Article: Ileto, R. (2001) Orientalism and the Study of Philippine Politics, Philippine
Political Science Journal, 22:45, 1-32, DOI: 10.1080/01154451.2001.9754223
Articlelink:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237295068_Orientalism_and_the_Study_of
_Philippine_Politics
T hings to REMEMBER:
g. Politics are present not just in the government. There is politics
in our home, school and any organizations that involves decision
making and decision enforcing.
h. Power does not mean forces. Power is an element of politics that
pertains to the ability of a person or group to influence thoughts
and behaviors of other.
i. State has four major elements which include government,
territory, people and sovereignty. Societies that do not possess
these four elements can be identify as “stateless”.
j. Aristotle provides the classical classification of governments
which are divided into legitimate form that focus on the interest
of all and corrupt form that focus on the interest of the few.
k. Modern classification of government can be categorized on three
criteria. First, number of people who hold power. Second,
division of power between national and local government. Third,
relationship of executive to legislative department.
l. The rule of law is essential to ensure the equality of all citizens
and prevent supremacy of one group.
m. The constitution as the highest law of the land symbolizes the
expression of national ideals, unity and government legitimacy.
It also serve as an outline of government and an instrument of
political stability.
Post Assessment!
Direction: Match the Column A to Colum B. Write the letter of your answer
on the space provided before each number.
I. Classification of the government
Column A Column B
1. Power is centralized on national government. A. Constitutional Monarchy
2. Real executive is immediately and legally B. Mobocracy
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part of legislative department.
SUGGESTED READING:
Ileto, R. (2001) Orientalism and the Study of Philippine Politics, Philippine Political
Science Journal, 22:45, 1-32, DOI: 10.1080/01154451.2001.9754223
REFERENCES:
Books
Godin, R. & Klingemann, H. (1996). A New Handbook of Political Science. New
York: Oxford University PressInc.
McAuley, J. (2003). An Introduction to Politics, State, and Society. London: SAGE
Publications Ltd.
Naguit, R. (2002). Discourses on the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Bulacan, Bulacan:
Gintong Sinag Publishing
Valcke, A. (2012). The Rule of Law: Its Origins and Meanings: A Short Guide for
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Practitioners. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255726723_The_Rule_of_Law
_Its_Origins_and_Meanings_A_Short_Guide_for_Practitioners
Website
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/politics-power-and-
authority/
https://politicalscience.gsu.edu/research-2/political-
theory/https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/articles/classification-government-
sccording-aristotle/308
https://worldjusticeproject.org/about-us/overview/what-rule-
lawhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rule-of-
law/https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.constitution
net.org/sites/default/files/what_is_a_constitution_0.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjkzOe9ibHrAh
WOGqYKHXlWCGcQFjATegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw2KmJEwr2Kf-
RKofTucqBrQ&cshid=1598176984824https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/featur
es/g6961/female-leaders-you-should-know/
Pictures
https://gallery.sunstar.com.ph/Editorial-Cartoons/i-
4z3FVJq/Ahttps://www.britannica.com/topic/rule-of-
lawhttps://www.biography.com/political-figure/corazon-
aquino
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/378654281140092352/?amp_client_id=nFGUQs_MvNi2j
933iMCIEDK8zhy_LqWqmCvPvMlj-
ZRwP3YoAdmuFn4JQf1L_7qq&mweb_unauth_id=85bdb5404fea41a3812cc9eb016
bb064&_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.com%2Famp%2Fpin%2F378654
281140092352%2F&_expand=true&_analytics=1*1jetwzd*cid*bkZHVVFzX0
12TmkyajkzM2lNQ0lFREs4emh5X0xxV3FtQ3ZQdk1sai1aUndQM1lvQWRtdUZuNEp
RZjFMXzdxcQ..
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UNIT 6: Geography
Introduction
G
eography is everywhere. It encompasses mountains, forests, plains or even
the most modernized cities in the world. Every region, states, boundaries, and
territories are included in this field of study. Geography is a fundamental
fascination that everything that we can think of has a certain location on the
surface of the Earth which can be expressed in terms of its latitude and longitude, or
merely a distance from one point to another. In this module, we will broaden our
knowledge in geography by discussing not just geography as the study of places and
locations but also an interaction of people and nature. At the end of the lessons, this
module aim for you to realize that geography is not just a unit of study but an essential
tool in knowing and making sense of our environment.
Objectives/
Competencies
At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
a. Explain basic concepts of geography and its relation in different branches of
sciences.
b. Determine the connection of people and geography and how each one of
them affects one another
c. Discuss how geography can be used to further understand history.
Direction: Select the best answer. Write the letter of your answer on the space
provided before each number.
1. Which of the following best describe movement?
a. Tell us how people, goods, resources and ideas move from one place to another.
b. Tell us how many people migrate on other countries.
c. Tell us what makes an area special.
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d. Tell us ways in which places are alike or different.
Preliminary Task!
Choose one picture below that you think will best describe geography and explain
why you chose it. Limit your answer into 5 sentences.
Explanation:
Discussion
The term geography comes to us from the ancient Greeks, who needed a word to
describe the writings and maps that were helping them make sense of the world in
which they lived. In Greek, geo means earth, and –graphein means to write. Using
geography, Greeks developed an understanding of where their homeland was located
in relation to other places, what their own and other places were like, and how people
and the environment were distributed. These concerns have been central to
geography ever since. However, the Greeks were not the only people interested in
geography. Throughout human history, most societies have sought to understand
something about their place in the world, and the people and environments around
them. Geography becomes especially important during the age of discovery and
colonization because geographic understanding allows European powers to extend
their global influences on their colonized countries.
Geography is divided into two main branches: human geography and physical
geography. The illustration below describes the basic characteristics of each branch.
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Branch of geography and
Physical Geography
mainly covers the study Branch of the geography
Human Geography
of the human race. It and mainly deals with the
examines people and their study of natural
activities from place to place. characteristics of Earth. It
This normally involves their covers both the ones that
backgrounds, how they are on the Earth's surface as
interact and the perceptions well as those near it.
that they have for various Physical geography allows
ideologies affecting them. In us to chart landmasses as
addition, the discipline also well as see what lies
studies the way in which group beneath Earth's ice caps
of the people that inhabit the and oceans. It study the
Earth organize themselves in Earth's natural features and
the particular regions that they how they vary from one
live. Modern application of place to another.
human geography can include
mapping human migration,
showing the movement of the
food resources and how they
impact communities as well as
the impacts climate change
can have on humans living in
vulnerable areas.
The first concept is Space. Space pertains to the location (where we are on the
Earth’s surface in relation to geographical coordinates), distance (amount of space
between two points/countries), and directions (movement; cardinal and secondary
direction). The key focus on understanding geographical space is on how Earth’s
surface has been depicted. Because of this, maps, cartography, and satellite images
are essential tools for geographical analysis to produce qualified scale and forms of
spaces. The place is another core concept in geography. The place is not independent
of space because it involves an area or territory which is a term used to determine a
bounded space. When describing the differences between places, the focus may be
on natural features such as rivers or mountain ranges, but boundaries may also be
included especially when arbitrating disputed territories. Thus, a place may be used to
pertain to a state or country to a neighborhood or home area. It also includes the
search for boundaries, edges, and limits of a recognized territory. The environment
is the third core concept for geography. In its simplest interpretation, it refers to the
terrain of the land. However, like the place, the environment encompasses human
perceptions and aspirations as well as the biophysical characteristics that can be
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measured and monitored. The relationship of humans to the environment can also use
to better understand the changes happening in the world. The reciprocal relationship
of the two is so dynamic that the early ideas that suggest how the environment
determined limitations on people have been debunked and modern researchers
become aware of the human impact on the natural environment.
These three core concepts of space, place, and environment can be identified
as the central concerns of geography that hold the subject together and give meaning
to its discourse.
Traditions in Geography
In 1963, William D. Pattison published an article in the Journal of Geography
that attempted to explain the focus of the geography by identifying a general
consistency in the nature of geographic interest and research. These four traditions
identification an alternative to the monistic definitions that have been used to pertain
geography for a longtime.
This tradition involves spatial tradition, an area studies tradition, a man-land tradition,
and an earth science tradition.
1. Spatial or Locational Tradition
Spatial tradition focuses on the importance of spatial analysis on understanding
geography. Spatial analysis is a type of geographical analysis that seeks to explain
patterns of human behavior and its spatial expression. This tradition emphasizes the
importance of knowing the connections that exist between the geographical location
and physical characteristics of a site and analyze their unique relationships. Because
of this, it is essential to use quantitative techniques and tools such as computerized
mapping and geographic information systems to understand the aerial distribution,
densities, movement, and transportation.
2. Area Studies or Regional Tradition
Area Studies refer to the description of region or areas on one another. It was intended
to sum up and regularize knowledge not of the location of places BUT of nature of
places, their character, and their differences.
3. Man-Land Tradition
The focus of Man-Land Tradition is the study of the relationship between human
beings and the land they live on. Man-Land looks not only at the impact people impose
on their local environment but also at how natural hazards and phenomena can
influence human life. Along with this, Man-Land Tradition also takes into account the
consequences that cultural and political practices have on the given area of study as
well.
4. Earth Science Tradition
The Earth Science tradition is the study of planet Earth as the home to humans and
its system. Along with the physical geography of the planet, it focuses on the study of
how the planet’s location in the solar system affects its seasons and how changes in
the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere impact human life on the
planet.
Application
Direction: Human and environment are directly connected on each other. In this
activity you need to cite 3 news about nature and people and explain if the
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connection resulted in positive or negative effects. The diagram below will serve as
your guide in doing this activity.
MAN-LAND TRADITION
News Connection of human and Positive/ Negative
environment effects? (Explain
your answer)
1.
2.
3.
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Lesson 2: Five Themes in Geography
Preliminary Task!
MAP MAKING
Direction: Making maps is an important aspect of geography. In this activity, you will
need to make a map of your barangay in a short bond paper. Include important places
like school, church and government offices. The picture below will serve as your guide
in doing the activity.
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Discussion
1. Location
Absolute and relative location are two ways of describing the positions and
distribution of people and places on the earth's surface. Absolute location refers
to the grid coordinate on the surface of the earth. Latitude and longitude can be
used to pinpoint a location. For example, the absolute location of the Philippines
is 11.3333‟N and 123.0167‟E. On the other hand, the relative location pertains
to the location of a state in accordance with its surrounding water and land. For
example, the Philippines is located in the northern and eastern hemisphere and
is positioned off the Southern coast of Asia. It is found in the East of Vietnam
and Northeast of Malaysia.
2. Place
Geographers describe a place by two kinds of characteristics; physical
and human. The physical characteristics of a place make up its natural
environment and are derived from geological, hydrological, atmospheric, and
biological processes. They include landforms, bodies of water, climate, soils,
natural vegetation, and animal life. The human characteristics of a place come
from human ideas and actions. They include bridges houses and parks. Human
characteristics of the place also include land use, the density of population,
language patterns, religion, architecture, and political systems. The theme of
place helps flesh out information about the location. Taken together, the themes
of location and place provide a basis for observation in geography. These
themes can be used to help answer the first two questions of geography: Where
is it? And why is it there? With a sense of physical and human place, we can
read the landscape around us and make observations about what we see.
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3. Human/Environment Interaction
The physical and human characteristics of a place provide keys to understanding
the relationship between people and their environments. This geographic theme
addresses this question: What is the relationship between humans and the
environment? The following key concepts of human/environment relationships.
Humans depend on the environment: The natural environment is made up of
living things and non-living things. Humans depend on the natural environment
for their basic needs; food, shelter, and clothing.
Humans modify the environment: People modify the natural environment to
meet their needs. For example, they build dams, plow and irrigate fields, and
dig mines. They build houses, schools, and shopping centers on land.
Humans adapt to the environment: Humans have settled in virtually every
corner of the world by successfully adapting to various natural settings. For
example, people who live in the northeastern United States use heating units
to keep their homes warm in winter People in the southern part of the country
use air conditioning much of the year to stay cool in the heat. The ways people
choose to adapt to their settings reflect their economic and political
circumstances and their technological abilities. Studying geography furthers
appreciation of our natural environment and of our cultural differences.
4. Movement
Relationships between people in different places are shaped by the constant
movement of people, ideas, materials, from one place to another. Because our world
is in constant motion and constantly changing, new issues such as migration,
urbanization, and trade arise which could bring positive and negative effects on
society.
5. Regions
A region is a basic unit of geographic study. It is defined as an area that has
unifying characteristics. The study of regions helps us answer these questions: How
and why is one area similar to another? How do the areas differ? Some regions are
distinguished by physical characteristics. Physical characteristics include landforms,
climate, soil, and natural vegetation. For example, the Philippines is a tropical country
and is an archipelago that is composed of over 7100 islands. On the other hand, some
regions are distinguished by human characteristics. These may include economic,
social, political, and cultural characteristics. The highly urbanized cities of Metro Manila
can be considered a human region.
Application
Direction: Use the map of Southeast Asia to find a country using a relative location.
Answer:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Questions:
1. Country found in the East of Vietnam and South of Taiwan.
2. Country found in the West of Laos and East of Myanmar.
3. Country found in North of Indonesia and East of Malaysia.
4. Country found in the East of Indonesia and South of the Philippines.
5. Country found in the West of the Philippines and East of Laos.
How does people affect nature and how does nature affect people? Explain your
answer.
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Find and encircle four terms about natural sciences hidden on the grid.
A B A K D C G A H L
Z O O L O G Y G N M
P T R Y G O L O E G
S A T W Y E I B K H
M N G P R S U O D G
N Y G O L O D E P L
Question: What do you think is the connection of terms at the top in studying geography? Limit
your answer into 3 sentences.
Discussion
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The cartographic and quantitative techniques require sufficient proficiency in mathematics,
statistics, and econometrics. Maps are prepared through artistic imagination. Making
sketches, mental maps, and cartographic work require proficiency in arts.
The table below enumerates some of the counterparts of geography on various natural
sciences.
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Lesson 4: Geography and the Social Sciences
Application
Direction: Describe your barangay by stating its physical attributes then
identify how these attributes help in understanding the geography of your
community. The diagram below will serve as your guide in doing this activity.
DESCRIBING MY COMMUNITY
Question:
How can these attributes help in understanding the geography of your
community?
Preliminary Task!
Direction: Group the terms in physical and human geography and answer the
questions that follow.
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TERMS
Questions:
1. How did you group the terms into physical or human geography?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. How can you differentiate physical geography to human geography?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Discussion
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Population geography Demography
-It studies population growth, -Study of statistics such as births,
distribution, density, sex ratio, migration, deaths, income, or the incidence of
and occupational structure, etc. disease which illustrate the changing
Settlement geography studies the structure of human populations.
characteristics of rural and urban
settlements.
Application
Direction: Geography and the lives of people are closely linked to each other. In this
activity, you need to make a 1 or 2 page/s essay that will analyze how geography
affects the culture of the country. You can use the questions below as your guide.
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Lesson 5: Geography and History
Preliminary Task!
Choose one quote below that you think will best describe the connection of geography
and history then explain why you chose it. Limit your answer into 3-5 sentences.
Explanation:
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However, this difference can also be a key to understand the relationship between geography
and history by fully recognizing how periods and places both deal with the people. Thus, we
can say that historical geographers tell us stories about how places have been created in the
past by people while historians will tell us different stories about how periods have been
created in the past by people. Take Ancient Egypt for example. They were a successful
civilization because they built their community beside the great Nile River. Each year, the Nile
River flooded which deposits rich black soil that can be used to assist farmers who could grow
food enough to feed their population. Without understanding their geography, Egyptian
civilization would not become successful. The same is true on other ancient civilizations. The
Mesopotamia has the Tigris and Euphrates, China has Yellow River, and Indus civilization
has Indus River. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German philosopher in the Age of
Enlightenment, affirm the connection of Geography and History by stating that knowing
geography is essential in understanding history. He identified geography and history as the
two basic forms of human knowledge, the one addressing things and events in space, the
other things and events in time; the one reaching out, the other drilling down.
GEOGRAPHY HISTORY
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Application
Direction: Watch the video about the Silk Road of China and answer the questions
below. Limit your answer in 3-5 sentences.
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T hings to REMEMBER:
Geography comes from the Greek word geo means earth, and –
graphein means to write. Using geography, Greeks developed an
understanding of where their homeland was located in relation to
other places, what their own and other places were like, and how
people and the environment were distributed.
Geography is divided into two main branches: human geography
and physical geography.
In 1963, William D. Pattison published an article in the Journal of
Geography that attempted to explain the focus of the geography by
identifying its four traditions: man-land tradition, Earth Science
Tradition, Area Studies tradition and Spatial Tradition.
The five themes of geography include Human/Environment
Interaction, Location, place, movement and region.
Physical Geography is directly related in natural sciences while
Human Geography is related in Social Sciences.
Geography can be used to understand history better.
Post Assessment!
Direction: Match the Column A to Colum B. Write the letter of your answer
on the space provided before each number.
Column A Column B
1. Branch of science concerned with A. Hydrology
the processes and phenomena of the
atmosphere especially as a means of
forecasting weather.
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5. Also known as the soil science and deals E. Meteorology
with the study of soil in their natural environment.
SUGGESTED READINGS:
Article
Harris, M. (1978). India’s Sacred Cow. Human Nature. Retrieved from:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://spraakdata.
gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjD3q3l68TrAhWoy4sBHfxOAo
sQFjAAegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw2PeS3ozpff-cG_a7m-1rZV
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REFERENCES:
Books
Baker, A. (2003). Geography and History. UK: Cambridge University Press
Bonnett, A. (2008). What is Geography? London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Matthe ws, J. & Herbert, D. (2008). Geography: A Very Short Introduction.
NewYork: Oxford University Press, Inc.
Pattison, W. D. (1964). The Four Traditions of Geography. Journal of
Geography, 63, 211-16. Retrieved from:
http://geog.ucsb.edu/~kclarke/G200B/four_20traditions_20of_20geography.pdf
Website
http://geophilippines.weebly.com/location.htmlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
abs/10.1111/0018-
2656.00011https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/geography/https://
www.studentsfriend.com/students-friend-folder-mobile/combine-
mobile.htmlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/compass/http://ma
ps.unomaha.edu/workshops/career/fivethemes.htmlhttps://kids.nationalgeograp
hic.com/explore/countries/philippines/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyc
lopedia/geography/https://www.thoughtco.com/four-traditions-of-geography-
1435583https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/meteorology/https://
www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/oceanography/https://www.britannic
a.com/science/pedologyhttps://www.britannica.com/science/anthropologyhttps:/
/www.britannica.com/science/environmental-
sciencehttps://www.yourdictionary.com/social-
sciencehttps://www.britannica.com/topic/demographyhttps://www.dictionary.co
m/browse/geologyhttps://www.geographyrealm.com/what-are-the-branches-of-
geography/
Pictures Sources
https://www.indiaeducation.net/cbse/class-12/arts/geography/preparation-
tips.aspxhttps://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=79
926&printable
https://www.reference.com/world-view/definition-human-environment-
interaction-9bbb6024a57f2a34
https://www.bartleby.com/solution-answer/chapter-1-problem-2fq-fundamentals-
of-physical-geography-2nd-edition/9781133606536/what-physical-geography-
characteristics-can-you-observe-in-this-scene/08caba57-4d7c-11e9-8385-
02ee952b546e
https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-vector/southeast-asia-map-with-
country-icons-and-location-vector-15738463
https://imgbin.com/png/eumfABPt/cartoon-royaltyfree-townhouse-
pnghttps://quotesgram.com/img/geography-
quotes/747224/https://quotesgram.com/img/geography-
quotes/3158417/https://www.azquotes.com/quote/935368https://todayinsci.com
/QuotationsCategories/G_Cat/Geography-Quotations.htm
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UNIT 7(A): Historical Foundations of
Social Studies
Introduction
hundred years from now, people will look back at you and the kind of society you are
A in. You may even be answer to an examination question. Just like what you are doing
now. Among the social sciences, history is the only field of inquiry that can be found
in every other field of inquiry. Because everything has a history. You have a
history. The natural sciences have their own history.
Studying history as an academic endeavor is a gateway to ensuring the future of a
nation. It provides people with a sense of identity and direction. You may have heard the old
Filipino adage, “Ang hindi lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makararating sa paroroonan.”
And this is truer today than ever before. Many casual individuals, who have neither historical
research training nor have scoured through primary historical sources, are on the prowl to
change what the historical annals. This sort of historical revisionism is an affront to the energy
and rigor put forth by historians. And yet this has become a popular approach to validate the
present political climate.
But then again, to be a science, history cannot be infallible. It must be falsifiable, in the
words of Karl Popper. Ah, so history is wrong, you say. But no. Being falsifiable does not mean
it is false. It simply means that if an evidence is presented that is contrary to the current
historical narrative, then history must change. Such would be the true nature of a science, like
history. And such would be good way for you to think. This module will introduce you to the
process of creating historical narratives and the philosophical underpinnings it possesses. You
do not have to be hysterical, just historical.
Objectives/ Competencies
d) explain historiography
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Question And
Answer!
Preliminary Task!
On a separate sheet of paper, briefly respond to the following questions and explain
your responses.
Discussion
Many people have often defined history as the study of the past, or the study of
past events. This definition does not encapsulate the true essence of what history is.
For example, dinosaurs lived and went extinct in the past, yet this is not part of history
as a discipline but rather a part of paleontology. History is just like the other social
sciences; it is the study of human behavior. Albeit human behavior in the past. It is
also not so much about the memorization of names, dates, and places. History instead
focuses on the impact of those names, dates, and places in human life. In the modern
academia, history is written. Being students, you read history, understand history, and
learn from history. As the pessimist Arthur Schopenhauer once said, “those who do
not learn from history are bound to repeat it” (Durant, 2006). We study history so that
we do not commit the same errors as our forebears. It will provide us with insight on
the current state of affairs among nations. Take China and India, why is there constant
tensions on their borders? Well, it all began in 1962 when the two countries went to
war with each other. Or studying the political history of the Philippines can help you
understand why civil liberties and democracy are particularly important to many
Filipinos. Studying history will help you gain critical-thinking skills, which will empower
you to ask questions and see the world in different points of view. It will develop in you
a sense that everything is constant flux. Looking back at people from the past you get
a clear picture of what you can do or what you should not do in the present.
So, how do historians create these stories in your textbooks? Obviously, not
out of thin air. They conduct historical research. All historical inquiry begins with a
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question that asks why or how things happened in the past. Or historians ask, “So
what (Eh ano ngayon),” which are reflective questions that seek meaning. Who, what,
where, and when questions are important to establish context, but do not offer deep
or interesting historical conclusions. The bottom line is all history begins with asking a
question. The trick to doing good historical work is to ask good analytical questions
from the start. Here are some examples of the differences between analytical historical
questions and descriptive historical questions.
Here is a claim that political dissidents were the primary targets of assassinations. If
you wanted to evaluate this claim, you may ask the analytical historical questions on
the left. The descriptive questions on the right are helpful in establishing context but
do not grasp the deeper meaning of what actually happened. In the end, historians
use both types of questions together. Historians use two types of sources to learn
about the past. These are the primary and secondary sources. Primary sources were
created at the time of the historical inquiry. For example, law codes, diaries, trial
records, philosophical or theological tracts, music, etc. are good examples. Secondary
sources are written by historians about a research topic. For example, books,
academic journal articles written about the Martial Law years, or books and articles
written about a specific component of the Martial Law. Whether that be the legal
history, the history of religion, or the history of bahay-kubo, analyzing historical sources
require specific methodology.
When historians look at primary sources, they must keep several things in mind.
First off, who wrote the source, when and where was it written, what does the source
say, what is its thesis or conclusions, what perspective does the source reflect, how
does the source speak to the historical question. When they are using secondary
sources, they have to think about what this scholar says about the historical question,
and also how does he or she fit into the broader scholarly discourse about the historical
question. The key to good historical research is to use the conclusions they draw from
analyzing their primary source, in combination with the conclusions they draw from
what other scholars are saying about the research topic. In order to better explain the
process of historical research, let us look at the history triangle (Fig. 2).
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Figure 2. The History Triangle
After they have a good sense of what happened, they start looking at primary source materials
to get a clear idea of how people in the past were contributing or reflecting on what was
going around them. Then, they consult specialized secondary sources written by historians
to see what they think happened in the past. The job of a historian is to synthesize the
historical context, primary evidence, and secondary sources together to come up with an
answer to the historical question or a thesis. Now, whether you have the correct answer or
thesis is an entirely different
subject.
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Then, a more modern empiricism emerged with the scientific revolution, which
accounted for social and political context. Lord Godfrey Elton believed that there were
there was just too much history to understand at all that we could only understand a
small portion of it. He described them as bricks and each of us can only understand
our own little brick of history. You only get the entire history by
puttingthosebrickstogether.Bymid-20thcentury,scholars developed more complex
understanding of the truth, and it became clear that understanding the context in a
more sophisticated way is vital. The most important admission of historians is that the
historical record is incomplete. Therefore, they need to understand more about the
past, to look at the sources, not only to understand what the source says, but also to
know who the author is, who their audiences were, and when and where
they wrote. An example of this is the work of Salazar(1977). Here jected the
view that many Filipino historians held; that history is tripartite (viewed in three
periods). Furthermore, he rejected the perspective by which these Filipino historians
created the narrative; that they were talking to our former colonial masters as their
audience. He proposed a new way of looking at Philippine history. Further discussion
on this proposal will be done later.
Abstraction
History is the study of human behavior in the past. As an academic field, its
importance lives in the idea that people who learn history develop critical thinking skills,
an understanding of the present situation, and empowerment to participate in on-going
discourse about human affairs. Historical research is at the core of creating historical
narratives derived from primary and secondary sources. Criticism of historical
narratives is done by historiography. It is a field that deals with the reliability of historical
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sources, the social and political contexts that such narratives where written. Many
perspectives can be used to view history such as empiricism, Marxism, or
postmodernism.
Application
In discussing history and historiography, there are three quotes that come to mind.
On a separate sheet of paper, discuss what these quotes mean to you. (30 pts.)
As future teachers of history, whether that be of the world or the Philippines, it is necessary
to understand how historical narratives are created. But it is also equally important to teach
students how to learn from history and why people should learn from it. Being a citizen
informed of its nation’s history, empowers them to be better persons, to build, and forge a
better path for their nation. “Who we are is who we were” (Amistad, 1999) is a truism,
especially when you look at your personal history. Remove your memories and you are no
longer yourself, hardly understanding what it is you are doing, or why you are here. It is
because you are your memories.
Post Assessment!
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. (20 pts.)
What differentiates history with other fields of inquiry regarding the past?
Why are primary sources better than secondary sources?
Why is historiography important?
How does postmodernism undermine historical narratives?
Final Requirement
Write a 300-word essay debunking the idea that “history is written by the victors.”
Glossary
Empiricism - a philosophical view that knowledge is acquired through sense experience
Epistemology - the study of the validity of knowledge Historiography - the study of history
as a field of social sciences History - the study of human behavior in the past
Postmodernism - a philosophical view that truth is subjective
Primary sources - historical evidence that are immediate, and first-hand accounts of
historical events
Secondary sources – historical evidence that are based on primary sources
References
Durant, W. (2009). The story of philosophy: The lives and opinions of the greater
philosophers. New York, N.Y: Simon and Schuster.
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Hester, R. (2018). Historical Research. London: ETP
Nickles, T. (2003). Thomas Kuhn. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press.
Salazar, Z., & University of the Philippines. (1977). Kasaysayan. Diliman, Lunsod Quezon:
Departemento ng Kasaysayan, Pamantasan ng Pilipinas
Santillan, N., & Conde, M. (1998). Kasaysayan at kamalayan: Mga piling akda ukol sa
diskursong pangkasaysayan. Lunsod Quezon: Limbagang Pangkasaysayan.
Winks, R. W. (2007). Historiography. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Zaide, G., & Zaide, S. (2012). Kasaysayan at pamahalaan ng Pilipinas. Quezon City,
Philippines: All-Nations Pub.
Introduction
I
f a security guard guards a bank, who guards the security guard? Who audits the
auditor? Who writes the history of the historians? These statements are often
thrown when credibility and accountability are put in question. In studying history,
itisimportanttounderstandthemannerthroughwhichitwaswritten.Thelast
lesson delved on the importance of identifying and understanding an historian’s
context. Regardless of their claim to objectivity, human beings, much less historians,
have subjective views on past events.
This lesson hopes to bring you enlightenment to the recorded past you have
studied and memorized from your formative years in elementary and high school to
your own personal readings on Philippine history. It hopes to challenge your critical
thinking by presenting to you the different perspectives on how narratives were written.
It hopes to break the spell of undetected fanaticism created by the repetitive notions
of how great Filipinos were in the past.
While Filipinos should indeed be grateful to their ancestors, how they were
portrayed your history books are greatly flawed, and such flaws are not products of
failure to keep rigor in historical research but a product of flawed perspective.
Objectives/ Competencies
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Preliminary Task!
The truth, the whole truth. Below are five notable Filipinos in history. Your task
is to write two true statements for each of them. Write your responses on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Antonio Luna
2. Diego Silang
3. Lapu-Lapu
4. Jose Rizal
5. Manuel Quezon
When you are done, ask yourself the following questions: In today’s standards, were
your statements about them positive or negative? Why were statements about them
positive? Or negative? What were your references for such statements? You do not
have to write your responses to this question. It does, however, tests your analysis of
your own knowledge and sources.
Discussion
The issues and challenges in Philippine
history should have been addressed in your
Readings in Philippine History class. If not, then
as future history teachers, you must be informed
of the criticisms that plague Philippine
historiography.
The idea of writing historical narratives
was never a strong point in the skills of ancient
natives in these islands. One cannot say the
Philippines yet because that name did not exist
until a few hundred years later. Although the past
was important to the natives, they never wrote it,
despite having a system of writing called the
baybayin. This unfortunate serendipity now
Photo: Baybayin (Omniglot) plagues historians as ancient Philippine history
can only be sourced through
foreign historians. Nevertheless, natives transferred
historical knowledge to their descendants through
oral tradition. This practice led to the creation of the
early myths and legends. Bathala, Diwata, aswang,
and other mythological deities and creatures are all
product of this tradition (Jocano, 1969). But we know
now that the Philippines was not created by two giants
from Luzon and Mindanao flinging stones at each
other until the islands drifted away. We know now that
Filipinos did not literally descend from Malakas and
Maganda. That is one of the problems with oral
Photo: Tarsila, (Saleeby, 1905)
tradition as historical source; it usually invokes (ProjectGutenberg)
“magic” as an explanation.
The first people to write about the past were
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the Arabs, particularly Karim Ul-Makhdum. They introduced the tarsila, a written
genealogy of people who lived in Mindanao at that time. It was not a narrative of
events, instead it was a like a family tree, a list of people tracing their links or ancestry.
Along with the tarsila, they introduced Islam. There are many historical narratives for
this event but mostly from other nations such as Indonesia and Malaysia (Majul, 1985).
And these meant a lot for Filipino historians today. They are primary sources but only
indirectly ties the Filipino natives (the term Filipino will be used just for clarification but
strictly, the natives were not Filipinos as the term did not exist yet).
When the colonialists came, the formal writing of Philippine history began.
When Magellan arrived in the islands in 1521, he brought with him a chronicler named
Antonio Pigafetta and was assisted by Enrique of Sumatra. Pigafetta wrote in his
journals and described what he saw when they were in these islands. His two books,
which are currently stored in France, are primary sources for Filipino historians. Thus,
began the formal Western-style writing of Philippine history. The most famous work
about the Philippines at that time was
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events in the Philippine
Islands) by Antonio de Morga. This literature described the
life of the natives in great detail. This book became the
Philippine history textbook of the schools established by the
Spaniards in the Philippines. It was the textbook that the
Filipino intellectuals studied and scrutinized in the colleges
and universities. One notable material was Jose Rizal’s
Anotaciones. Published in 1890, Rizal attacked Morga’s view
of Philippine history and criticized it for demeaning the
Filipinos. This perspective of writing history became a trend
during those times. It prompted Marcelo H. Del Pilar and
Graciano Lopez Jaena to write their own versions. Thus,
began the Propaganda Movement (Scott, 1982).
The manner by which history was written never Photo: Morga’s Sucesos de las
Isla Filipinas (Wikipedia)
changed since the Propaganda was established.
Contemporary, and even concurrent historians write Philippine history in this kind of
perspective. And as we have learned in the last lesson, it is important for readers to
understand the historian in order to deeply understand the narratives.
Salazar referred to this as “tripartite view.” This type of historical writing, especially found in
Rizal’s Anotaciones, sought to revise Morga’s view. Instead of being a group of uncivilized
people, Rizal responded to Morga by saying, “We are not like that. We are civilized, just like
you.” For Rizal, the pre-colonial Philippines was the same as the Spaniards: tree- worship
was similar to Catholics worshipping idols made of wood, bahay-kubo was like that because
it fits the climate, eating rotten fish (bagoong) was similar to Europeans eating rotten milk
(cheese). During the colonial period, Rizal attacked the Spanish clergy, the friars, blaming
them for the corruption and lack of development in the islands. And the post-colonial scenario
for Rizal was, initially, Spain recognizing the Philippines and its people equal to that of Spain.
Do you feel the same way as Rizal right now? Don‟t you want recognition for the Philippines
in international affairs?
Aren't you proud that Filipinos now can compete with other nations in various fields? Your
sense of being a Filipino is heightened every time Manny Pacquiao wins a boxing match.
“Para sa’yo ang laban na ‘to.” A small percentage of Filipino genes of an international celebrity
is placed on a microscope just to wave that Filipino pride. Just like Rizal and Plaridel and
Jaena. Remember, the context of Rizal was the Propaganda movement. Ask your elders,
particularly the senior citizens or older, right now what propaganda means to them. Stop
reading and ask them. What did they tell you? TV commercial? Palatastas or patalastas?
These commercials and patalastas convince you to buy their products. The Propaganda
Movement wanted their version of history to be bought. By whom? Who were their audience?
The Spaniards. Look at the entire catalog of Rizal‟s work. They are all written in Spanish. So,
Rizal, as the voice of Filipinos, was selling a story to the Spaniards about Filipinos. Salazar
referred to it as pangkaming pananaw (root word “kami,” meaning “we”). And this perspective
became the norm in writing Philippine history until now. If you have ever read a history book
authored by Gregorio Zaide, then you have encountered this perspective. But this perspective
is problematic, as Salazar pointedout.
What is the strongest tree? Narra. What is the most fragrant flower? Sampaguita. What is the
best fish? Bangus. These answers beg the question, have you ever seen other trees, or
flowers, or fishes for you to conclude that narra, or sampaguita, or bangus are indeed the
best? No. And yet these are your quick answers. Filipinos are proud of their own and
broadcast it to the entire world. “Filipinos are resilient despite calamities.” “Filipinos are world-
class chefs.” “Filipinos are the best in sports.” There is nothing wrong with these if done in
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moderation and appropriately. But blind nationalism is dangerous. Should the Propaganda
Movement be blamed? Absolutely not. It was needed in their context. There are no more
colonialists in the Philippines today, but Philippine history is still written in that context. When
Rizal made a speech to celebrate the victory of Juan Luna and Felix Resureccion Hidalgo in
a painting contest, he equated them with the Spanish painters. You can read that in any
Philippine history textbook. What you will not read was that both Filipino painters did not win
first place. They were second and third. Nor will you read that Luna, later on, shot and killed
his wife and mother-in-law. Rizal was exposing the idea that Filipinos are equal to Spaniards.
He even created story, as part of his Anotaciones, that a world-class blacksmith named
Panday Pira, who had a flourishing hand cannon industry, lived in the islands before the
Spaniards came. But no evidence was found for the existence of this man, nor for his world-
class hand cannon industry. He just wrote it to convince the Spaniards that Filipinos equal
their Spanish counterparts. And textbooks of today still write about Panday Pira‟s world-class
industry. Indeed, this perspective isproblematic.
A new perspective was proposed by Salazar & Penalosa (2018) to prevent
theproliferation of the Propaganda‟s tradition. He referred to it as pantayong pananaw (root
word “tayo,” meaning “us”). Philippine history should be done by “us.” Not “they” (foreigners
talking to each other). Not “we” (Filipinos talking to foreigners). But “us” (Filipinos talking with
each other). History should be written by Filipinos, with the context and value for the Filipinos.
It promises to tell the truth and the whole truth. Pride would be set aside, weaknesses will be
discussed and strengthened. People in romantic relationships relate to this very well. Tayo
na ba? Tayo na nga. (Kinilig ka naman). Many historians write history in this manner now.
They do not hide the cultural defects, instead they talk about it. Just like a well-handled
relationship does. This historical perspective is for Filipinos to be a betterpeople.
Abstraction
Oral traditions were the means of learning history by early Filipinos. The first
written history of the Philippines was carried out by the Spanish colonialists who used
it as a tool for justifying the establishment of a colony. Opening the doors for Filipinos
in their colleges and universities, brought about a social unrest anchored in the
tripartite view of history. This perspective sought to convince Spain that Filipinos were
equal with the Spaniards. This view flowed into the contemporary narrative creation of
Filipino historians,that instead of being outright honest and well-meaning became a
vehicle for unfounded pride and blind nationalism of students. This challenge was and
is being addressed by present-day historians who takes a view of Philippine history
written by and for the Filipino. It hopes to shake away from the Propaganda
Movement’s tradition. It focuses on Filipinos and their shared values, based on the
idea that kasayasyan is salaysay na may saysay para sa mgaPilipino.
Application
A history written by the people involved, for the people involved is the best
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resource in studying history. Just like your life history. It is best written by you, for you
than to written by you for someone else or written by someone else for you. Then there
is chismis: your story told by someone, for someone else. Your life story is best told
by you. When you do, it will include not only the salaysay, but the saysay. You are the
best person to explain why you behaved in different ways: what was going on in your
mind, how you felt, what was happening around you. When discussing something like
a movie you watched, is it not better to talk with someone who had also seen the
movie? Your discussion would be much fruitful and deep. In the same way, Philippine
history is better when written by the same people immersed in the experience. This
perspective creates a clearer and truer narratives worthy of the Filipinos‟attention.
Post Assessment!
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. (20 pts.)
1. How was formal writing of history introduced in the Philippines?
2. Why did Antonio de Morga publish Sucesos de las IslasFilipinas?
3. Why did the Propaganda Movement publish their own Philippine history?
4. How did the Propaganda Movement narrate their version of history?
5. How do context and bias affect the creation of narratives?
6. How were historical narratives created before the introduction of historical
writing in the Philippines?
Final Requirement
In Art. II Sec. 13 and Art. XIV Sec. 3(2) of the Philippine Constitution, the State,
through the schools “shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism” to the youth. As future
teachers write a 300-word essay discussing the direct connection between nationalism
and history.
References
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UNIT 8 (A) : Economic Foundation of
Social Sciences
Introduction
W
ith the COVID-19 pandemic gripping every nation, people are forced to select
between keeping their jobs, maintaining their health, or doing both. News of
declining economic growth and fluctuating economic activities are worrying
analysts and businesspersons alike. It is a time of great changes, and as Charles
Darwin would have it, people must also adapt to change. The means by which we produce,
consume, and distribute goods and services must also evolve. But change must not be done
haphazardly. It requires careful planning, especially since such changes involve vast numbers
of people.
Billions of pesos were spent addressing the impact of this pandemic to the lives of
millions of Filipinos. From government handouts to medical facilities, these are what our
policymakers and decision-makers opted to spend their resources. Is that that not what
economics is? All along we thought economics was simply the production, consumption, and
distribution of wealth. But it is more than these. Economics is about people selecting the best
option to put their resources. Decision-making is central to economics. With the pandemic not
slowing down, our national debt increasing, and people losing their jobs, effective resource
management is imperative, and planning is a necessary activity in management.
To help you better understand economics, we have to go back to our Grade 9 lessons
in macroeconomics. Macroeconomics sounds boring, but it is not boring. It is exciting.
Macroeconomics is about booms and busts. Will you get a job when you graduate? Should
the government increase taxes? Remember, the goal of learning economics is to become a
better decision-maker and part of that, we learn about how the whole economy works, so let's
learn about the whole economy.
Objectives/
Competencies
Preliminary Task!
The Philippines was among Asia’s fastest-growing economies before the pandemic, but now
the government expects its GDP to shrink 5.5% this year - the biggest annual drop in 35 years
- from a previous forecast for a 2.0-3.4% decline. The government sees the economy
rebounding in 2021 and 2022.
With the excerpt in mind, interview three persons within your pandemic bubble. Ask
them this question: “If you were the president and want the economy to boom again, what
would be the first three aspects of the economy would you focus on to rise from a recession,
and why?” On a separate sheet of paper, tabulate their responses using the template below.
You may write their responses in Filipino.
Discussion
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Today, economic data is abundant, but that does not mean that economists agree about where
the economy is at present, where it is headed, or what should be done to help. Economists
make predictions based on data, theoretical models, and historical trends. But in the end, they
are just predictions. If you ask three economists the same question, you are likely to get three
different answers, just
like in your activity. Economics is not a
traditional science because it is nearly
impossible to control all the different
variables. Like all the social sciences,
economics is studying people and we know
for a fact that people are unpredictable.
However, it does not mean that economics
is just fortune-telling mumbo jumbo. Case
in point, in 2015 the economy of Greece
was not good. But what happened? Will
things go back to normal? Is it going to get
worse? What would be their solution?
These are all questions that economists try Photo: Cartoon from Hedgeye (2015)
to answer.
But for now, we are going to concentrate on the question: What happened?
Policymakers have three economic goals. They want to keep the economy growing,
they want to limit unemployment, and they want to maintain stable prices. When those three
things happen, people are happy, politicians get proudly re-elected, and economists get
praised. There are three specific measurements that economists analyze to see whether
countries are achieving each goal. They are the gross domestic product, unemployment
rate, and the inflation rate.
The most important measure of an economy is gross domestic product or GDP. GDP
is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country's border in a specific
period of time. Usually, there are some details worth mentioning. GDP does not include every
transaction within the economy. For example, if you buy a used smartphone, it does not count
for GDP because nothing new was produced. The same applies to buying financial assets like
stocks, or when one company buys another company, like when Disney bought Marvel, it does
not count for GDP because no new good or service was produced. Also, GDP often does not
include illegal activities, since drug pushers do not report their sales to the government. Even
non-traditional economic activity like household production. For example, if a tubero charges
P500 to fix your faucets, that counts toward GDP. But when he fixes his own faucets,that does
not count as GDP. Here is a list of the top 20 countries organized by GDP.
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If you will notice, GDP is measured in dollars, not in the raw number of things produced. It is
because if we analyze just the raw number, then a country that produces 5 million facemasks,
will look like they are doing just as good as a country that produces 5 million laptops. There is
also a problem with using the dollar value of goods produced. It’s called inflation. If two
countries produced the same amount of televisions, but one has higher
prices, then that country can have a higher
nominal GDP, or GDP not adjusted for
inflation. To get more accurate idea of the
health of the economy, what economists
look at is the real GDP, which is GDP
adjusted for inflation.
The term recession has been misused by many people to describe a bad
economy. A recession is not just when the economy is bad. It occurs when two
successive quarters (six months) showed a decline in real GDP. Even though the
economy in Greece is still struggling, it climbed out of its recession in 2014,
experiencing a slight increase in GDP. A depression on the other hand does not have
a technical definition, but it is a severe recession when the economy is really bad. The
topics of recession and depression will be discussed in a future module. It is worth
noting though, that GDP can be a little challenging. Not all countries measure GDP in
the same way. In recent years some European Union countries have started
experimenting with counting underground markets, like the prostitution trade and drug
trade, as part of the total. In fact, GDP is not even that old of an idea. According to
Froyen (2009), during the Great Depression economic decisions were made “on the
basis of such sketchy data as stock price indices, freight car loadings, and an
incomplete index of industrial production. The fact was that comprehensive measures
of national income and output did not exist at the time. The depression, and with it the
growing role of government in the economy, emphasized the need for such measures
and led to the development of a comprehensive set of national income accounts.” GDP
was only invented to account for national income borne out of the necessity to visualize
the economic landscape. It may not necessarily provide a complete picture of a
country's economy, but for the moment, this is what we have. That is economic growth,
or at least, one way to look at economic growth.
First, the labor force only includes people that have legal working age and working or actively
looking for work. Children do not count and neither do people who are unable to work or those
who just choose not to work. What about someone who has been job hunting but just quits?
They are no longer part of the labor force and they are no longer considered unemployed.
They are called discouraged workers. The unemployment rate also does not take into account
people that are underemployed.
A Jollibee cashier with a 6-hour per week part
time job is considered fully employed, even if
they are looking for better job. In both of these
cases, the official unemployment rate
underestimates the problems in the labor market.
A common misconception is that the goal is to
have zero percent unemployment. But there
are types of unemployment that will exist even
when the economy is going strong. Economists
point out that there are three types of
unemployment or three reasons why people
would be unemployed. The first is frictional
unemployment. This happens when people are
temporarily unemployed or between jobs. So, if Photo: Underemployment cartoon (Cartoonistgroup, 2020)
you quit your job and look for a new one, or if
you just graduated and is
just entering the labor force, then
you are frictionally unemployed.
The second is called structural
employment. Workers are out of
work because there is no demand
for that specific type of labor, just
be like a Betamax repair person.
But it also includes technological
unemployment, or workers that
are replaced by machines. Both
frictional and structural
Photo: Betamax video players were a popular video player system from unemployment will always exist,
1975 to the late 1990’s. Betamax was replaced by better quality, the goal is not to have zero
more compact video players and very few people need the help of
a Betamax repair man (CNN.com, 2015) percent unemployment. That is
an impossible feat. We will always have people who are looking for jobs, or people
terminated because machines do it
better. The goal is to have no
cyclical unemployment. This means
we do not want unemployment due
to a recession. It is when people
stop buying goods, which leads to
businesses laying-off their workers.
And since workers have lower
incomes, they stop buying things,
which means more people lose their
jobs. An economy is considered to Figure 2.: Graph of US showing the inverse relationship of GDP and
unemployment. (Brainly, 2017)
be at full employment when there is
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only frictional and structural unemployment. This is called the natural rate of
unemployment. This natural rate differs slightly between countries. In the Philippines,
it is usually between 5% to 6% unemployment rate. But because of the pandemic, as
of April 2020, the unemployment
rate is at almost 18% (Philippine
Statistics Authority, 2020).
The third economic goal is maintaining stable prices. While we might like
theidea of the things you buy getting inexpensive, falling prices are not really good.
The average prices in Greece have fallen about 2% recently. During the 1930‟s the
inflation rate in the US was -10%. Why are cheaper commodities bad for the economy?
The goal is to keep prices stable primarily to avoid rampant inflation or rising prices.
We also want to avoid excessive deflation, which is falling prices. Inflation is
measured by tracking the prices of a set amount of commonly purchased items.
This is what economists call a Market Basket. The inflation rate is the percent change
in the price of that basket overtime. Too much inflation is bad because it decreases
the purchasing power of money. This means people can buy less commodities for the
same amount of money, which has many negative effects in the economy: business
cost increases, as workers demand higher wages, and interest rate increases. In this
scenario, it would be very difficult to get a loan, which causes people to buy less
commodities like cars, houses, and other goods. Deflation, on the other hand, seems
like it would be a good thing. But most economists see falling prices a bad thing. Falling
prices actually discourage people from spending, since they might expect prices to fall
more in the future. Less spending in the economy means GDP is going to decrease
and unemployment is going to increase. Severe recessions are often accompanied by
deflation because the demand for goods and services falls. Remember your Grade 9
lesson on the law of demand? If the price of a commodity decreases, demand
decreases, ceteris paribus. But when the economy starts to improve, we usually see
an increase in prices.
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Throughout history,
economies have expanded and
contracted. It is called the business
cycle (or also called the economic
cycle). Imagine the economy as a
vehicle (we will use jeepney) and
that GDP, employment, and inflation
are the gauges (Schumann, 1954). A
jeepney can cruise at 80 kph without
overheating. Safe cruising speed is
like full employment. Unemployment
is low, prices are stable, and people
are happy. But if
Figure 4. Comparison of Philippine GDP components between 2016
we drive the jeepney too fast for too and 2017. (Rappler, 2017)
long, it will overheat. In the economy,
significant spending increases GDP, which causes an expansion(Figure 3).
Unemployment falls and factories start producing at full capacity to keep up with
demand. And since the number of products that can be produced is limited, people
begin to outspend each other resulting in inflation. Eventually production costs
increase as workers demand higher salaries, the economy starts to slow down and
businesses layoff workers.
The workers who were laid off will limit their spending, which will cause
businesses that produce the goods that they would otherwise be buying to lay off more
workers. This is a contraction. The economy is going too slow. However, slowly but
surely, the economy will stabilize. Production costs will decrease as resources are idle
and unused. The economy starts its expansion again. This process of booms and busts
is called the business cycle. Why do these fluctuations occur? Going deeper into the
jeepney analogy, take a look at its engine. Imagine it as a four- cylinder engine that
powers the jeepney of economic of growth. An economy has four components that
make up GDP. Each cylinder represents different groups that can purchase things in
the economy. There is consumer spending (household consumption), business
spending(capital formation or investment), government spending, and net exports,
which means other countries spending money for our commodities. If any one of these
components lose its power, the economy will slow down. But not all of spending are
created equal. Most economies rely heavily on consumer spending. For example, in
Figure 4, Philippine exports account for about 18.6% of GDP in first quarter. But other
countries might rely more on consumer spending. Changes in these four components,
change the speed of the economy. Maybe you are asking, if the economy is like a
jeep, why can we control the speed as a jeepney driver would? Many economists think
that the government should play a role in speeding up or slowing down the economy.
For instance, when there is a recession, the government can increase its spending
(like Duterte‟s Build, Build, Build) or lower taxes. This would result to consumers
having more money to spend. Followers of this policy argue that it would get the
economy back to full employment. However, it has a downside, incurring debt. Some
economists dislike debts, while others argue that it is not a disadvantage.
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Abstraction
Application
At this point, you are required to make note of ten (10) causal relationships you have
encountered in this lesson. On a separate sheet of paper, tabulate the different cause
and effect relationships. Use the template below. (30 pts.)
Cause Effect
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Reflections and Insights
Post Assessment!
Final Requirement
Define the concepts found in the Key Words Bank. Write Your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.
Key Words
Economics
Microeconomis
Macroeconoms
Gross Domestic
Product Inflation rate
Deflation
Unemployment
Labor force
Contraction
Expansion
References
Froyen R. T., (2009). Macroeconomics: Theories and Policies, 9th Edition. University of
North Carolina at ChapelHill
Schumann, C.G.W. (1954), Three Analogies In Business Cycle Theory. South African
Journal Of Economics, 22: 65-72.
Friedman, M., & Schwartz, A. (1963). A Monetary History of the United States. National
Bureau of Economic Research. Princeton University Press
Samuelson, P. A., & Nordhaus, W. D., (1998). Economics. Boston, Mass: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
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UNIT 8 (B) : Economic Foundation
of SocialSciences
Introduction
A our acquaintance with the giants of economic ideas. As you move along
towards an understanding of economic planning, these people and their ideas
will shed light on the various reasons different economies behave like they
do. Should the government intervene in economic affairs? Where should its
intervention end? These are questions can be answered by these different, and
sometimes, contradicting ideas.
Figuring the best way towards economic growth is a conversation that economic
theorists began and is still on-going. New economic ideas are born for every
generation that passes. Economics, like other social sciences, does not deal in
absolutes because human behavior is highly variable. It is a “dismal science.” Hence,
the most common resignation of some economists is that there is no ideal economic
theory.
The absence of a be-all, end-all idea does not mean that economies move in a
vacuum. They all have theoretical bases for such behavior. Although this lesson is
brief, it is hoped that the pertinent ideas and concepts of economic thought is captured
and pave the way for a better understanding of macroeconomics and economic
planning in general.
Objectives/
Competencies
Analysis
Scenario: After a global cataclysm, you are now the leader of a small island with the
size and geography of Luzon and a population of one million. As their leader, answer
the following questions. Explain your answers. Write them on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. What are your economic goals?
2. What will you produce?
3. Which goods and services will be available to all people?
4. Which economic system will you employ?
Discussion
The number of managers’ a single firm has in today’s standards is proof of this fact. In small
businesses, the processes involved are contained to a small number of people and this keeps
communication and personal attachment in order. The problem arises in industries with
200,000 employees spread across four continents. An employee might feel like he/she is just
another tiny component in a grand machine. Have you heard of someone say something
about a „team-building activity‟ in their workplace? A part of Smith’s ideas is to constantly
remind the workers of their sense of purpose, their role, and their dignity as a member of a
large firm. Smith was also responsible for the development of consumer capitalism. Since
larger chunks of the population began moving up into the middle class, manufacturers began
producing luxury goods for them. Even with many intellectuals of his day opposing his views,
he defended them saying poor people are benefited more in this kind of system than any
other idea would. Is it not a question of many people today? How do we make the rich people
kind to poor people? A religious person uses guilt to make the rich help the poor. A radical
leftist will force the rich to give it to the poor, through taxation. But Smith simply argued that
neither guilt nor taxation is the answer. Capitalists like to be liked. They value prestige,
respect, and honor. Therefore, he said, the way to make them humane is to educate the
consumers to put high premium on the quality of their demands. If consumers would demand
and only choose high quality hospitals, the capitalists, in order to feed their attention-seeking
egos, will produce high quality hospitals. Smith trusts consumers to make the right decisions.
And maybe, his ideas might create a society that is both profitable and humane.
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Decades later, another British economist,
David Ricardo expanded on Smith's idea by
introducing the theory of comparative advantage,
the notion that two countries can both benefit from
trade, even if one of them can produce more of
everything else. When both countries concentrate
on producing what they are best at and then trade,
everyone benefits. To better understand the theory,
we must look again at the idea of opportunity cost.
It is any benefit that you lose after choosing a
specific option. Like when you buy a smartphone,
you lose the benefit of paying for your grandiose
birthday party. And every choice you make has an
Photo: David Ricardo 1772-1823 (Britannica) opportunity cost. In comparative advantage, both
countries have opportunity costs. But the country
who has a lower opportunity cost has the
comparative advantage. This theory has been the
foundation of modern international trade.
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Communism was operating in the USSR when the
Great Depression struck the economies of the
richest countries of the world. Classical economics
took a disastrous setback. The theories of Smith
and Marshall did not predict this event, nor did it
have any way to fix the problem.
It was a British economist named John
Maynard Keynes who proposed new answers. In
his A General Theory of Money Interest and
Employment, published in 1936, he practically
founded a new field in economics:
macroeconomics. With the help of John Hicks,
Photo: John Maynard Keynes 1883-1946
(isreview.org) Keynes argued that market economies do not
correct itself fast enough because prices and wages
take time to adapt. They proposed that
during economic busts, the government must be involved and intervened through monetary
and fiscal policies. This is to increase production and decrease unemployment (Hansson,
1985). It may look like Keynes was advocating for communism because his views are in direct
contradiction with classical economics who think that government intervention is harmful to
the economy. At any rate, Keynesian economics became an integral part of the mainstream
economic thinking. Once again, it is true that economic theory can changes any time. One
devastating worldwide depression was enough for Keynes to take Marx’s idea and the march
towards more government intervention in the economy began its stride.
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Abstraction
Historically, economic ideas went through many changes, depending on the
circumstances and the prevailing behavior of people. Adam Smith, father of modern
economics, clung to people‟s self-interest as a prime motivator of production, paving
the way to a formal inquiry regarding capitalism. Karl Marx critiqued this view by
emphasizing on the welfare of workers as opposed to the interest of the wealthy
capitalist. The Great Depression of the 1930‟s altered the course of development
economic ideas when Keynes proposed a more government-controlled monetary and
fiscal policy. When the slow progress from this slumped was observed, Hayek, Von
Misses, and Friedman, disregarded Keynesian economics for a less government
interfered economy advocating for deregulation, free market and privatization.
Differences in the response of countries in the 2008 recession highlight the ever-
changing economic ideas. A dismal science, economic theories change as the needs
of people change.
Application
Recently, it was reported that Japan and South Korea are now in a recession due to
the pandemic. Our own government, also, acknowledged that our country will have its
own recession. When it comes, which economic idea or ideas will you use? Why?
Write your response on a separate sheet of paper. Responses will be rated using the
rubrics in Part X (Final Requirement).
Countries that were once strictly communists, like China, have shifted toward
capitalism. Only North Korea remains under a communist system. This does not mean
that Marxism is no more. People in capitalist countries push to adopt „socialist- like‟
policies. And like Aristotle, economies search for the middle ground, the golden mean.
World economy is a complex affair that predicting the future is very difficult. Malthus
himself was a victim of such catastrophic prediction. People change, circumstances
change, and so must our means of surviving. We should expect that and because of
the present pandemic, many of these theories will resurface, and many will build new
ones. It is a good thing that Malthus was wrong, which means we get to see what the
future holds for humanity.
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Post Assessment!
Final Requirement
Based on the earlier activity in Part VII, which economic theory best describe
your responses? Explain each item. Write your responses on a separate sheet of
paper. Responses will be rated using the following rubrics:
Glossary
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SUGGESTED READINGS
Hansson, B. (1985). Keynes's Notion of Equilibrium in the "General Theory". Journal of Post-
Keynesian Economics Vol. 7, No. 3. Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
References
Braverman, H. (1976). Labor and monopoly capital: The degradation of work in the twentieth
century. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Friedman, M., & Schwartz, A. (1963). A Monetary History of the United States. National
Bureau of Economic Research. Princeton University Press.
Hansson, B. (1985). Keynes's Notion of Equilibrium in the "General Theory". Journal of Post-
Keynesian Economics Vol. 7, No. 3. Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Lerebours, J. (2017). Communism Debunked. The Emory Political Review. Atlanta, Georgia
Sachs, J.D. (2008) Are Malthus's Predicted 1798 Food Shortages Coming True? Scientific
American. New York: Scientific American Inc.
Smith, A. (2013). An inquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations. Wordsworth
Editions. Hertfordshire, England.
Von Mises, L., Rothbard, M. N., Hayek, F.A. & Ebeling, R. M. (2014). The Austrian Theory of
the Trade Cycle and Other Essays. Auburn, Alabama. Ludwig von Mises Institute.
Websites:
https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/the-great-philosophers-karl-
marx/https://www.britannica.com/story/thomas-malthuss-250th-
birthdayhttps://www.amazon.fr/Wealth-Nations-Illustrated-English-
ebook/dp/B082YBHW5Shttps://www.amazon.com/Austrian-Case-Free-Market-
Process/dp/B000H4VWHYhttps://www.amazon.fr/Wealth-Nations-Illustrated-
English-ebook/dp/B082YBHW5Shttps://socialistworker.org/2018/02/12/marxism-
and-the-meaning-of-materialism https://isreview.org/issue/63/return-keynes
https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2012/08/17/milton-friedman-was-actually-financial-
aid-progressive-essay
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UNIT 9 : Issues and Challenges in
the Social Science
Lesson 1 - Replicability,
Lesson 2 - Political Correctness
Lesson 3 - Nature of Opinions in Social Sciences
Introduction
n Bulacan State University, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2. It is the same
I where you are sitting right now. The cure for bacterial infections in Norway is
antibiotics. In the Philippines, it is the same medicine. Japan’s political system is
constitutional monarchy and a unicameral legislature worked wonders in terms
of economic wealth (third only in the world) and the improvement of the lives of millions
of Japanese. Should not the poor countries convert to constitutional monarchies with
parliaments to improve their lives? A social scientist will tell you that the political
models they observe among countries are based on the culture its people has and
cannot be simply implemented to another country with a different set of culture.
Although, research on Japan’s politics contributes to the body of knowledge of political
science, it is difficult translate into public for another place. This is one of the limits of
social science as discussed in past lessons. The natural sciences offer a more direct
impact on public policy. Take the policy reforms that other countries implemented to
address global warming. Countries who took it seriously are now opting for more
renewable and sustainable sources of energy.
This lesson will provide you a peek into similar issues that persist in the social
sciences. They are challenges that need to be addressed because they can be
addressed. The history of the social sciences has shown that knowledge of human
behavior is elusive for its inherent unpredictability. Just like Neurath’s boat in the
middle of the sea. To build a boat in the middle of the sea, social scientists gather what
useful knowledge remains like floating wood planks that have are not rotten. They
stand on those planks to take other planks to build the boat. That is how science was
built.
The social sciences may not build universal theories for human behavior. But
what it lacks in universality, it makes up for the richness of researches on the lived
experiences of people in all walks of life.
Objectives/
Competencies
At the end of this lesson, you must be able to:
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a. define replicability in social science research
Preliminary Task!
Examine the cartoon below. What do you think is the message of the cartoon?
Discussion
As you have learned earlier, the
social sciences “hijacked” the
term science to emphasize that
it follows the research rigor that
can be found in the natural
sciences. It sought to follow the
scientific method. However, you
have also learned that in order
for something to be
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called science, or scientific, it has to follow the standards of the scientific method,
otherwise, it would simply be “pseudo-science.” The standards are replicability,
precision, falsifiability, and parsimony (Bhattacherjee, 2012). And herein lies the
problem with the social sciences. Since it deals with human behavior, which is highly
unpredictable, it suffers from replicability. In the natural sciences, replicability means
that other people can replicate the study independently and arrive at a similar
conclusion. Unfortunately, It rarely happens.
A review of Camerer et. al (2018) regarding twenty-one (21) social science research
studies found in the Nature and Science journal between the years 2011-2015 reveals
that all of these studies yielded different results when replicated. This means that
whatever social science research findings or conclusions you may read, even in
reputable scientific journals, must not be taken as the same truth that can be found in
the natural sciences. It was not just Charles Darwin who concluded that variations in
life can be explained by the theory of evolution by natural selection, but Alfred Russel
Wallace arrived at the same conclusion independently and at the same time. What
happened to Darwin and Wallace is not happening in the social sciences. What is
social scientifically true in the Philippines, may not be social scientifically true in India.
You may try it for yourself by replicating the famous “marshmallow test.” What seems
to be the problem here? Well, unlike the findings of the natural sciences, the findings
of the social sciences may yield truthful explanations to human behavior at a particular
time, but may lose its potency overtime. People change. Are you the same person ten
years ago? No. And if you were a participant in a social science research ten years
ago, will your responses be the same today? Maybe. Maybe not. And that is a problem.
You are not sure. Another issue is spatial differences. People live in different cultures,
with different languas, different environments, and different political climates. This is a
nightmare in social science research when fulfilling the standard of replicability. The
findings may apply to one specific group of people, but may not be applied to another
group. Bohannon(2015) that this is a particularly problematic
in psychological studies. A group of
270 researches tried to replicate 100
well-known studies and found only
39% replicability. And these include
researches in education, as
education is a social science. (This
one of the reasons why I personally
find Gardner‟s multiple intelligence
and learning styles unscientific bunk).
The issue of replicability will plague
the social sciences for years
Photo: Popular Science to come. Like the natural sciences,
the social sciences seek to build knowledge and to answer socially relevant questions.
This helps in policy formulation and decision-making, be it on the micro level or the
macro level. The problem is it sometimes it does not. It does not often help in
policymaking and decision-making. And unlike the natural sciences, it cannot simply
conduct social experiments to determine what a working social model looks like. In
2008, the world suffered one of the worst economic recessions ever since the Great
Depression of 1930‟s. The social science discipline tasked with providing solutions to
this debacle was economics. Unfortunately, economists never knew
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what to do, nor they had explained why it happened. They have explanations and
answers, but every economist had a different explanation and answer. Until today,
they are still debating what caused the Great
Depression. There are many economic models that
exist today. Do you remember the circular flow
model? You begin with the household and the firm,
then you add the financial markets, then you add the
government, and so on. You understand that that is
how the market operates. You understand the
economic structures and the role they play in the
economy. But this is not enough to guide
policymakers and decision-makers. Most of the
time, the social sciences are focused on these
concepts, operations and structures, and neglect
That these are within the realm of human behavior. Photo: CartoonStock
Human beings are in these structures and is supposed to be the focus of social
science research. Unfortunately, social experiments are difficult. One such
experiment was done in Russia when they built the Soviet Union to test Marxist
socialism. The result was they went back to capitalism, but slaughtering millions of
people in the process. There was a book published in 1994 called The Bell Curve
written by a psychologist named Richard Hernstein and a political scientist named
Charles Murray. The book was based on a study they conducted in the United States
regarding human intelligence.
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Some social scientists criticized the findings through further research. This was good. This
is another issue that the social sciences have to surpass. Doing social science research is
difficult enough but having your findings published or brought into the public is on another
difficulty level, especially when the findings might hurt the feelings of other people. Hernstein
and Murray were not racists, as they categorically denied it. But people thought them to be
racists. Their book is still controversial. The natural sciences have the same problem.
Conspiracy theorists accuse the scientific community of hiding aliens and faking the moon
landing. But they debunk these quack claims through science. When conspiracy theorists get
debunked, they just simply deny and continue on with their tin foil hats. But when the findings
of a social research touches on aspects of people’s lives that are valuable and people do not
like the results, they ban, they cancel, they protest (sometimes violently), they repress the
studies. Hence. the introduction of political correctness. This unfortunate policy was first
introduced to water-down the words people use in any kind of speech, particularly political
speeches. You cannot say “mongoloid,” or “abnormal,” you say “special.” You cannot say
“disabled,” you say “PWD.” If uttering such words would be for the purpose of insulting another
person, indeed censorship is necessary. But when The Bell Curve was published, the
phenomenon extended to the academe. Researches were now under the watchful eyes of
politically correct language.
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Imagine, if a study concluded that poor people are psychopaths, or that women are
incompatible with STEM jobs. Imagine the outcry of everyone for conducting such a
research. Virtue signaling people will take to their social media to denounce you and censor
your findings.
Look at J.K Rowling, she recently (this is2020) published a fictional novel depicting a
transgender as a serial killer. Twitter and Facebook exploded with anger. And that is fiction.
What more if a researcher exposes a hard truth? Social science research is now veering
away from generalizable, theoretical testing approach. It is moving towards qualitative
approaches. It is, in a way, continuing the forward march of social science research without
having to deal with political correctness and the cancel culture. But then again, it builds
incomplete knowledge of human behavior and social phenomenon.
One of the most challenging aspect in social science teaching and learning is appraising
opinions. You need to learn this skill in order to understand the meaning of what others say
and write. It is important to be able to distinguish facts from opinions. Also, if you develop
this skill, it will help you to analyze the accuracy of political claims, advertisements, and many
other types of statements that may be present to you. So, what is the difference between fact
and opinion? A fact can be checked for accuracy and proven. Facts are answers to specific
questions such as what happened, who did, when and where did it happen. While, opinions
are based on values and beliefs. The statements may begin with phrases such as “I believe,”
or “in my opinion.” It may include words such as “should,” “ought,” and judgment words such
as “best,” or “greatest.” When you are distinguishing between fact and opinion, you will need
to ask yourself, does the statement provide specific information about an event? Can you
check the accuracy of the statement? Does the statement express someone's feelings,
beliefs, or judgment? Being able to answer these self- check questions may save you hours
of debate or conversation. In the social sciences, people often conflate opinions with facts,
or vice-versa. For example, Boyet said, “I think the government is doing a good job of
responding to the pandemic.” Clearly, this is an opinion. You may ask, “But I can check the
accuracy of whether the government is doing a good job or not.” Yes, you may. You can look
up the government policies, government reports, action, economic data, reaction of the
people, effects on the people’s lives, and so on to check whether the government is doing a
good job. Therefore, it is a fact. Right? No. The phrase “I think” gave it away. What you need
to check is whether what Boyet said was in his thinking or not. There is no way to look inside
a person’s thinking. There is no way to check the accuracy. Hence, it is an opinion. It is an
opinion because it expressed judgment by using the word “good.” It is an opinion because it
did not provide you with specific information. Besides, in the first place, you have to define
the parameters of what is good and bad. This is one of the weakness of the social sciences.
It cannot put parameters or measurements of human behavior without clashing with
individual and cultural differences (see cultural relativism in sociology). Another example,
Boyet said, “The number of COVID-19 cases today is higher than yesterday’s numbers.”
Clearly, this one is a fact. Not only is this a fact based on the logic of mathematics and
cumulative counting, but because the statement is capable of being checked for accuracy. If
a fact is inaccurate, then it is false. And that is another difference between facts and opinions.
Facts are falsifiable, and opinions are not. Hence, the saying, “Walang maling opinion,” which
is true. But there are uninformed opinions. These are opinions that have no factual basis,
or are irrelevant to the question at hand. Boyet’s first statement can either be informed or
uninformed based on its factual foundation. Imagine being your future self, a teacher, and
you tell your class that you will give five points of credit if they just express their opinion
regarding same-sex marriage. Then one pupil responded saying, “I think President Duterte
is the best president in the entire interstellar universal intergalactic solar system.” That is an
opinion. But is it worth five points?
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Abstraction
The social sciences have been always criticized by the scientific community. As
a young and fledgling field, its plagued by challenges that puts into question the
knowledge it built. Although, following
the stringent rigor of the scientific
method, the social sciences is still
failing in the replicability of its findings.
Differences in time, space, and culture
account for its issues in replication.
Furthermore, the social sciences, being
an all-encompassing field, is subject to
controversy and censorship due to
nature of the public’s perspectives on
political correctness. Findings that may
appear hurtful to the comfort and
feelings of people
interferes in the freedom of social Photo: Joe Dator
science research to explore human
behavior. In the teaching and learning of social sciences, it is important to distinguish
facts and opinions. Both are important in the search for truth, but it is necessary for
teachers to instill in the pupil forming opinions that are informed. The social sciences
is moving forward despite these challenges and may,, in the long run, achieve better
tools in knowledge creation, theory-building, and social modelling.
Application
Below are two articles from The Philippine Star. Read the articles and determine which article
is composed of statements of fact and statements of opinion. Cite your reasons for your
determination. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper (10 pts.)
Article A
Article B
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Reflections and Insights
This module has introduced you to the foundation of social sciences. It was
established that this field deals with human behavior. It was also established that
human behavior, unlike natural phenomenon, cannot be measured or quantified.
Instead, social scientists create concepts that can be translated into quantifiable
variables like socio-economic status measured in annual income. Education, being a
social science, does the same thing. Teachers measure academic achievement
through test scores, rate of classroom participation, attendance, and submitted.
Although this is practical, social science knows this does not completely capture the
entire academic experience of students. Any student who gets high scores through
cheating without getting caught can hardly be called real academic achievement. And
that is how human behavior operates. It is unpredictable and changes constantly. The
hope that the present limitations of the social sciences will be transcended is a hope
that will require concerted efforts among the different fields within it.
Post Assessment!
Final Requirement
Frietag (2011) wrote an article regarding the myths about the social sciences. Here are
five of those myths. Your task is to respond to these myths by writing a 60-word paragraph for
each of them. Write your responses on a separate sheet of paper. (50 pts.)
1. Social science is not objective.
2. Social science data is anecdotal.
3. Social science is pseudo-science.
4. Social science cannot test hypotheses.
5. Social science has no scientific laws like the natural sciences.
Suggested Reading
Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and
Practices. Open Textbook Library.
Bohanon, J. (2015). Many psychology papers fail replication test. ScienceMag Vol.
349, 6251
Camerer, C.F. et al. (2018). Evaluating the replicability of social science experiments
in Nature and Science between 2010 and 2015. Nature: Human Behavior Vol. 2,
634.
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Glossary
References
Websites
https://www.scientific-editing.info/importance-of-reproducibility-in-
science/https://www.popsci.com/what-is-replication-
crisis/https://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/s/social_experiments.aspht
tps://andrewaustin.blog/2019/08/18/against-white-privilege-clarifying-the-
critique-of-a- problematic-term/
https://medium.com/@alexshelton/the-backfire-of-political-correctness-
d1d9a45c15cbhttps://fivedotoh.com/2018/03/07/im-entitled-to-my-opinion/
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