Ge9 Sim

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Arts and Sciences Education

Social Sciences Discipline
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: GE9 - Ethics
Name of Teacher: Rey Atacador
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY, NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
General Education – Social Sciences
2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City
Phone No.: (082) 300 – 5456 / 305 – 0647 local 134
GE 9 – ETHICS
Course Coordinator: Rey Atacador

Email: rey_atacador@umindanao.edu.ph
Mobile Number: +63 977 347 3733
Effectivity Date: June 2020
Student Consultation: by online appointment
Mode of Delivery: Blended (Online with Face-to-Face or Virtual Sessions)
Time Frame: 54 hours / 9 weeks
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3 units
Attendance Requirements: a minimum of 95% attendance at all scheduled virtual or face-
to-face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details
This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is

designed for blended learning mode of
instructional delivery with scheduled face-to-
face or virtual sessions. The expected number
Contact and Non-contact Hours
of hours will be 54, including the face-to-face or
virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions
shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams).
Submission of summative assessment tasks

shall be on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th weeks of the
term. The assessment paper shall be attached
with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task, the name of the course
Assessment Task Submission
coordinator, date of submission, and the name
of the student. The document could be emailed
to the course coordinator, or handed over via
Blackboard Learning Management System
(LMS). It is also expected that the student
already paid his tuition and other fees before
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the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real-time

through the features in the Blackboard Learning
Management System, the schedule shall be
arranged ahead of time by the course
coordinator.
Penalties for Late

Assignments/Assessments The score for an assessment item submitted
after the designated time on the due date
without an approved extension of time, will be
reduced by 5% of the possible minimum score
for that assessment item for each day that the
assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment

paper has a valid reason, a letter of explanation
should be submitted and approved by the
course coordinator. If necessary, evidence
must be presented and/or attached.
Assessment tasks will be returned two (2)

weeks after the submission. This will be
returned via email or via the Blackboard portal.
Return of Assignments/ For group assessment tasks, the course
Assessments coordinator will require some or few of the
students for online or virtual sessions to ask
clarificatory questions to validate the originality
of the assessment task submitted, and to
ensure that all group members are involved.
Students should request in writing addressed to

the course coordinator his intention to resubmit
an assessment task. The resubmission is
premised on the student’s failure to comply with
Assignment Resubmission the similarity index and other reasonable
grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances, including
but not limited to illness, accidents, and
financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment Papers

and Appeal Students must request in writing addressed to
the program coordinator his intention to appeal
or contest the scores given to assessment
tasks. The letter should explicitly explain the
reasons or points to contest said grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with
the students on the approval or disapproval of
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the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator,

students can elevate the case to the program
head or the dean, with the original letter of
request attached. Final decision will come from
the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from the Blackboard sessions and

traditional contact
Course discussions/ exercises – 30%

1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions

(TBA)
Final Examination – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the

usual university system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style APA 6th Edition
Students are required to create umindanao

email account, which is a prerequisite to
accessing the Blackboard portal. Then, the
course coordinator shall enroll the students to
have access to the materials and resources of
the course. All communication formats – chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests, etc.
– shall be through the portal and other
Student Communication university-recognized platforms.
Students can also meet the course coordinator

in person through the scheduled face-to-face
sessions to raise issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their

student email. Please contact the course
coordinator or program head.
Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion

Contact Details of the Dean khristinemarie_concepcion@umindanao.edu.ph
(082) 300-54-56 / 305-0647 local 134
Contact Details of the Program Head

Dr. Victoria O. Ligan
victoria_ligan@umindanao.edu.ph
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(082) 300-54-56 / 305-0647 local 134
Students with special needs shall communicate

with the course coordinator about the nature of
their special needs. Depending on the nature of
the need, the course coordinator, with the
approval of the program coordinator, may
Students with Special Needs
provide alternative assessment tasks or
extensions of submission deadlines. However,
alternative assessment tasks should still be in
the service of achieving the desired course
learning outcomes.
Brigida E. Bacani
Library Contact Details library@umindanao.edu.ph
0951 376 6681
Guidance Services and Testing Center (GSTC)

(082) 305-06-45 / 227-5456
Well-Being Welfare Support Help Desk
(ask to connect to the office of the GSTC
Facilitator/Head)
Course Information
see/download course syllabus from the Blackboard LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello! Welcome to the GE 9 – Ethics course!

Ethics is a systematic study of different moral theories and principles. This
course will guide you on how to weigh things in order to provide a sound judgment in
the midst of the vast influence of moral relativism, and will further provide practical
issues in order to train you how to address problems in real-life situations.
Concerned with the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally
picks up from the community, this deals with principles and behavior in modern
society at the level of the person with society, and in interaction with the environment
and other shared resources. The course also teaches the students to make moral
decisions by using some dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step
moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas.
Upon completion of this course, you are expected to assess the morality of
actions and behaviors by taking into consideration the factors affecting them;
evaluate the moral worth of actions and behaviors through the establishment
between these two and the moral responsibilities of the agent; use ethical
frameworks in analyzing moral experiences, making ethical sound judgments based
on principles, facts, and stakeholders; and apply sound moral reasoning to some
issues in modern society.
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Let us begin!
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◈ TABLE OF CONTENTS ◈
Weeks 1-36
Ethics as a Philosophical Enterprise6
Norms 11
Factors Affecting Human Behavior 14
Challenges to Morality 18
Human Acts and Acts of Man22
Weeks 4-626
Teleological Ethics 26
Deontological Ethics 32
Virtue Ethics 37
Weeks 7-941
Justice and Fairness 41
Citizen’s Responsibility 46
Globalization and Pluralism52
Filinnialism 55
Ethics and Religion 60
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◈ BIG PICTURE ◈
Weeks 1-3
At the end of the unit, you are expected to humanely assess the morality of actions and
behaviors by taking into consideration the factors affecting them. You must be able to:
a. define the nature of ethics as a philosophical enterprise;

b. learn and understand the difference between moral standards and other rules, and
identify moral from non-moral dilemmas;
c. acknowledge factors affecting human behavior;
d. recognize determinism and relativism as challenges to morality;
e. differentiate human acts from acts of man;
f. identify and explain the determinants of morality; and
g. discuss the modifiers of human acts
BIG PICTURE in Focus

a. define the nature of Ethics as a philosophical enterprise
◈ METALANGUAGE ◈
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to studying Ethics are operationally defined.
Philosophy – (etymologically, the love of wisdom, from the Greek root phillien which means
love, and Sophia which means wisdom) the endless search for the ultimate causes, reasons,
and principles of everything that there is, which answers are sought by the aid of human
reason alone
Ethics – etymologically, the characteristic way of acting – from the Greek root ethos; or
custom or traditional line of conduct – from the Greek word ethike, which, when translated to
Latin, becomes mos or moris – where the English term “morality” is based from
◈ ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ◈
Man’s mind always longs for understanding and making sense of the world around. Human
civilization prospered much not when people started to live for survival, but when man began
to wonder. With so much that requires explanation, wonder marks the beginning of man’s
unquenchable desire to understand.
Wonder is the birth of Philosophy. Philosophy is the endless search for the ultimate causes,
reasons, and principles of all that there is – endless, because each answer would only give
birth to more questions, thereby making Philosophy lean more towards the process of
arriving towards the answers more so than the answer itself. In seeking truth, Philosophy
uses human reason and rational justification instead of merely abiding by established laws of
history, culture, and religion.
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The earliest recorded philosophers addressed their questions with that which was
observable in nature. As Philosophy progressed, the world was honored to have Socrates,
who – even though he never put any of his ideas or questions into writing – still remains to
be a philosopher archetype because of his student Plato. From asking about the way things
are, until questioning how man can know, philosophers had developed lines of thought most
appropriate for their historical context. But even when Plato already allegedly addressed
almost every question thrown, with the western philosophical tradition being that which
consists of a series of footnotes to Plato 1, why does the philosophical search still carry on
until today?
For example, you may have read a lot of arguments circulating online, regarding how the
COVID-19 pandemic is best addressed. Even when we do not take active part in doing the
primary decision-making regarding the pandemic, we form a lot of opinions regarding the
possible solutions. A lot of disputes arise when netizens no longer tackle the issue at hand,
most especially when they resort to attacking the arguer instead of the argument. Situations
like these could magnify the need of having rational, moral justifications and reach logical
conclusions, and so we, until today, still philosophize.
Or, imagine if the leaders of the country thought about instantly eliminating the first person in
the Philippines to ever be tested positive. To kill such patient could save many Filipino lives.
Once the patient is protected at all costs, it is likely that more Filipinos would get infected (as
it is now, apparently), and this third-world country with poor healthcare system would suffer
in epic proportions, resulting in far greater loss of life. One can easily compare the number of
lives that will be lost (only one, that of the patient’s), versus the number of lives that could be
spared if the contagion is stopped in its earliest stage. But why did we never resort to killing
that one patient?
Man is programmed to question and challenge almost every truth ever encountered,
particularly on how he is ought to act. For Agapay, as quoted by Fernandez, without moral
perception, man is only an animal. Without morality, man as a rational and free being is a
failure.2
This course, in particular, focuses on that one branch of philosophy which helps us examine
and evaluate actions as good or evil, moral or immoral.
“I tell you that to let no day pass without discussing goodness and all the other subjects
about which you hear me talking and examining is really the very best thing that a man can
do, and that life without this sort of examination is not worth living.” 3 To examine what it
means to lead a “good life” was constant denominator in Socrates’ every critical enterprise.
But what does it mean to do good?
Etymologically, Ethics is the characteristic way of acting (from the Greek root ethos) and
custom or traditional line of conduct (from the Greek word ethike, which, when translated to
Latin, becomes mos or moris – where the English term “morality” is based from). Given that,
ethics and morality literally have the same meaning, and are usually used synonymously and
interchangeably. But although coming from the same etymology, ethics and morality still
needs to be distinguished apart.
1
Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, (Free Press, 1979, p. 39)
2
Fernandez, Apolinar Henry. 2018. ETHICS: Deciding What’s Right and Wrong. Philippines: SMKC Printshoppe.
3
Plato, Apology, in Plato: The Collected Dialogues, eds. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (New York:
Pantheon Books, 1961).
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For Sambajon, as quoted by Fernandez, both Ethics and Morality are after the goodness
and evilness, rightness and wrongness of human acts. But in ethics, we specifically study
morality. Morality gives ethics a particular perspective of what to study about – that is, the
rectitude of whether an act is good or bad, right or wrong. Morality provides with a quality
that determines and distinguishes right conduct from wrong conduct. 4 So, for Babor, as
quoted still by Fernandez, whilst ethics outlines the principles and guidelines as to what is
good and evil, it is morality that actualizes these principles. Ethics is the “word” while
morality is the “flesh”.5
Philosophically, Ethics, also known as Moral Philosophy, is the practical science of the
morality of human act and of the good life. It deals with how man ought to live, with the idea
and the pursuit of the good.6
◈ SELF HELP ◈
You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand the lesson.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Definition of Morality
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/morality-definition/
Simpson, P. (2014). Aristotle’s Four Ethics. Φιλοσοφια: International Journal of Philosophy

http://ejournals.ph/form/cite.php?id=4894
Collins, P. M. (2018). Introducing Ethical Inquiries. Φιλοσοφια: International Journal of

Philosophy
◈ LET’S CHECK ◈
Supply the appropriate missing word/s in the following statements.
1. ____________ inquires into the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of all things.
2. ____________ is the practical science of the morality of human act.
3. In morality, the discussion is primarily about how man is _________ to live.
4. ____________ literally means traditional line of conduct.
5. Philosophy begins in __________.
6. Without ___________, man is only an animal.
7. ____________ literally means the characteristic way of acting.
8. While Ethics outlines the principles and guidelines as to what is good and evil, it is
__________ that actualizes these principles.
9. Ethics deals with how man should live with the idea and in the pursuit of the
_________.
10. An unexamined life is not worth living was the notion of the philosopher
____________.
4
Fernandez, Apolinar Henry. 2018. ETHICS: Deciding What’s Right and Wrong. Philippines: SMKC Printshoppe.
5
Ibid.
6
Ibid.
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◈ LET’S ANALYZE ◈
Given that it’s the 21st century and that almost everyone is entitled to their own opinion and
view about almost everything, try to convince the people of your generation why studying
ethics and morality is still relevant.
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◈ Q & A List ◈
Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers
◈ KEYWORD INDEX ◈
 Philosophy
 Ethics
 Morality
 Moral responsibility
 Moral perception
 Practical science
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b. learn and understand the difference between moral standards and other rules, and
identify moral from non-moral dilemmas
Norms – (etymologically, a carpenter’s pattern, from the Latin root norma, referring to the
laying down of the correct angles) the standards of wrong and right
One measure in which human act is evaluated morally is in reference to norms. A norm,
etymologically, refers to a carpenter’s pattern, square, or rule, from the Latin root norma,
referring to the laying down of the correct angles. With this, man can see how the term
“normal” works in geometrical terms. One can identify different types of norms, namely:
a. Technical Norms
These are standards that has something to do with craft of art (from the root
techne) as an application of knowledge (in Latin episteme), hence the term. These
norms pertain to survival, well-being, and health.7
b. Societal Norms
These are standards for group cohesion and strengthening the bonds that
keep the community together. This primarily covers values, customs, manners, and
practices that are considered appropriate by the society.8
c. Aesthetic Norms
From the Greek root aesthesis, which means sense or feeling, these are
standards that correspond to human perception which become the basis of our
approval or disapproval of things that has something to do with material appearances
like color, taste, odor, texture, and sound.
d. Moral Norms
In this type, man and his actions re judged to be good or bad, right or wrong.
All other norms are to be subordinated to this moral norm.9
It is of high importance to learn to differentiate various types of norms. Such knowledge
would bring us guidance as to what is appropriate for a discussion in Ethics and Morality.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
7
Parry, R. Episteme and Techne. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 edition)
8
Fernandez, Apolinar Henry. 2018. ETHICS: Deciding What’s Right and Wrong. Philippines: smkc Printshoppe.
9
Ibid.
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Bicchieri, C., Jeffrey, R. & Skyrms, B. (Eds.) (1997) The Dynamics of Norms. Cambridge
University Press
https://books.google.com.ph/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=ddc9AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=0xiyLtuzX2&sig=T0_0PZobrncw_T76o
4hVjX6n_Jk&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
Identify which type of norms do the following belong. Write A for Aesthetic Norm, B or
Social Norm, C for Technical Norm and D for Moral Norm.
1. these are considered proper and appropriate because they maintain the bonds that
keep the community together.
2. These are the perceptual standards which are considered beautiful.
3. This is concerned with the ways of working and doing things pertaining to survival.
4. the best way to harvest rice
5. the fashion sense of female actresses
6. the arguments behind death penalty
7. not talking when the mouth is full
8. what makes an artwork pleasing to the eyes
9. discourses about Extra-Judicial Killings
10. arguments for and against divorce
Do we uphold and follow norms because they’re “good”? Or are things “good” because they
are “normal?”
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◈ Q & A List ◈
 Norms
 Technical Norms
 Societal Norms
 Aesthetic Norms
 Moral Norms
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c. acknowledge factors affecting human behavior
Nature – factors that are natural or biological
Nurture – factors that are shaped by eternals such as the society
Culture – the way of life of particular groups of people
Religion – a system of beliefs concerning the divine
Much of human behavior is brought about by his experiences. It is necessary, therefore, take
into consideration the doer’s rootedness when it comes analyzing and evaluating his moral
actions. Below are some of the factors in the development of moral behavior.
Nature
Neuroscience is finding the brain structures and functioning that make for the "ethical brain".
In Aristotle’s Zoon Politikon, man is a social animal, and as such, he has evolved in part due
to his capacity to be to others, and have empathy and sympathy that serve as the bases for
basic rules of conduct needed to live harmoniously with others. Morality is a result of
empathy and sympathy.10
Marc D. Hauser, a Harvard biologist, holds that man is born with a moral grammar wired into
his neural circuits as a product of evolution. This system in the brain generates moral
judgments. This was needed in part because often quick decisions must be made in
situations where life is threatened. In such predicaments, there is no time for accessing the
conscious mind. Most people appear to be unaware of this deep moral processing because
the left hemisphere of the brain has been adept at producing interpretations of events and
information and doing so rapidly thus generating what may be accepted as rationalizations
for the decision or impulse and response. Morality may be rooted deep in the evolved
workings of human brain.11
Nurture
Besides nature, nurture us also plays a big part in forming human behavior. Man acquires
moral precepts from a number of external factors. Man becomes moral from his involvement
with family, friends, and other social structures and institutions which he belongs in, like
culture, school, religion, and even the media.
Culture
10
O’Sullivan, Stephen and Pecorino, Philip. (2002) Ethics. Suffolk County and Queensborough Community
Colleges
11
Ibid.
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Morality promotes individual and collective goodness, and man’s sense of wrong and right
may stem up from his cultural beliefs. Culture may affect our moral decisions and
dispositions. How we view and treat people, for example, can be heavily dictated by culture.
However, if we consider cultural beliefs and practices that militate against ethical values, it
becomes quite evident that culture alone could never be the arbiter of what is ethical. We
now take a dim view of people who, in the past, appealed to their culture to justify slavery, or
treating women as inferiors. In some cultures, in parts of northern and west Africa, female
genital mutilation (cutting) is still prevalent. Customarily, an appeal is made to culture to
justify this cruel and inhumane practice, thus affirming male superiority over women. And
there are some who justify tolerance of corruption because their culture requires loyalty to
their brothers.12
Religion
The concepts of morality and religiosity have been associated with each other in a manner
that these two co-exist and they are of equal importance for a human person’s eventual ideal
character. Accordingly, moral philosophy teaches that a person’s moral foundation can be
linked to his spiritual foundation and vice versa as one of religions’ thrusts is construct the
moral fibers necessary for man’s ethical existence. A human person’s spirituality and
morality are substantial parts of his nature that he has to learn, nourish and value them so
that he may develop into an ideal human person that he is supposed to be.13
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Agaton, S. G.. (2015). Morality and Religiosity: A Filipino Experience.
Mansueto, M. P.. (2011). When Society Meets the Individual, Marx Contra Nietzsche:
Antipodal Views on Society, Morality, and Religion.
12
Landman, WA (2013). Ethics and Culture. The Ethics Institute. Retrieved from
https://www.tei.org.za/index.php/resources/articles/business-ethics/2249-ethics-and-culture
13
Agaton, S. G.. (2015). Morality and Religiosity: A Filipino Experience. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Research
Journal, 3(2). Retrieved from http://ejournals.ph/form/cite.php?id=13190
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How did the following factors shape you as a moral person? Cite two concrete scenarios for
each.
Nature Nurture Culture Religion
How do we reconcile all the evil in the world if, as religion preaches, there is a God who is all
at once omnipotent and omnibenevolent?
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◈ Q & A List ◈
 ethical brain
 social animal
 Nature and Nurture
 Culture
 Religion
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d. recognize determinism and relativism as challenges to morality
Determinism – the view that all things, including the will, are already pre-determined
Relativism – insists that moral values are subjective
Philosophers have long since debated whether morality is really possible or not. There are
those who view morality as a matter of individual judgment and that there are no common or
universal moral obligation. There is also a need to confront those who deny free-will or those
who ask how there can be any absolute basis of morality if all things, including human
choices, are completely pre-determined.
Determinism
Determinists view all things as causally determined; that is, for anything that happens, it
could not have happened otherwise. If it is true that all things are determined, this must also
apply to the human innate capacity of willing and choosing, thus, denying free-will. It is not
clear whether morality presupposes freewill. What sense would there be in talking about
morality and moral responsibility if one did not and cannot choose and act freely in the first
place? In establishing blame or guilt, even in legal contexts, it is important to ascertain
whether the doer was forced or not. Freewill, thus, is a condition for responsible, moral
actions.14 The fact that man is in no control over his actions, whether good or evil, has no
bearing on such actions being good or evil.
Relativism
“Man is the measure of all things,” has become so common that, although Protagoras did not
intend to make this statement as a basis for morality, throughout the development of ethics
such statement is always applied. Ethical relativism denies that there are common or
universal or objective moral values. It insists, rather, that moral values are subjective. One of
the arguments given is that of ethical views and opinions being conditioned by
circumstances. What one thinks as good may depend upon his upbringing, education,
religious instruction, and even ethnic background. The challenge of relativism is that, since
how we make sense of our moral quests and moral disputes is purely relative, morality
possess no objective or absolute status beyond the individual’s own notions.15
◈ SELF HELP ◈
14
Miller, Ed. L. (1998). Questions that Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. McGraw Hill.
15
Ibid.
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Keegan, Simon. Are killers born with 'murder gene'? Scientists now say they have the answer.
https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/science/killers-born-murder-gene-
scientists-4528684
Azadboni, R. . (2011). Cultural Relativism and the Realistic Approach of Moral Values. Liceo
Journal of Higher Education Research
Compare Relativism and Determinism, and choose which standpoint, for you, is more
successful in making morality a futile endeavor.
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Write a reaction paper about the statement of the famous Attorney Clarence Darrow to
the prisoners of the Cook County Jail:
There is no such thing as a crime as the word us generally understood. I do not believe
there is any sort of distinction between the real moral conditions of the people in and out of
jail. One is just as good as the other. The people here can no more help being here than the
people outside can avoid being outside. I do not believe that people are in jail because they
deserve to be. They are in jail simply because they cannot avoid it on account of
circumstances which are entirely beyond their control and for which they are in no way
responsible. There are people who think that everything in this world is an accident. But
really there is no such thing as an accident. There are a great many people here who have
done some of these things (murder, theft, etc.) who really do not know themselves why they
did them. it looked to you at the time as if you had a chance to do them or not, as you saw
fit; but still, after all, you had no choice. If you look at the question deeply enough and
carefully enough, you will see that there were circumstances that drove you to do exactly the
thing which you did. You could not help it any more than we outside can help taking the
positions that we take.
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◈ Q & A List ◈
 Free will
 Determinism
 Relativism
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e. differentiate human acts from acts of man
Human Acts – acts that proceed from the deliberate freewill of man
Acts of Man – acts that man has in common with animals; acts that are biological and/or
physiological, instinctive, and performed without free will and deliberation
Before one can determine whether an act is morally right or wrong, one must identify first
whether the doer can be morally responsible for his kind of actions. Gualdo expounds
characteristics for acts to be considered a human act.16
Acts of Man Human Acts

Involuntary deliberate
Acts that man has in common with animals free
Natural acts of vegetative and sense faculties (biological & physiological) voluntary
Of the elements aforementioned, Glenn considered voluntariness as the formal essential

quality of a human act.17 What makes man morally responsible, therefore, is voluntariness
with which the act is done. Acts of man, since done in the absence of such essential
elements, are not meant to be subjected to the rules of morality. However, once done with
malice and performed directed by the will, acts of man can become human acts.
Such voluntariness, however, can be tainted depending upon the disposition of the doer.
Certain conditions may influence mental or emotional states of the agent, to the point of
affecting not just voluntariness but any of the three elements of human act. Such factors or
obstacles are called Modifiers of Human Act. They are as follows:
Modifiers of Human Act definition

the absence of knowledge necessary for
Ignorance
the performance of an act
the passions or strong emotions or the
Concupiscence
bodily tendencies of man
the agitation of the mind caused by an
Fear
impending danger or threat
the external force done in order to compel
Violence
one to do something against his will
Habit the acts frequently-done and repeated
16
Gualdo, R. 2010. Ethics: Basic Concepts. Philippines: Mutya Publishing.
17
Ibid.
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Ten Basic Principles of Morality18 are what emanates from the modifiers. These are:
1. Invincible Ignorance destroys the voluntariness of an act.
2. Vincible Ignorance does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness of an act.
3. Affected Ignorance in one way lessens and in another way increases the
voluntariness of an act.
4. Antecedent Concupiscence does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness of an act.
5. Consequent Concupiscence, however great, does not lessen the voluntariness of an
act.
6. Acts done from fear, however great, does not lessen the voluntariness of an act.
7. Acts elicited by the will are not subject to violence; external acts caused by violence,
to which due resistance is offered, are in no wise imputable to the agent.
8. Habit does not destroy voluntariness; and acts from habit are always voluntary, at
least in cause, as long as the habit is allowed to endure.
9. The agent is responsible for the foreseeable evil effect of an act that he is free to
avoid.
10. The agent may perform an act, not evil in itself, from which both good and evil effects
flow provided that the evil effect does not precede the good effect; there is sufficient
reason for doing the act; and that the good effect is the one intended, the evil effect
being only secondary and unintentional.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Action
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/action/
18
Ibid.
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Identification. Write A if the item refers to Acts of Man, and B for Human Acts.
1. done without the agent’s free choice
2. done without the proper use of reason
3. acts which proceed from the deliberate free will of man
4. acts that man has in common with animals
5. acts done with knowledge, consent and voluntariness
6. mass murder
7. growth of toenails
8. going to church
9. increase in waistline
10. snoring
11. teaching a class
12. yawning
13. aging / getting old
14. robbery
15. catching a flu
The citizen of a nearby town was caught selling Agarwood, an endangered tree
species. His goal was to donate a large sum of money to the pandemic front-liners. He
says he received a memorandum about the prohibition of selling it, but he did not
bother to read it because he was illiterate.
Which particular Modifier of Human Acts can be observed in this case? Can his act be
justified? Support your answer.
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◈ Q & A List ◈
 Human Acts
 Acts of Man
 Knowledge
 Freedom
 Voluntariness
 Modifiers of Human Acts
 Ignorance
 Invincible Ignorance
 Vincible Ignorance
 Concupiscence
 Fear
 Violence
 Habit
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◈ BIG PICTURE ◈
Weeks 4-6
At the end of the unit, you are expected to learn and make use of the basic ethical theories
which serve as frameworks in making moral decisions. You must be able to:
h. classify and articulate one of the major the ethical theories – Teleological Ethics
i. classify and articulate another major ethical theory – Deontological Ethics
j. classify and articulate Virtue Ethics

h. classify and articulate one of the major the ethical theories – Teleological Ethics
Teleological Ethics – from the Greek root telos which means ends, morality is based upon
the action’s ends or consequences
Utilitarianism – the principle that above all else considers the greatest good for the greatest
number of people
Hedonism – sees pleasure as the highest good in life
Bentham’s Utilitarianism is influenced by the movement that started in Renaissance towards
the Modern Period, the golden age of science and technology which is widely known as the
Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. “Known as the Classical Utilitarians, Bentham and Mill,
were concerned with legal and social reform.” (SEP: The History of Utilitarianism) Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832) was an English philosopher known for his political and ethical
theories. Bentham’s father was a subscriber to the ideas of enlightenment rationalist. (IEP:
Bentham)
Utilitarianism advocates for the consideration of individual or social experiences over the
reigning absolute moral standard imposed on individual persons or society. The theory
teaches that an action has no intrinsic and absolute moral worth. Clearly, this movement is a
movement away from dominion of authorities (feudal lords, kings and Church of the
medieval ages) towards respecting individual choice, from ideal or universal to experiential
or particular. Instead, for instance, of following the rules of the authorities which are
absolute, one may also have to start with individual human experience. It is one thing to
follow a rule “Thou shall not kill” and it is another thing to ask “Why one has to be
euthanized? or Why a specific girl has to abort her pregnancy?” In other words, Utilitarian
gives us another way of being moral apart from the rules and scriptural prescriptions. Thus,
reason alone gives us an edge to be moral while actions and laws are to be made in
accordance with their circumstantial advantages rather than in their intrinsic nature.
Utilitarianism has various forms but in general the doctrine holds that the morality of human
action is determined by its usefulness, for this theory the best action is the one that
maximizes utility. Bentham describes utility as “…the property of something whereby it tends
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to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness or to prevent the happening of

mischief pain, evil, or unhappiness to the party19 whose interest is considered.” (Bentham
1823, Chap 1, 3) Mill adds, “…the Greatest Happiness Principle holds that actions are right
in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse
of happiness. (Mill 1863, Chap 2)
Utilitarianism and Consequentialism

Clearly, by emphasizing the outcome rather than the action qualifies Utilitarianism to be
classified as consequentialist. Unlike Christian morality which is based on absolute and
universal rules, Utilitarianism mainly based its moral judgment on the result of the action and
its rules are not absolute for they should be altered whenever the circumstances change.
As consequentialist, Utilitarianism does not classify any action or law as good or bad apart
from its outcome or result. Killing, for instance, is not classified as evil or bad, and helping is
not classified as good unlike the traditional conventional notions that believes the intrinsic
moral worth of an action. Human actions (and laws such as legal abortion), for Utilitarian, do
not have moral worth. It is the consequence that determines whether one’s action or law is
good or bad.
The Hedonist Aspect of Bentham’s Utilitarianism

In the beginning of his book Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,
Bentham writes: “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign
masters, pain and pleasure.” (Bentham 1823, Chap 1, 1) Clearly, Bentham subscribes to the
teaching of Hedonism at some degree. Hedonism comes from the Greek word ἡδονή
(hēdonē) for pleasure. Epicurus was arguably the most notable hedonist in the Ancient
Greeks and “For him, happiness was the complete absence of bodily and especially mental
pains, including fear of the Gods and desires for anything other than the bare necessities of
life.” (Weijers, Hedonism)
Following the doctrine of Hedonism, Benthan believes that the consequence of our action
should produce more pleasures than pains in order to be judged as good, if it produces more
pains than pleasures, then it should be judged as bad. Since the only intrinsic good is
pleasure and the intrinsic bad is pain.
Hedonic Calculus
When an individual (or government) has to make a moral decision one measures the value
of action (or law) according to the metric Hedonic Calculus. Hedonic Calculus, also known
as felicific calculus, is introduced by Bentham. The result of the equation will determine the
morality of the decision or law. Seven criteria are involved in such a measuring device, in
Bentham’s very own words they are as follows:
(1) its intensity. (How intense is the pleasure or pain?)
(2) its duration. (How long does the pleasure or pain last?)
(3) its certainty or uncertainty. (How probable is the occurrence of pleasure or pain)
(4) its nearness or remoteness. (Also known as Propinquity: How far off is the pleasure
or pain?)
19
Bentham means by Party as individual or community.
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(5) its fecundity, i.e. its chance of being followed by sensations of the same kind
(pleasure by pleasure, pain by pain)
(6) its purity, i.e. its chance of not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind
(pleasure by pain, pain by pleasure).
(7) its extent, i.e. the number of persons to whom it extends or (in other words) who are
affected by it.
“Bentham does not recommend that they figure into every act of moral deliberation because
of the efficiency costs which need to be considered.” (SEP: The History of Utilitarianism) We
should also learn from experience and consider obvious facts. The Utilitarian Principle does
not only apply to human actions alone; Laws can also be crafted if it could produce more
pleasures than pains for the people. However, unlike the Divine Laws and Kant’s
Imperatives that are absolute, Bentham’s is mutable. Thus, the law should be changed if the
social conditions change or if the law no longer produces more pleasures than pains.
The Greatest Happiness Principle

Unlike other consequentialist ethical theories such as Egoism, Bentham and Mill concern
themselves with the well-being and happiness of all people (or at least the majority). For Mill,
the Utilitarian Standard…“is not the agent’s own greatest happiness, but the greatest
amount of happiness altogether…” (Mill 1863, Chap 2) A girl may abort her pregnancy but it
must not only for her own pleasure but for many over one embryo. A dying ninety two years
old grandfather might be euthanized for the welfare of the entire family for if not doing so
may result into miseries of all family members in the near future. Sacrifice one for the many
but never sacrifice the many for one.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The History of Utilitarianism
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/
Crash Course Philosophy, Utilitarianism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI
True or False: Write (T) if your answer is True or (F) if it were False. (1 point each item)
1. _____ ‘Hedon’ is a Greek word for pleasure.

2. _____ Bentham is hedonist.
3. _____ Bentham is not consequentialist.
4. _____ Mill is utilitarian.
5. _____ Utilitarian argues that killing is bad in itself.
6. _____ A hedonist necessarily considers the outcome of the act rather than the act.
7. _____ Mill rejects every notion of Bentham’s utilitarianism.
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8. _____ Bentham and Mill are advocates of democracy.

9. _____ Bentham and Mill are both modern philosophers.
10. _____ Utilitarian believes that the purpose of human action is happiness.
Fill-in the blanks:
1. _____________________ is the ethical doctrine that teaches that the moral worth of
an action depends solely on the pleasure or pain that one may get from its outcome.
2. Bentham formulated a mathematical device to measure the pain and pleasure of
consequence of human action known as ______________________________.
3. Bentham is for quantity while Mill is for ______________________ of pleasure.
4. Utilitarian believes that no action is ___________________ good or bad.
5. According to Bentham, mankind is under the governance of two sovereign masters,
___________________ and
6. ___________________.
7. Mill says it is better to be __________________ dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.
8. _______________________ is a doctrine adopted by utilitarianism that teaches that
the most important is the outcome and not the human act in judging the moral worth.
9. For utilitarianism the __________ justifies the means.
10. Bentham founded his doctrine of utilitarianism on the teachings of hedonism and
_____________________.
The country is alarmed with the recent spread of the novel Coronavirus. In its earliest stage
where only one Filipino was confirmed positive. To kill such patient could save many Filipino
lives. Once the patient is protected at all costs, it is likely that more Filipinos would get
infected (as it is now, apparently), and this third-world country with poor healthcare system
would suffer in epic proportions, resulting in far greater loss of life. One can easily compare
the number of lives that will be lost (only one, that of the patient’s), versus the number of
lives that could be spared if the contagion is stopped in its earliest stage. In the light of
Bentham and Mill’s Utilitarianism, what must you do?
Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism

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Mill’s Utilitarianism
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◈ Q & A List ◈
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 Teleological Ethics
 Consequentialism
 Utilitarianism
 utility
 Hedonism
 Egoism
 Hedonic Calculus
 Greatest Happiness principle
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i. classify and articulate another major ethical theory – Deontological Ethics
Deontological Ethics – from the Greek root deon which means duty or obligation, morality
is based upon the doer’s obligation
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is the most influential thinker of the modern philosophy, he
synthetized the early modern rationalism and empiricism. Like most other modern thinkers,
he advocates for the importance of the self or individuals over the imposed rules and
external commands. As product or part of the epoch known as the age of enlightenment or
also known as age of reason that leads to the advent of the modern age, Kant invites people
to go back to the self since just like the authorities we are fully capable of using our reason.
This is what he means with ‘enlightenment’. Enlightened people do not only roll over on
command, they use their intellect. Central to the works of Kant is his contributions to the
fields of epistemology, ethics and aesthetics. These represent the truth, the good and the
beautiful which long had been discussed by Plato.
Knowledge of the principles of morality is ‘A Priori’

Kant identifies two types of knowledge, the knowledge acquired ‘A Posteriori’ (after
experience). and the knowledge acquired ‘A Priori’ (Before experience).
All scientific knowledge are examples of knowledge acquired ‘A Posteriori’. We acquire
those knowledges using our senses or through experience. But there are also knowledges
that can be acquired even prior to experience or “A Priori’, i.e., knowledge we could know
even without being taught or even without seeing them but by virtue of pure reason devoid of
any experience. This includes the knowledge of the principles of morality. Kant argues that
“…all moral concepts have their seat and origin completely ‘a priori’ in reason…They cannot
be abstracted from any empirical, and hence merely contingent, cognition.” (Grounding, 411)
This simply means that we could know that lying, not keeping promises and the likes to be
morally wrong by virtue of priori principles. On the other hand, we would know that helping
people in need is morally good even no one told us about it.
Good Will
In his book “Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals” Kant says, “There is no possibility of
thinking of anything at all in the world, or even out of it, which can be regarded as good
without qualification, except a good will.” (Grounding 393)
Anything that is bad for Kant is bad, but some actions we consider to be good may not really
be good and has to be qualified. Saving a person from drowning may not really be good if
were tainted with other motives. The only thing in this world which is good in itself is the
‘good will’. Internal it is that Kant is concern with and not the external ones. The good will is
something internal to us and it is the most important to determine the moral worth of an
action. He says, “For when moral value is being considered, the concern is not with the
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actions, which are seen, but rather with their inner principles, which are not seen.”
(Grounding 407) The highest good then is none other than the ‘good will’, not happiness. Do
the good even if it does not make you happy or even if it will give you unpleasant outcomes.
Autonomy of the Will

Since every rational could possess the knowledge of the principles of morals a priori, then it
follows that human beings deserve to exercise their autonomy of the will. They don’t have to
be told what to do or what is right and wrong since by virtue of their being human they have
internal capacity to know the good even without being. Thus, human does not need anyone’s
law or dictate in order to know and do the good. “Autonomy of the Will” it is when one does
good actions by virtue of its own will and free from any dictates of external influences such
as command and rewards.
If anyone’s ‘will’ is not free from any dictate or external influences or external motive, the will
is called by Kant as “Heteronomy of the Will”, e.g. if one’s will tend to choose some act for a
corresponding reward. Thus, any external command or external motive (reward or
punishment) make the ‘Will’ heteronomous.
Categorical Imperative
Since the principles of morality could be known ‘a priori’, Kant argues that we should craft
our own imperative for ourselves and we should not allow others to craft and imposed their
laws on us. The former is called categorical imperative and the latter is hypothetical
imperative. The law we may craft that is influenced by reward is, like God’s Command,
external to the person must also be considered as Hypothetical Imperative. (See also
Grounding 414)
Categorical Imperative is the only source of authentic morality, the Hypothetical Imperative,
on the other hand, is the source of fake or unscrupulous morality.
Universal Validity of Maxim

As we have discussed already, Kant urges us to craft our own imperatives free from dictates
of any external influence, such as command or rewards. However, we should not only craft
any imperative without considering its universal validity. Kant says, “Act as if the maxim of
your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature.” (Grounding, 421)
Consider, for instance, the following maxims; 1.) I should not keep promises. 2.) I should not
murder 3. I should lie. Then, after making these maxims, you need to make some sort of
‘thought experiments’ to know whether these could become universal laws. You have to
think the scenario by which every human person follows the same maxim as you, i.e., like
you, they also don’t keep their promises. Then, not keeping promises becomes a universal
law and becomes our moral obligation or duty. Kant found this to be self-defeating; if every
human person follows the same imperative, then no one will believe on promises at all.
Thus, this sort of imperative cannot become your moral rule since it cannot be universalized.
On the other hand, if you make the same thought experiment with the maxim “I should not
murder”, everyone would certainly find it easy to craft the same law for them. Thus, the
maxim “I should not murder” could become a universal law.
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Morality is a Duty
Among many questions in Ethics, asking the question “Why one should do good” is of equal
importance with the rests. Kant directly or indirectly disagrees with Virtue Ethics, Natural
Law, Divine Command and Utilitarianism. For him it is our duty to do good. We do good for
goodness sake and nothing else, not for happiness, not because it is our inclination, not
because of a reward and not because of any external influence.
Kant says, “…this duty, prior to all experience, is contained as duty in general in the idea of
a reason that determines the will by means of a priori grounds.” (Grounding 408)
Do good and avoid evil even if it does not make you happy or even if it were harmful to you,
we do good because it is what we ought to do, it is our duty.
Treat humanity as ends and never as means

It is observable that Kant gives emphasis on the self over others into becoming authentic
moral person. However, it doesn’t mean that Kant gives no regards for others. Others
possess similar rational capacity and moral ascendancy; thus, they must be treated with
dignity, they are objects of respect, they are ends and not means.
In Kant’s words: “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or
in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means.”
(Grounding: 429)
In other words, others must be the purpose of things we do and they should not be utilized to
meet our ends, i.e., one should not inflict pain to any person even for the pleasure of
majority.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Kant, Immanuel, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals with On a Supposed Right to Lie
because of Philanthropic Concerns, 1785 (Translated by James W. Ellington, Hackett
Publishing Company, Inc., Indianapolis/Cambridge, Third Edition, 1993)
Crash Course Philosophy, Kant & Categorical Imperatives
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw
True or False: Write (T) if your answer is True or (F) if it were False. (1 point each item)
1. ___ Kant belongs to the modern period.
2. ___ What is important for Kant in judging the morality of the human action is not the
thing that we see but that thing we can’t see, i.e., the metaphysical.
3. ___ For Kant, we can treat some people as means for a greater good of society.
4. ___ According to Kant, the principle of morality could be known ‘a posteriori’.
5. ___ A religious person who help other in need because it is what God commands is a
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good example of a good person in the perspective of Kant.

6. ___ To say that the motive is more important than the act of helping is Kantian.
7. ___ For Kant, do good even if it gives you no benefit at all.
8. ___ Kant argues that the maxim ‘I should lie’ can universally be accepted.
9. ___ Happiness is the highest good in Kant’s doctrine.
10. ___ If some terrorists came to your house to kill your father and ask where he is,
Kant
will suggests, you should tell the truth and never lie.
Fill-in the Blanks:

1. A posteriori knowledge is a knowledge _________ experience.
2. A priori knowledge is a knowledge _________ experience.
3. Kant believes that our knowledge of the principles of morals is ________.
4. An Imperative crafted from a good motive is classified by Kant as ___________.
5. __________ is Greek word for duty.
6. When the ‘Will’ is free from any dictate of external influences or motive it is called
_____.
7. For Kant, the highest good is the ________.
8. ________ is when the “Will’ is influenced by external influence or motive.
9. ________ is the only thing that is good without qualification.
10. For Kant, between duty and happiness, you should choose _______.
Your father confides to you that he has committed a particular crime, and you promised
never to tell anyone.
Discovering that an innocent person has been accused, you plead with your father to give
himself up. He refuses and he reminds you of your promise. From a Kantian view, what must
you do?
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◈ Q & A List ◈
 A priori  Universality  Categorical
 A posteriori  Good Will Imperative
 Deontological Ethics
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j. classify and articulate classify and articulate Virtue Ethics
Virtue Ethics – morality is based upon the doer’s character
Virtue Ethics is a theory of morality formulated somehow as early as the Ancient Greece. But
the widely known and the most influential theory of which is that of Aristotle.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) made a lot of contributions on many areas of knowledge and
transformed most of the areas he touched. He made contributions to Ethics, Theory on
Politics, Metaphysics, Agriculture, Mathematics, Medicine, Dance, Theatre and pioneered
the study of Logic, Physics and Biology. In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote 200 treatises, of which
only 31 survive. The surviving works were not in fact intended for public readings but mere
lecture notes and draft manuscripts. (IEP: Aristotle) Aristotle was a son of Nicomachus, a
court physician of the King Philip II of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the Great. Aristotle
later on became a mentor to the Great Alexander.
Aristotle’s notion of virtue, like his teacher Plato, is highly related to his idea of happiness
since he claims completeness in virtue is required in happiness. (See NE: Book 1, 1100a, 4-
5). He says that “Happiness is some kind of activity of the soul in conformity with virtue”.
(NE: Book 1, 1099b, 26)
Happiness
Long before Aristotle, it had been the obsessions of many thinkers to unveil the purpose or
end of human existence. Aristotle teaches that the purpose of thing lies in its proper function.
The proper function of ceiling fan is to be placed in the ceiling in order to rotate and circulate
the air to give us comfort. We call it proper function since a ceiling fan could still have many
other functions such as, it could be placed in the floor and still in order to circulate the air or it
could be used as weapon against an intruder or thieves. However, none of those is the
proper function of a ceiling fun. The same thing with human being, we have a lot of
functions, an army, a doctor, a teacher, a preacher, a parent and many others but human
being has a proper function and according to Aristotle, it is happiness. (See NE: Book 1,
1097b 24)
Furthermore, Aristotle believes that “…every action and choice, seem to aim at some good.”
(NE: Book 1, 1094, 1-3) He also identifies two types of end, namely, the end which is
pursued for the sake of something else and the end which is not pursued for the sake of
something else.
In the first type of end, Aristotle also observes that the good which is the purpose of our
particular action could be utilized to get another end which is also perceived to be good.
Thus, some good we get from our actions may only be utilized to pursue another end, and in
the same way, the other good we get may only be used as means for another end and so on
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and so forth. For instance, your goal is to pass the subject because you perceive it to be
good, but passing is not yet your ultimate end, you will only use it to pursue another end by
which you think to be good, to graduate probably, but graduating is only for getting a good
job or having a better status, by getting a good job is to get a good salary and later your
money is only to be utilized for something else and something more and more. In these
descriptions, none of these ends can be the purpose of human existence. If human life has a
purpose, it has to be an end which is not pursued for the sake of something else, an end in
itself and final in an unqualified sense. Aristotle names it as the end of all ends, the final end,
the highest good etc. this end he calls as “eudaimonia” which is commonly translated into
English as happiness or living well or doing well. The Highest good is happiness since no
one choses it for the sake of something else. We do not choose happiness to get another
thing or end because happiness cannot be utilized and is not to be used to get anything
else. When you are happy, you need nothing else. The final and perfect good is nothing but
happiness.
Virtue as Requirement for Happiness

Long before the teaching of Christianity about heaven and eternal happiness and that one
needs to be a good person or virtuous in order to be in heaven, Aristotle already taught that
Happiness requires virtue (NE: 1098a, 16), one should be virtuous in order to be happy.
Aristotle teaches that Happiness is an activity of the soul in conformity with virtue.
First it is an activity, and thus happy are only those who participate in this sort of activity.
(NE: 1099a, 5) Happiness, then, is what a human being does, it needs active participation.
You cannot simply wait for happiness without doing anything. To be happy you have to get
involve, you have to be active and not passive spectator. Doing no evil does not always
make one a virtuous or good person. A virtuous person does good and does the right thing.
Second, happiness is in conformity with virtue. A happy person then must be a good person
and no bad person is happy. Happiness, as I understand Aristotle, is an activity of the soul of
a virtuous person. One can never be happy unless one is good. Immoral people, regardless
of wealth and fame are unhappy in Aristotle’s understanding.
Virtue as Moderation
Virtue, for Aristotle, like hitting a target while excesses and deficiency of action and emotion
is missing the proper mark or target. (See.NE: Book 2, 1106b, 25) Virtue is the mean, as it
aims at the median (NE: Book 2, 1106b, 25)
Aristotle says, “…the man who shuns and fears everything and never stands his ground
becomes a coward, whereas, a man who knows no fear at all and goes to meet every
danger becomes reckless.” (NE: Book 2, 1104a, 20, p.36) Being coward and being reckless
are two extremes of the mean “Courage”. Indeed, everything that is too much is evil.
In the given example courage is the virtue and the two others are vices. It requires reason to
know which among the three is the mean or the virtuous one. A courageous man knows
when to attack and when to retreat depending on circumstances. Thus, morality is an
attribute that belongs to the rational alone.
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In Book IV of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle lists down various examples of virtues in relation
to each two extremes, to name a few:
Deficiency (Vice) Mean (Virtue) Excess (Vice)

Pettiness High-Minded Vanity
(one who underestimates (When one thinks he (When one thinks he
himself) deserves great things and deserves great things but
actually deserves them) actually does not deserve
them)
Short Temper Gentleness Apathy
Grouchiness Friendliness Obsequinousness
Stinginess Generosity Extravagance
There are types or virtues in Aristotle’s notion, namely, the virtue of the mind or intellectual
virtue and the moral virtue. The two are highly interrelated; in fact, one needs to be intelligent
or prudent in order to be virtuous.
Virtue, Happiness and Rationality

As already been stated above, Happiness requires virtue (NE: 1098a16), and rational
principle (NE: 1098a7). To choose the mean requires reason since it needs rational capacity
to find out which is the mean in relation to two extremes and the mean may vary from
different people and different circumstances. This is why, Intellectual Virtue (Prudence) is
highly intertwined with Moral Virtue.
Human being is superior above all other on the basis of human rational capacity. This
rationality gives us the capacity to know and thus choose for we only choose what we know
as good as we always tend to choose the good; (see Book I, 1094a, 5, p.3) in fact it is the
end of all our choices. (see Book I, 1094a, 20, p.4) Reason then is the sole ground why
human is happy, thus, without reason no one can be happy. Therefore, happiness is an
activity that is reserved for human alone since only human is rational. Aristotle concludes,
“We are right, then, when we call neither a horse or an ox nor any other animals happy, for
none of them is capable of participating in an activity of this kind.” (NE: Book I, 1100, 5)
Virtue as a Character
Aristotle says, “Moral Virtue is formed by habit.” (NE: Book 2, 15) His concept of morality
focuses on the character of the person rather than on the action. Virtue is a habit or
excellence. In this sense we judge people not solely by virtue of what they do at particular
circumstances but what they regularly or most likely do in a given circumstance. Aristotle’s
concern is not mainly on what you do but what sort of person you are. A reckless person will
always fight in times of danger the coward will always run but the virtuous will do the most
reasonable action to be taken, i.e., courage.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Aristotle
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https://iep.utm.edu/aristotl/
Fill in the blanks.
1. _________ is moral theory that teaches moderation in everything we do.
2. Aristotle defines man as a rational ________.
3. According to Aristotle, every action and choice seem to aim at some _______.
4. ________ is the ultimate purpose of human existence in the teaching of Aristotle.
5. ________ is a book credited to Aristotle dedicated to his teaching on morality.
6. ________ is described by Aristotle as the highest good.
7. In Aristotelian teaching, happiness requires ________.
8. In Aristotle’s teaching ________ is the end which is ‘not’ used to attain another end.
9. What sets human apart from all living things including brute animals is ________.
10. Deficiency and excesses are both classified by Aristotle as _________.
True or False: Write (T) if your answer True or (F) if it were False. (1 point each item)
1. ____ Virtue is the same as happiness.
2. ____ Virtue is a character.
3. ____ Aristotle is a Medieval Philosopher.
4. ____ Happiness requires virtue.
5. ____ A happy person is a good person.
6. ____ No bad person can be happy in Aristotle’s tenet.
7. ____ ‘Eudaimonia’ is a Latin word for happiness.
8. ____ Happiness is an activity of the soul.
9. ____ A man’s feeling after winning P15 Million in a lottery is a good example of
happiness.
10. ____ Aristotle was a teacher of Plato.
Evaluate the merits and weaknesses of Aristotle’s Golden Mean.
_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
◈ Q & A List ◈
 Virtue Ethics
 Virtue
 Happiness
 Mean
 Excess
 Eudaimonia
 moderation
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◈ BIG PICTURE ◈
Weeks 7-9
At the end of the unit, you are expected to learn about Justice and Fairness. You must be
able to:
k. analyze the various concepts revolving the ideas of justice and fairness, and provide
moral principles of justice for one's daily life and judgment;
l. identify the moral challenges of globalization, and articulate moral conflicts arising
from Filinnialism; and
m. appreciate the role of religion in a globalized world.

k analyze the various concepts revolving the ideas of justice and fairness, and provide moral
principles of justice for one's daily life and judgment
Justice – giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving
each person his or her due
Fairness – used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that
are concrete and specific to a particular case
Neutrality – involves impartial, even handed treatment and would be exemplified in the
family context by parents who use impartial procedures with all members of the family
Trust – refers to whether individuals have faith in the good intentions of others, typically
authority figures
Standing – refers to whether an authority figure treats a person as a valued member of a
relevant group, for instance, parents who treat their child as a valued member of the family.
Intuitionism – the doctrine that justice must be determined in particular situations by
balancing a plurality of first principles without any priority rules for ordering them is held to be
defective because the way in which we weigh conflicting intuitions may be biased by our own
particular situations and expectations
Perfectionism – a theory ordaining that society be ordered so as to maximize the
achievement of human excellence in art, science, and culture
Civic – of, relating to, or belonging to a city, a citizen, or citizenship, municipal or civil
society.
Responsibility – refers to the state or quality of being responsible or something for which
one is responsible such as a duty, obligation or burden.
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Citizen – a person owing loyalty to and entitled by birth or naturalization to the protection of
a state or union
Citizenship – a productive, responsible, caring and contributing member of society
Justice and Fairness
The study of justice has been a topic in ethics and philosophy at least since Plato and
Socrates, and philosophical and ethical thinking about justice has shaped the way people
see the world. Mankind has long tried to answer the question, “what is justice?” Yet the
question seems to remain as open ever, and it seems unsure if a final answer can ever be
found. Justice has been conceptualized in many different ways by philosophers and thinkers:
as a natural law based on contracts, as an instrument for societal order for which no
universal standard exists, as a consequence of the economic system that is used as a
manipulative instrument to preserve and justify a societal order, or as a result of historical
associations and historical rights (Fellenz & Fortin, 2007).
Justice has been thought about as an attribute of societal order, as a human virtue, or as an
attribute of an act. Arguments about justice or fairness have a long tradition in Western
civilization. In fact, no idea in Western civilization has been more consistently linked to ethics
and morality than the idea of justice. But saying that justice is giving each person what he or
she deserves does not take us very far.
Definitions and Concepts
Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms,
giving each person his or her due. Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are
often today used interchangeably. There have, however, also been more distinct
understandings of the two terms. While justice usually has been used with reference to a
standard of rightness, fairness often has been used with regard to an ability to judge without
reference to one's feelings or interests; fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to
make judgments that are not overly general but that are concrete and specific to a particular
case. In any case, a notion of being treated as one deserves is crucial to both justice and
fairness.
When people differ over what they believe should be given, or when decisions have to be
made about how benefits and burdens should be distributed among a group of people,
questions of justice or fairness inevitably arise. In fact, most ethicists today hold the view that
there would be no point of talking about justice or fairness if it were not for the conflicts of
interest that are created when goods and services are scarce and people differ over who
should get what. When such conflicts arise in our society, we need principles of justice that
we can all accept as reasonable and fair standards for determining what people deserve.
Tom Tyler has conceptualized procedural justice in terms of the relationships among
decision makers and participants in the decision-making process. For example, he
suggested that people evaluate the procedural fairness of interactions with others along
relational dimensions such as neutrality, trust, and standing. Neutrality involves impartial,
even handed treatment and would be exemplified in the family context by parents who use
impartial procedures with all members of the family. Trust refers to whether individuals have
faith in the good intentions of others, typically authority figures. Standing refers to whether
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an authority figure treats a person as a valued member of a relevant group, for instance,
parents who treat their child as a valued member of the family. This identity-based, relational
model proposed by Tyler and his associates is based on a substantial foundation of
empirical research demonstrating that people seem to care about relational issues such as
being treated with dignity and respect and having their position heard whether or not their
expressions have any influence on decision outcomes (Lind & Tyler 1988).
Fairness is under the term justice. In order to conclude that there is justice; one should first
perceive and become aware if there is an equity or fairness happening. The idea of fairness
is more on individual’s comparison of the received benefits to the achievement of others in a
particular group. While, justice develops when common good exist in wider population or in
the society. The theory of justice as fairness denies that individuals should receive a greater
or lesser share of basic rights and duties because of their personal achievements or
because of their personal contributions to society. So justice might be fulfilled by a social
equality.
Principles of Justice
The most fundamental principle of justice—one that has been widely accepted since it was
first defined by Aristotle more than two thousand years ago—is the principle that "equals
should be treated equally and unequals unequally." In its contemporary form, this principle is
sometimes expressed as follows: "Individuals should be treated the same, unless they differ
in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are involved." For example, if Jack
and Jill both do the same work, and there are no relevant differences between them or the
work they are doing, then in justice they should be paid the same wages. And if Jack is paid
more than Jill simply because he is a man, or because he is white, then we have an injustice
—a form of discrimination—because race and sex are not relevant to normal work situations.
There are, however, many differences that we deem as justifiable criteria for treating people
differently. For example, we think it is fair and just when a parent gives his own children
more attention and care in his private affairs than he gives the children of others; we think it
is fair when the person who is first in a line at a theater is given first choice of theater tickets;
we think it is just when the government gives benefits to the needy that it does not provide to
more affluent citizens; we think it is just when some who have done wrong are given
punishments that are not meted out to others who have done nothing wrong; and we think it
is fair when those who exert more efforts or who make a greater contribution to a project
receive more benefits from the project than others. These criteria—need, desert,
contribution, and effort—we acknowledge as justifying differential treatment, then, are
numerous.
On the other hand, there are also criteria that we believe are not justifiable grounds for giving
people different treatment. In the world of work, for example, we generally hold that it is
unjust to give individuals special treatment on the basis of age, sex, race, or their religious
preferences. If the judge's nephew receives a suspended sentence for armed robbery when
another offender unrelated to the judge goes to jail for the same crime, or the brother of the
Director of Public Works gets the million dollar contract to install sprinklers on the municipal
golf course despite lower bids from other contractors, we say that it's unfair. We also believe
it isn't fair when a person is punished for something over which he or she had no control, or
isn't compensated for a harm he or she suffered.
John Rawls' Theory of Justice
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Harvard philosophy professor John Rawls (1921–2002), has been widely hailed ever since
its 1971 publication as a classic of liberal political philosophy — earning its author such
praise as being called the most important political philosopher of the twentieth century, and
receiving the National Humanities Medal in 1999. In presenting the award, President Clinton
acclaimed Rawls for having helped a whole generation of learned Americans revive their
faith in democracy itself.
Rawls expresses from the outset of Theory is to devise a theory of justice that can better
systematize people’s judgments about it. In his view, existing political societies are seldom
well-ordered simply because they are characterized by disagreements about justice. An
agreed-on theory of justice is needed, in addition, in order for individuals’ life plans to be
fitted together so that nobody’s legitimate expectations will be severely disappointed.
He claims to have provided a solution to these problems in the form of two principles of
justice, the first of which enjoys priority over the second. The first principle mandates that
everyone has an equal right to the most extensive system of equal basic liberties compatible
with a similar system of liberty for all. The second dictates that inequalities in social and
economic goods must arranged to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of
society (the difference principle), while being attached to offices and positions open to all
under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
Rawls dismisses two other rival theories even more briefly the intuitionism and the
perfectionism. Intuitionism, defined as the doctrine that justice must be determined in
particular situations by balancing a plurality of first principles without any priority rules” for
ordering them is held to be defective because the way in which we weigh conflicting
intuitions may be biased by our own particular situations and expectations. While it is not
necessarily irrational to appeal to intuition to settle questions of priority, Rawls urges that we
do what we can to reduce the direct appeal to our considered judgments in order to make
agreement among us more likely — as, he maintains, his two principles (including the priority
rule) do. Perfectionism, a theory ordaining that society be ordered so as to maximize the
achievement of human excellence in art, science, and culture, which he associates with
Nietzsche, on the ground that the veil of ignorance, which deprives the parties to the original
position of knowledge of their conceptions of the good (other than the desire to maximize
their share of primary goods) would prevent the parties to the original position from having
“an agreed conception of perfection that can be used” to choose among institutions on that
basis. While denying holding that “the criteria of excellence lack any rational basis from the
standpoint of everyday life,” Rawls maintains that in the absence of a known conception of
the good, the parties to the original position have no choice but to agree on the first principle
of justice, maximizing the "greatest equal liberty” for each person to pursue his vision of the
good (whatever it may turn out to be), rather than risk having to accept a lesser religious or
other liberty, if not to a loss of freedom altogether to advance many of one’s spiritual ends (in
case the criterion of perfection that society imposes differs from their own view of the good).
Different Kinds of Justice
There are different kinds of justice. Distributive justice refers to the extent to which
society's institutions ensure that benefits and burdens are distributed among society's
members in ways that are fair and just. When the institutions of a society distribute benefits
or burdens in unjust ways, there is a strong presumption that those institutions should be
changed. For example, the American institution of slavery in the pre-civil war South was
condemned as unjust because it was a glaring case of treating people differently on the
basis of race.
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A second important kind is retributive or corrective justice. Retributive justice refers to the
extent to which punishments are fair and just. In general, punishments are held to be just to
the extent that they take into account relevant criteria such as the seriousness of the crime
and the intent of the criminal, and discount irrelevant criteria such as race. It would be
barbarously unjust, for example, to chop off a person's hand for stealing a dime, or to
impose the death penalty on a person who by accident and without negligence injured
another party. Studies have frequently shown that when blacks murder whites, they are
much more likely to receive death sentences than when whites murder whites or blacks
murder blacks. These studies suggest that injustice still exists in the criminal justice system
in the United States.
Yet a third important kind is compensatory justice. Compensatory justice refers to the
extent to which people are fairly compensated for their injuries by those who have injured
them; just compensation is proportional to the loss inflicted on a person. This is precisely the
kind of justice that is at stake in debates over damage to workers' health in coal mines.
Some argue that mine owners should compensate the workers whose health has been
ruined. Others argue that workers voluntarily took on this risk when they chose employment
in the mines.
The foundations of justice can be traced to the notions of social stability, interdependence,
and equal dignity. As the ethicist John Rawls has pointed out, the stability of a society—or
any group, for that matter—depends upon the extent to which the members of that society
feel that they are being treated justly. When some of society's members come to feel that
they are subject to unequal treatment, the foundations have been laid for social unrest,
disturbances, and strife. The members of a community, Rawls holds, depend on each other,
and they will retain their social unity only to the extent that their institutions are just.
Moreover, as the philosopher Immanuel Kant and others have pointed out, human beings
are all equal in this respect: they all have the same dignity, and in virtue of this dignity they
deserve to be treated as equals. Whenever individuals are treated unequally on the basis of
characteristics that are arbitrary and irrelevant, their fundamental human dignity is violated.
Justice, then, is a central part of ethics and should be given due consideration in our moral
lives. In evaluating any moral decision, we must ask whether our actions treat all persons
equally. If not, we must determine whether the difference in treatment is justified: are the
criteria we are using relevant to the situation at hand? But justice is not the only principle to
consider in making ethical decisions. Sometimes principles of justice may need to be
overridden in favor of other kinds of moral claims such as rights or society's welfare.
Nevertheless, justice is an expression of our mutual recognition of each other's basic dignity,
and an acknowledgement that if we are to live together in an interdependent community we
must treat each other as equals.
Citizen's Responsibility
When it comes to what it takes to be a good citizen, the public has a long list of traits and
behaviors that it says are important. And there is a fair amount of agreement across groups
about what it takes to be a good citizen. Still, there are differences when it comes to which
aspects are considered very important (as opposed to somewhat important), and points of
emphasis differ by party identification as well as by age. Citizenship is the state of being
vested with the rights, privileges and duties of a citizen, but it can also be defined as the
character of an individual viewed as a member of society.
Definitions, Historic Roots and Important Concepts
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Civic Responsibility is defined as the "responsibility of a citizen" (Dictionary.com). It is

comprised of actions and attitudes associated with democratic governance and social
participation. Civic responsibility can include participation in government, church, volunteers
and memberships of voluntary associations. Actions of civic responsibility can be displayed
in advocacy for various causes, such as political, economic, civil, environmental or quality of
life issues.
Civic means, of, relating to, or belonging to a city, a citizen, or citizenship, municipal or civil
society.
Responsibility refers to the state or quality of being responsible or something for which one
is responsible such as a duty, obligation or burden.
A citizen is a person owing loyalty to and entitled by birth or naturalization to the protection
of a state or union.
Citizenship means a productive, responsible, caring and contributing member of society."
Civic Responsibility dates to ancient Rome whose citizens wanted to contribute to Roman
society. Civic responsibility may have started with Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus in 519 BC.
Although Civic Responsibility has existed for centuries in society, it was officially sanctioned
as a blueprint for democracy in 1787 by the ratification of the United States Constitution. The
Constitution declared, "We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense,
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our
posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States."
In the 18 th and 19th centuries and through the 1930s, civic responsibility in America was
tied to a commonwealth perspective. Citizens participated in projects that shaped
communities and ultimately the nation. Due to civic responsibility, citizenship was
understood in terms of the labors of ordinary people who created goods and undertook
projects to benefit the public, as opposed to the high-minded, virtuous and leisure activities
of gentlemen. This kind of civic identify helped create an important balance between pursuit
of individual wealth and the creation of public things (Boyte and Kari 1999).
The importance of civic responsibility is paramount to the success of democracy and

philanthropy. By engaging in civic responsibility, citizens ensure and uphold certain
democratic values written in the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Those values or duties
include justice, freedom, equality, diversity, authority, privacy, due process, property,
participation, truth, patriotism, human rights, rule of law, tolerance, mutual assistance, self
restraint and self respect. Schools teach civic responsibility to students with the goal to
produce responsible citizens and active participants in community and government.
Civic responsibility is tied to the philanthropic sector in many ways. By citizen and corporate
participation, nonprofit organizations prosper from their giving of time and money.
Service learning directly relates to civic responsibility and ties to the philanthropic sector by
students learning through the completion of projects within communities. Service learning is
a way in which people learn civic responsibility. Through service learning, citizens participate
in projects to help or serve the needs of other people. By getting their hands dirty and
actually doing work, citizens experience the value and impact of giving to people and learn to
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be productive members of society. College students have the opportunity to participate in

any civic responsibility.
Volunteering is a form of civic responsibility, which involves the giving of time or labor
without the expectation of monetary compensation. Many people volunteer through local
churches, animal shelters or food banks. Volunteering allows citizens the opportunity to
share their skills and talents as well as the to learn new skills while helping those in need of
assistance.
Civic Education is a method in which to teach civic responsibility. According to the Center
of Civic Education, it is a way to promote and enlighten responsible citizenry committed to
democratic principles. Civic education is a means to actively engage people in the practice
of democracy.
John F. Kennedy said in his inaugural, “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what
you can do for your country.”
Therefore, as citizens in a developing democracy we should balance our emphasis on

individual rights and privileges with a much stronger sense of individual, collective and
communitarian duties and obligations. In this way many more citizens can become patriotic,
responsible and effective—in solidarity with our kapwa Pilipino. We can then build a
cohesive national community, a working democracy, and a peaceful, nonkillng, just and
humane society.
Citizens of progressive nations like Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan, Singapore, Israel, the
Scandinavian countries, Germany, and the United States of America have a deep sense of
their duties and obligations to the community and the nation.
The proposed CMFP Article V. Bill of Duties and Obligations.
Section 1. Loyalty, obedience, cooperation. It shall be the duty of the citizen to be loyal to
the Federal Republic of the Philippines and to honor the Philippine flag, to defend the State
and contribute to its development and welfare, to uphold the Constitution and obey the laws,
pay taxes, and cooperate with the duly constituted authorities in the attainment and
preservation of a peaceful, just, and orderly society.
Section 2. Correlative duty. The rights of the individual impose upon him or her the
correlative duty to exercise them responsibly and with due regard for the rights of others.
Section 3. Human life, dignity, rights. Citizens shall respect the life and dignity of every
human person and help uphold human rights whenever these are threatened or violated.
The State and the citizens shall prevent and prohibit the killing of humans in any form and for
whatever purpose.
Section 4. Duty to work. It shall be the duty of every citizen to engage in gainful work and
to work well to assure himself/herself and his/her family a life worthy of human dignity.
Section 5. Civic, political participation. It shall be the duty and obligation of every citizen
qualified to vote to register and cast his or her vote at every election, to participate actively in
other public and civic affairs, and to contribute to good governance, honesty and integrity in
the public service and the vitality and viability of democracy. Citizens shall enhance their
civic efficiency and political effectiveness by their involvement in people’s organizations,
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non-governmental organizations, civic and professional associations, community

associations, or political parties, as well as in discussions on public issues.
Section 6. Promote equity, social justice. In their own homes, in the workplace, and in
their various organizations and institutions, citizens shall cooperate in the promotion of
equity and social justice for the good of all.
Section 7. Responsibility of youth. The youth shall assume their responsibility in

developing their social, economic, intellectual and moral well-being. They shall develop their
patriotism and
nationalism and their civic and political competence in order to serve the common good and
national interest and their own welfare.
Section 8. Health, ecology, environment. Citizens shall exercise their right to a balanced
and healthful ecology, and contribute to the maintenance of a clean, enjoyable and
sustainable environment.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Global Justice
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-global/
Velasquez, M. et al. (n/d): Justice and Fairness

https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/justice-and-fairness/
Tyler T.R., Allan Lind E. (2002) Procedural Justice. In: Sanders J., Hamilton V.L. (eds)
Handbook of Justice Research in Law.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-306-47379-8_3
Answer the following items.
1. Review questions:
1.1 How do you determine what people deserve?
1.2 What criteria and principles should you use to determine what is due to a person?
Qualify the answer.
1.3 Articulate an explanative circumstance on justice and fairness are ethically or

legally served.
2. Identify the following elements of strengths and weaknesses of distributive justice. Review
your answer at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ONaP1sQG-CA
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Distributive Justice
Strengths Weaknesses
3. Discuss basically the seven theories of distributive justice, including John Rawls' theory of
justice. Review your answer at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5drG595r6M
Distributive Justice
Theories Basic Concepts
Make an action plan how you will perform the eight duties and responsibilities for
your country. Follow the steps at: https://www.projectmanager.com/training/make-action-
plan.
◈ Q & A List ◈
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 Justice
 Fairness
 Neutrality
 Trust
 Standing
 Intuitionism
 Perfectionism
 Distributive justice
 Retributive justice
 Compensatory justice
 Civic responsibility
 Citizen
 Volunteering
 Civic education
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l. identify the moral challenges of globalization and pluralism, and articulate moral conflicts
arising from Filinnialism
Globalization – applies to a set of social processes that appear to transform the present
social condition of weakening nationality into one of globality
Pluralism – the idea that there are many theories about what is “right” and “wrong” (moral
norms) which may be incompatible and/or incommensurable with one's own personal moral
norms
Filinnial – short for “Filipino millennials” that are usually spendthrifts due to their propensity
to spend money for luxury goods which left their bank accounts “broke”
GLOBALIZATION AND PLURALISM
The contemporary confluence of globalization and ethical pluralism is at the origin of many
ethical challenges that confront business nowadays, both in practice and in theory. One of
the challenges arising from the development of globalization has to do with respect for
cultural diversity. It is often said that the success of economic globalization tends towards
social and cultural homogeneity. To the extent that cultural diversity is usually seen as a
valuable reality, that global trend seems to contradict our efforts to respect ethical pluralism,
both personal and cultural, within society.
Ethical minimalism, despite its emphasis on tolerance and justice, does not take pluralism
seriously into account in present-day society, and ethical minimalism is not suited to
balancing the homogenizing trend of globalization. Certainly ethical norms are necessary,
but by no means are they sufficient in themselves to encourage either justice or tolerance;
nor are they sufficient to inspire and encourage good practices and sound regulations.
Instead, virtue-based ethics has the capacity of inspiring and encouraging good practices.
Particularly, virtue-based ethics is able to inspire a serious dialogue about ethical and legal
issues both in the public arena and within organizations (Gonzales 2003).
Globalization has enormous implications as Sigh (2015) noted. As convergence of

technologies facilitated people to connect, people not only communicated but also started
collaborating. A world that facilitates multiple forms of collaboration in sharing knowledge
and work among billions of people without regard to geography, distance or language poses
new challenges and problems for lawmakers and judges. When billions of people connect
and collaborate and generate value in goods and services horizontally rather than vertically,
complex issues are bound to arise. Such disputes emerge in the shape of challenges, which
can be called global. Now global challenges demand global solutions as well. Individual
countries find themselves unable to deal with such problems, and the problems are such that
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they cannot be ignored. Handling them together is the obvious and only way to ensure that
they are properly tackled. It would be possible when the entire world’s people have a stake
and all enjoy the opportunity to participate. We all share one atmosphere where
overexploitation of the environment in the industrialized countries can result in ecosystem
destruction.
In developing a workable and effective international legal system, participation of all states is
required. Lastly, we are all part of a human community. So we need to consider our actions
accordingly. And to do so from a script that is written afresh every day by billions of human
beings with whom we all share our planet raises demand for the formulation of a global civic
ethic grounded in universally shared values and expressed in interlocking rights and
responsibilities. Present paper intends to explore the possibility of such an ethics (Sigh
2015).
Anderson (2009) have noted Globalization is a social process, while globalism is an ideology
that endows a concept of globalization with a particular concept or value. Most writers on the
subject focus on economic globalization, Steger (2003) acknowledges that the process is
broken down into other key components, including historical, political, cultural, ecological,
and ideological aspects – while keeping in mind its operation as an interacting whole.
Steger then moves on to a definition of the concept – “the term globalization applies to a set
of social processes that appear to transform the present social condition of weakening
nationality into one of globality.” Globalization is not a single process but a set of processes
that operate simultaneously and unevenly on several levels and in various dimensions.
Steger examines the history of globalization. While many commentators maintain that
globalization is a relatively new phenomenon, Steger contends that the answer to the
question of whether globalization constitutes a new phenomenon depends on how far people
are willing to extend the chain of causation that resulted in those recent technologies and
social arrangements that most people have come to associate with the fashionable
buzzword. In fact, Steger gives examples of how cultural exchanges can be traced back to
the prehistoric period.
Steger examines the historical dimension of globalization. While many commentators

maintain that globalization is a relatively new phenomenon, Steger contends that the answer
to the question of whether globalization constitutes a new phenomenon depends on how far
people are willing to extend the chain of causation that resulted in those recent technologies
and social arrangements that most people have come to associate with the fashionable
buzzword. In fact, Steger gives examples of how cultural exchanges can be traced back to
the prehistoric period.
The economic dimension of globalization rests on the emergence of the global economic
order, including the internationalization of trade and finance, and the power of transnational
corporations (TNCs). Steger also examines the history and role of the IMF, the World Bank,
and the WTO. Steger points out that these three institutions enjoy the privileged position of
making and enforcing the rules of a global economy that is sustained by significant power
differentials between the global North and South. Steger goes on to concede that the
growing power of TNCs has profoundly altered the structure and functioning of the
international economy. As a consequence, TNCs are extremely important players that
influence the economic, political, and social welfare of many nations.
The political dimension of globalization did an excellent of analyzing the intensification and
expansion of political interrelations across the globe. A discussion of the origins of the
modern nation-state system, which can be traced backed to the seventeenth-century in
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Europe. Then moves on from there to discuss hyper globalization and the rise of a
“borderless world.” The discussion concludes with a look at the visible rise of supraterritorial
institutions and associations, using the European Union as an example.
The ecological dimension of globalization, Steger begins by acknowledging that the

ecological impacts of globalization are increasingly recognized as the most significant.
Steger goes on to note that the scale, speed, and depth of the Earth’s environmental decline
have been unprecedented, and unless people are willing to change the underlying cultural
and religious value structure that has combined with the social and economic dynamics of
unrestrained capital accumulation, the health of Mother Earth is likely to deteriorate further.
Steger does a wonderful job of identifying major manifestations and consequences of global
environmental degradation and recognizes that they are all global issues.
Steger distinguishes between globalization and three types of globalism – market globalism,
jihadist globalism, and justice globalism. Globalization is a social process, while globalism is
an ideology that endows a concept of globalization with a particular concept or value. Steger
considers market globalism the dominant ideology of the time, and believes that there are
major ideological claims of market globalism. When discussing justice globalism, the WTO
protests in Seattle in 1999 to highlight this emerging social justice movement. Steger
illustrates the devastating effect that jihadist globalism can have, highlighting the fact that
Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda terrorists fed on the perceived “Americanization” of the
world to justify their actions.
Steger ends his discussion by asking the question, “Will the global fight against terrorism
lead to more extensive forms of international cooperation and interdependence, or might it
stop the powerful momentum of globalizations?” Without giving an answer, it concludes that
only time will tell what path globalization takes. Steger does emphasize that nothing can be
accomplished without a moral compass and an ethical polestar guiding our collective efforts.
Pluralism in Ethics according to Sher (2011) is the idea that there are many theories about
what is “right” and “wrong” (moral norms) which may be incompatible and/or
incommensurable with one's own personal moral norms. International engagement involves
working within other societies where people are likely to be faced with different norms.
Deciding when it is appropriate to act under one norm or another requires careful
consideration.
An example of a moral norm may be: “it is wrong to physically harm a child, and those who
do so should be punished.” An ethical dilemma in the international engagement may arise
when the moral norms differ from those of a society regarding:
 Treatment of/value in women and other gender/sex issues

 Treatment of/value in children and the elderly
 The environment, waste, and consumption
 Business practices, loyalty, contractual agreements, and work ethic
 Treatment of/value in animals
 Privacy and community
 Religion, religious dogma and tradition
Ethical pluralism is also known as “value” or “moral” pluralism. It is related but not identical to
the concepts of moral relativism (there exist many moral theories and there is no objective
standard by which they may be judged) and cultural relativism (that norms, values, and
practices may be understood as sensible within their respective cultural contexts).
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Relevance of ethical pluralism in one's own moral life with others:
Sustainability. Ethical pluralism suggests the actions may be in opposition to local norms, or
might be expected to act in opposition to one's own norms. Either one of these conflicts may
make the work unsustainable. Example: People may be working on an project involving
sexual education for youth. This may be unacceptable to some locals and thus long-term
community investment is threatened.
Cultural Competence. Understanding one's own cultural and ethical norms in addition to
those of others is essential to cultural competence. Those engaged in international
engagement should be aware of similarities, disparities, and how to reconcile differences
(neutrality vs tolerance).
Balance and Reciprocity. Those involved in international work must understand and respect
other ethical norms. This respect is necessary in any balanced partnership.
Motivations. It is important to consider one's own vantage, pre-conceived notions, and the
norms of one's ‘import’ to another society. It is also important to consider which moral norms
are motivating people to go, and how those might be challenged by others with differing
norms.
Training and Education. There may be multiple ideas of what is “right” and “wrong” about
one's international engagement. e.g. One might believe it is “wrong” for young, relatively
uneducated students to work overseas; another might believe it is “right” for students to gain
international experience.
FILINNIALISM
Overview
A filinnial is a short for Filipino millennials that are usually spendthrifts due to their propensity
to spend money for luxury goods which left their bank accounts “broke.” Another trait that
unified most of them is their narcissistic attitude , making them known as the “Me, Me, Me
Generation.” Millennials – Lack basic literacy fundamentals, very short attention spans, not
loyal to organization, demand immediate feedback and recognition, integrate technology into
the workplace, expect to have many employers and multiple careers, work dress is whatever
feels comfortable.
According to Main (2017), they are teenagers, twenty- and thirty-somethings have been
dubbed the Millennial Generation, or simply Millennials. But what does it mean? And how old
is too old to be a Millennial?
The term Millennials generally refers to the generation of people born between the early
1980s and 1990s, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Some people also include
children born in the early 2000s.
The Millennial Generation is also known as Generation Y, because it comes after Generation
X — those people between the early 1960s and the 1980s. The publication Ad Age was one
of the first to coin the term "Generation Y," in an editorial in August 1993. But the term didn't
age well, and "Millennials" has largely overtaken it. But the terms basically mean the same
thing.
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Millennials’ Characteristics
Millennials have been characterized in a number of different ways. On the negative side,
they've been described as lazy, narcissistic and prone to jump from job to job. The book
"Trophy Kids" by Ron Alsop discusses how many young people have been rewarded for
minimal accomplishments (such as mere participation) in competitive sports, and have
unrealistic expectations of working life.
A story in Time magazine said polls show that Millennials "want flexible work schedules,
more 'me time' on the job, and nearly nonstop feedback and career advice from managers."
Another Time story in May 2013, titled "The Me Me Me Generation," begins: "They're
narcissistic. They're lazy. They're coddled. They're even a bit delusional. Those aren't just
unfounded negative stereotypes about 80 million Americans born roughly between 1980 and
2000. They're backed up by a decade of sociological research." The article also points out
that Millennials may be simply adapting quickly to a world undergoing rapid technological
change.
A 2012 study found Millennials to be "more civically and politically disengaged, more
focused on materialistic values, and less concerned about helping the larger community than
were GenX (born 1962-1981) and Baby Boomers (born 1946 to about 1961) at the same
ages," according to USA Today. "The trend is more of an emphasis on extrinsic values such
as money, fame, and image, and less emphasis on intrinsic values such as self-acceptance,
group affiliation and community." The study was based on an analysis of two large
databases of 9 million high school seniors or entering college students.
They have also been described in positive ways. They are generally regarded as being more
open-minded, and more supportive of gay rights and equal rights for minorities. Other
positives adjectives to describe them include confident, self-expressive, liberal, upbeat and
receptive to new ideas and ways of living.
Though viewed as more liberal, some Millennials are bucking the trend. A study published
March 31, 2017 by the Council on Contemporary Families found that high school seniors
increasingly believe that the man should be the bread-winner in a relationship and a woman
should care for the home. "It's been a steady reversal," said study co-author Joanna Pepin,
a doctoral candidate in sociology at the University of Maryland.
In addition, it seems that this generation may be having less sex that any other generation
before it. In a survey of more than 26,000 American adults, about 15 percent of Millennials
between 20 and 24 reported having no sexual partners since the age of 18. Only 6 percent
of GenXers (people born in the 1960s) could claim the same. The Youth Risk Behavior
Survey by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2016 also found that teen
Millennials were less sexually active that previous generations.
Millennials are also more likely to use public libraries than other generations, according to
the Pew Research Center.
Generation Me
There is a spirited, if not tiresome, debate about whether Millennials are self-entitled
narcissists or open-minded do-gooders; surely the truth lies somewhere in-between.
Generally, however, there does seem to be more of an emphasis on the self than in previous
generations, one reason why this group has been called Generation Me. Research
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presented at the 2016 annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology
(SPSP) in San Diego found that Millennials themselves do believe that they are more
narcissistic that previous generations, but they don't like it. Also, the uptick in narcissism is
only very slight when compared with other generations.
"We're not talking about two generations ago, people were just completely selfless, and in
this generation we're trying to kill each other to watch the next season of something on
Netflix," Joshua Grubbs, a doctoral candidate at Case Western Reserve University in Ohio.
[Millennials See Themselves As Narcissistic, Too (And It Bothers Them)]
The self-centered life approach may be due to the rise of individualism in society. "There is a
very consistent and reliable trend where all indicators of individualism [have] been on the
rise over the course of the last 100 years," Igor Grossman, a psychologist at the University
of Waterloo, told an audience at the SPSP meeting.
Other scholars have pointed out that the attempt to make generalizations about an entire
generation is a futile effort. Further, some have suggested that discussion of "Millennials"
tends to focus on mostly white youth from suburban areas, ignoring the unique experience of
immigrants and minorities.
◈ SELF HELP ◈
Main, D (2017). Who are the Millennials?
https://www.livescience.com/38061-millennials-generation-y.html
Mintz, S. (2013). Ethics and Millennials

https://www.ethicssage.com/2013/09/ethics-and-millennials.html
Read each item carefully and identify the correct answer.
_________ 1. An Austrian that defines globalization is an interdisciplinary dimension.
_________ 2. Ethical pluralism suggests the actions may be in opposition to local norms, or
might be expected to act in opposition to one's own norms.
_________ 3. the idea that there are many theories about what is “right” and “wrong” (moral
norms) which may be incompatible and/or incommensurable with one's own
personal moral norms.
_________ 4. A set of processes that operates simultaneously and unevenly on several
levels and in various dimensions.
_________ 5. Steger goes on to note that the scale, speed, and depth of the Earth’s
environmental decline have been unprecedented, and unless people are
willing to change the underlying cultural and religious value structure that has
combined with the social and economic dynamics of unrestrained
capital accumulation.
_________ 6. Those involved in international work must understand and respect other
ethical norms. This respect is necessary in any balanced partnership.
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_________ 7. Globalization rests on the emergence of the global economic order, including
the internationalization of trade and finance, and the power of transnational
corporations.
_________ 8. The term globalization applies to a set of social processes that appear to
transform the present social condition of weakening nationality into one of
________.
_________ 9. The visible rise of supraterritorial institutions and associations, using the
European Union as an example of _________ on globalization.
_________ 10. A formal engagement where ethical pluralism is taught.
Fill out and complete the items required in the templates.
Millennial Behavior
Strengths Flaws Areas to Improve
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Compare the following to identify which one is the most contributing factor of the society.
Generation X Generation Y
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◈ Q & A List ◈
 Globalism  Balance
 Historical dimension  Reciprocity
 Economic dimension  Motivations
 Political dimension  Fillinialism
 Ecological dimension
 Sustainability
 Cultural competence
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appreciate the role of ethics in religion
Ethics – encompasses right conduct and good life

Virtue – positive traits of character
Revelation – through the written and oral law, directs people to an understanding of the
nature of human values, of how they ought to live and of what constitutes right conduct; such
teachings and examples are scattered amongst various verses and sources
Can we be Ethical without being Religious?
A longstanding debate has been whether ethics plays a role in religion. Most religions have
an ethical component. Ethics, which is a major branch of philosophy, encompasses right
conduct and good life. It is significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing
right and wrong. Ethics deals with ideas such as Right, Good and Duty and these concepts
were discussed in ancient Greece by Plato and Aristotle in the 3rd & 4th Century BCE.
A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is simply satisfying,
which is held by many philosophers to be more important than traditional moral codes. The
ancient Greeks called it eudaimonia or happiness. The ancient Greeks believed happiness
was brought about by living one’s life in accordance with virtue – positive traits of character.
Virtue in the highest sense, in an adult who has been brought up well, will not just involve
good personal habits such as courage and temperance, but also friendship and justice and
intellectual virtue. The essence of virtue is in the wholeness of the person brought about by
integrity.
Concepts and Importance
The influential philosopher, Immanuel Kant defended the idea of God as a basic requirement
of ethics. "We ought to be virtuous and do our duty", he said. Kant believed virtue should be
rewarded by happiness, and it would be intolerable if it were not so. Since it's clear that
virtue often does go unrewarded in the present life, Kant argued that the soul must be
immortal. Virtue must receive its due recompense in a future life, and there must be a God
guaranteeing that it is so rewarded. The existence of God and the immortality of the soul
were what Kant called the postulates of practical reason - the assumptions without which, so
he claimed, ethics and a moral life would not be possible.
Revealed religions like Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam do prescribe some
clear and unambiguous rules to follow. If their scriptures were authored or dictated by God,
then the commands in them are God's own commands. They cannot be changed if human
circumstances change or ethical ideas progress.
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If religion has a role in moral decision-making, then what should be that role? In America, for
many individuals, their religion is a centrally defining characteristic of who they are, such that
they would be nearly incapable of making ethical decisions independently of their religious
beliefs.
Further, some of the most basic moral sentiments are directly connected to religious
ideology. For example, most people agree that things like murder and adultery are always
wrong, regardless of circumstances. Most major world religions echo these sentiments, and
it can be argued that the ancient codes of conduct these traditions embody are actually the
original source of our social intuitions. At a minimum, people do seem to regard religion as a
good source of basic moral guidance, making it unwise to argue that there ought to be no
connection between religion and ethics.
The link between religion and morality is best illustrated by the Golden Rule. Virtually all of
the world’s great religions contain in their religious texts some version of the Golden Rule:
“Do unto others as you would wish them do unto you”. In other words, people should treat
others the way we would want to be treated. This is the basic ethic that guides all religions. If
people do so, happiness will ensue (Mintz 2012).
Some people, especially religious people, say that there can be no morality without religion.
They say that without God, ethics is impossible. In my religion, Judaism, a revealed religion,
ethics or morality is the attempt to arrive at a view of the nature of human values, of how we
ought to live and of what constitutes right conduct. In order to arrive at a view, it sets goals
and assesses actions by the extent to which they further these goals, e.g. if happiness is a
goal then the action which produces most happiness to all affected is the right one.
Revelation too, through the written and oral law, directs people to an understanding of the
nature of human values, of how they ought to live and of what constitutes right conduct; such
teachings and examples are scattered amongst various verses and sources. Examples of
such moral teachings are:-
You shall do right and good (beyond the call of duty)

Love your neighbor
Discipline or training of character under the law
Piety beyond the law
The need to be respectful, earn a living; engage in learning and culture and so forth.
The role of philosophers is to accurately try to define and promote ethical concepts based
upon logic and reason. A religious person on the other hand, follows his or her code of
conduct because he believes that it is proper behavior and reaction to the varying challenges
and circumstances which arise during the course of life.
Steven Mintz (2012) ended with two quotes. The first is from Kant: “In law a man is guilty
when he violates the rights of others. In ethics he is guilty if he only thinks of doing so.”
The second one sums up, which Mintz believed, the moral challenges of the time. Archie
Carroll in Mintz's literature, a noted ethicist stated that religion and faith are being driven out
of the public square, the Judeo-Christian ethical foundations that have sustained the
American country since its beginning, are being lost and are being replaced with a
humanistic amorality, a self-centered, pragmatic indifference that will ensure that our moral
compasses will fail to point us in the right direction in the future.
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◈ SELF HELP ◈
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Religion and Morality
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-morality/
Differentiate the following concepts:
Divine Command Theory Natural Law Theory
Can a person's religious beliefs be relevant in justifying moral judgment? Qualify the answer.
Review your answer at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dE9EFZhSqR0
◈ Q & A List ◈
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 Morality
 Religion
 Integrity
 Virtue
 Eudaimonia
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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Arts and Sciences Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: GE9 - Ethics

Name of Teacher: Rey Atacador

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY, NOT FOR

Course Coordinator: Rey Atacador

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is

Submission of summative assessment tasks

the submission of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real-time

Penalties for Late

However, if the late submission of assessment

Assessment tasks will be returned two (2)

Students should request in writing addressed to

Re-marking of Assessment Papers

If disapproved by the course coordinator,

Grading System All culled from the Blackboard sessions and

Course discussions/ exercises – 30%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions

Submission of the final grades shall follow the

Preferred Referencing Style APA 6th Edition

Students are required to create umindanao

Students can also meet the course coordinator

For students who have not created their

Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion

Contact Details of the Program Head

(082) 300-54-56 / 305-0647 local 134

Students with special needs shall communicate

Guidance Services and Testing Center (GSTC)

CC’s Voice: Hello! Welcome to the GE 9 – Ethics course!

a. define the nature of ethics as a philosophical enterprise;

BIG PICTURE in Focus

Simpson, P. (2014). Aristotle’s Four Ethics. Φιλοσοφια: International Journal of Philosophy

Collins, P. M. (2018). Introducing Ethical Inquiries. Φιλοσοφια: International Journal of

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

BIG PICTURE in Focus

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

BIG PICTURE in Focus

Nature Nurture Culture Religion

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

BIG PICTURE in Focus

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

BIG PICTURE in Focus

Acts of Man Human Acts

Of the elements aforementioned, Glenn considered voluntariness as the formal essential

Modifiers of Human Act definition

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

BIG PICTURE in Focus

to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness or to prevent the happening of

Utilitarianism and Consequentialism

The Hedonist Aspect of Bentham’s Utilitarianism

The Greatest Happiness Principle

1. _____ ‘Hedon’ is a Greek word for pleasure.

8. _____ Bentham and Mill are advocates of democracy.

Fill-in the blanks:

Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

BIG PICTURE in Focus

Knowledge of the principles of morality is ‘A Priori’