Week 1-3 - Chem

College of Arts and Sciences Education
2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City

Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134
Course Outline: CHEM 205/L– General Inorganic Chemistry 1
Course Coordinator: Ronnel P. Senining

Email: rsenining@umindnao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 0933-331-3466
Phone: (082) 227-5456
Effectivity Date: August 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 Hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: none
Credit: 3.0 units lecture and 2.0 units laboratory
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact This 3-unit Lecture and 2-unit Laboratory course
Hours self-instructional manual is designed for blended
learning mode of instructional delivery such as
online sessions through LMS and scheduled face-
to-face meetings in-campus/on-site or virtual
sessions for reviews and examinations. The
expected number of hours will be 54 for the lecture
and 108 for the laboratory which included the face-
to-face or virtual sessions for reviews, laboratory
activities and reports, assessment tasks and
examinations schedules.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on the

3rd, 5th, 7th , 9th, 11th, 13th , 15th and 18th weeks of
the Sem. The assessment paper shall be attached
with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is a performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission,
and the name of the student. The document should
be emailed to the Course Coordinator. It is also
expected that you already paid your tuition and
other fees before the submission of the
assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real-time through

the features in the Blackboard Learning
Management System, the schedule shall be
arranged ahead of time by the course coordinator.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
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with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This

means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for disciplinary action following with the
University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as

cheating and commissioning other students or people
to complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/ designated time on the due date, without an approved
Assessments extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part-day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of the assessment

paper has a valid reason, a letter of explanation
should be submitted and approved by the Course
Coordinator. If necessary, you will also be required to
present/attach pieces of evidence.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
Assessments weeks after the submission. This will be returned by
email or via the Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on
the student’s failure to comply with the similarity index
and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g.,illness, accident, or financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program coordinator your intention to appeal or
contest the score given to an assessment task. The
letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points to
contest the grade. The program coordinator shall
communicate with the students on the approval and
disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can
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elevate your case to the program head or the dean

with the original letter of request. The final decision
will come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
For Lectures: 40% of the total grade
Course discussions/exercises – 40%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment –10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):
Final exam – 30%
For Laboratory: 60% of the total grade

Course Laboratory Report/exercises –
40%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment –10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):
Final exam – 30%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6 th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao e-mail
account which is a requirement to access the
BlackBoard portal. Then, the course coordinator shall
enroll the students to have access to the materials and
resources of the course. All communication formats:
chat, submission of assessment tasks, requests, etc.
shall be through the portal and other university
recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student e-mail,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head. You can also contact the course coordinator
through the scheduled face to face sessions or social
media for issues and concerns relevant to the course.
For related concerns, you can contact the CASE Dean,
Science Program Head, Library and Guidance Help
Desks. For students who have not created their
student email, please contact the course coordinator
or programhead.
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with
the course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
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the course coordinator, with the approval of the

program coordinator, may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline for
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion
E-mail: artsciences@eumindanao.edu.ph
Phone : (082) 305-0647 local 118
Contact Details of the Program Edgar B. Retorta, MAST Biology
Head E-mail: bsbiology@umindanao.edu.ph
Contact no: 0946-272-0836
Phone no: (082) 305-0647 local 182
LMS Facilitator Rosyl S. Matina-ao-College LMS Facilitator
E-mail:rosyl_matinao@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone:(082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 149
Well-being Welfare Support ZERDSZEN P. RANISES
Help Desk Contact Details E-mail: gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 300-5456 / 227-5456 local 130
Hotline no: 0950-466-5431
Library Contact BRIGIDA E. BACANI- Head LIC
E-mail: library@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)300-5456 local 143 or 140
Hotline no. : 0951-376-6681
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello everyone! Welcome to the exciting world of Chemistry! You are
about to undertake a journey where you will acquire a new
understanding of the world around you—the cloths you wear, the food
you eat, the medicine you take, the flesh you are made of, the means of
transportation you use, even the smallest microchips built into your
computer and other gadgets. Everything in all aspects of life are related
to chemistry. Welcome to this course CHEM 205: General Inorganic
Chemistry 1.
CO Before the actual teaching performance, you are expected to describe the
structure and function of atoms, ions, and elements, molecules and
compounds and chemical bonds. Interpret periodic properties, molecular
structure and chemical equations and relate the different chemical
principles and nature of matter to everyday situation.
Let us begin!
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BIG PICTURE
WEEK 1-2
Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. Demonstrate a thorough understanding the basic concepts in

chemistry;
b. Apply the basic principles in measurements, scientific notation,
significant figures and the basic units of measurements; and
c. Identify the properties, structures and changes in the phases of
matter.
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS

ULOa. Demonstrate a thorough understanding the basic concepts in chemistry.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of curriculum and
to demonstrate ULOa will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of
reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter
these terms as we go through the study of curriculum. Please refer to these definitions
in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
1. Chemistry. The branch of science that deals with the identification of the
substances of which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties
and the ways in which they interact, combine, and change; and the use of these
processes to form new substances.
a. Pure Chemistry. Is pure research in the field of chemistry. This is the
'how', 'what', and 'why' of science.
b. Applied Chemistry. Uses our existing knowledge about all things
chemistry tries to make it useful.
2. Technology. can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and
immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to
achieve some value.
3. Scientific Method. a method of procedure that has characterized natural
science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation,
measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification
of hypotheses.
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4. Variables. A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing
amounts or types. An experiment usually has three kinds of variables:
independent, dependent, and controlled.
a. Controlled Variables: These are parts of the experiment that you try to
keep constant throughout an experiment so that they won't interfere with
your test.
b. Independent Variable: This is the variable you control.
c. Dependent Variable: This is the variable you measure. It is called
the dependent variable because it depends on the independent
variable.
Source: https://www.wikipedia.org/
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
CHEMISTRY AND OTHER SCIENCES
Science is concerned with studying the world, the universe. Ours is a universe
of matter in various forms; we live in a material world. Thus, chemistry, plays a
fundamental role in all fields of science. Biology is a very good example. The progress
of the study of structures, functions and processes on the extent to which the study is
done at the atomic or molecular level. A better understanding of life and living
organisms was achieved when biologists became able to look beyond the appearance
of an organism and determine the function of its parts. They began examining the
structure and function of organisms at the molecular level. For example, genes have
been known for some time as the units responsible for the inheritance of traits. Our
understanding of heredity grew tremendously when we learned how segments of a
gene therefore codes for a specific sequence of amino acids that make up a protein.
The study of geology is also greatly aided by chemistry. Chemists inform

geologists about the composition of rocks, sand, soil, and the structure of crystals of
minerals. The science of mineralogy is an integrated field of study involving geology,
chemistry, and physics. Rock formations, mineral deposits, and the physical structure
of the Earth’s crust are studied in the field. In the laboratory, specimens of rocks and
minerals are studied for properties such as hardness, density, solubility, chemical
composition and crystal structure. Put together, we learn about the history of the Earth,
how mountains, rivers and lakes came to be. We can also tell the economic value of
minerals. Chemistry also plays a very important role in the fields of medicine and
pharmacy. For example, chemists have helped discover that insulin lower blood sugar
levels because it promotes the uptake and utilization of sugar by cells. Insulin binds to
protein molecules on the outer surface of cells thereby making it easier for the sugar
molecules to enter the cells. This knowledge has helped doctors to manage diabetes,
a condition in which not enough sugar is absorbed by the cells. A large amount of the
sugar intake of a diabetic is thrown out with the person’s urine.
Everything is made of chemical materials. Many things we do involve chemical

reactions. So all the materials you are in contact with in all aspects of life are related
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to chemistry. Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter, its properties, and
the changes it undergoes. It is a part of a body of knowledge called science. It is
considered a practical science because it makes us understand our environment and
how it works. Chemistry is called the central science because it plays a role in almost
all profession. It overlaps with many other sciences.
Source: https://ibiologia.com/branches-of-chemistry/
The chart above relating the various branches of chemistry. It is further divided
into five fundamental branches:
Organic chemistry - is the study of the structure, properties, composition,

reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only
hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of other elements, including
hydrogen (most compounds contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), nitrogen,
oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. This branch of chemistry was
originally limited to compounds produced by living organisms but has been broadened
to include human-made substances such as plastics. The range of application of
organic compounds is enormous and also includes, but is not limited to,
pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, food, explosives, paints, and cosmetics.
Inorganic chemistry - is the study of the chemistry of materials from non-

biological origins. Typically, this refers to materials not containing carbon-hydrogen
bonds, including metals, salts, and minerals. Inorganic chemistry is used to study and
develop catalysts, coatings, fuels, surfactants, materials, superconductors, and
drugs. Important chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry include double
displacement reactions, acid-base reactions, and redox reactions.
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Biochemistry - is the application of chemistry to the study of biological

processes at the cellular and molecular level. Biochemistry is both life science and
a chemical science - it explores the chemistry of living organisms and the molecular
basis for the changes occurring in living cells.
Physical chemistry - blends the principles of physics and chemistry to study

the physical characteristics, or properties, of molecules. By understanding these
properties, you learn more about the way in which molecules are put together, as well
as how the actual structure of a chemical is impacted by these properties.
Analytical chemistry - the area of chemistry responsible for characterizing the

composition of matter, both qualitatively and quantitatively and it uses instruments and
methods used to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation,
identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with
another method.
The world is largely made up of chemical processes and reactions. Chemical

products are central to society and help create a good foundation for living.
Technology is the application of science to improve the quality of human life. The
innovative products of chemistry lead to cutting edge advancements—applied
technology in medical devices, aerospace, computing, cars, fuels and more. That’s
what chemistry enables: technological advancements that drive innovation, create
jobs and enhance safety in our everyday lives.
Chemistry, as a science, uses methods in investigating problems that need to

be solved and understood. Science helps human beings understand the natural word
and provides them with information gained by observing and testing the world.
Scientific method is a logical sequence of thought processes and activities

designed to gather information and test ideas. Scientists use the scientific method to
collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often
in the form of an if/then statement), the results aiming to support or contradict a theory.
The number of steps can vary from one description to another (which mainly
happens when data and analysis are separated into separate steps), however, this is
a fairly standard list of the six scientific method steps that you are expected to know
for any science class:
1. Purpose/Question. Ask a question. Done by observation.

2. Research. Conduct background research. Write down your sources so you can
cite your references. In the modern era, a lot of your research may be
conducted online. Scroll to the bottom of articles to check the references. Even
if you can't access the full text of a published article, you can usually view
the abstract to see the summary of other experiments. Interview experts on a
topic. The more you know about a subject, the easier it will be to conduct your
investigation.
3. Hypothesis. Propose a hypothesis. This is a sort of educated guess about
what you expect. It is a statement used to predict the outcome of an experiment.
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Usually, a hypothesis is written in terms of cause and effect. Alternatively, it

may describe the relationship between two phenomena. One type of hypothesis
is the null hypothesis or the no-difference hypothesis. This is an easy type of
hypothesis to test because it assumes changing a variable will have no effect
on the outcome. In reality, you probably expect a change but rejecting a
hypothesis may be more useful than accepting one.
4. Experiment. Design and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis. An
experiment has an independent and dependent variable. You change or
control the independent variable and record the effect it has on the dependent
variable. It's important to change only one variable for an experiment rather
than try to combine the effects of variables in an experiment. For example, if
you want to test the effects of light intensity and fertilizer concentration on the
growth rate of a plant, you're really looking at two separate experiments.
5. Data/Analysis. Record observations and analyze the meaning of the data.
Often, you'll prepare a table or graph of the data. Don't throw out data points
you think are bad or that don't support your predictions. Some of the most
incredible discoveries in science were made because the data looked wrong!
Once you have the data, you may need to perform a mathematical analysis to
support or refute your hypothesis.
6. Conclusion. Conclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesis. There is
no right or wrong outcome to an experiment, so either result is fine. Accepting
a hypothesis does not necessarily mean it's correct! Sometimes repeating an
experiment may give a different result. In other cases, a hypothesis may predict
an outcome, yet you might draw an incorrect conclusion. Communicate your
results. The results may be compiled into a lab report or formally submitted as
a paper. Whether you accept or reject the hypothesis, you likely learned
something about the subject and may wish to revise the original hypothesis or
form a new one for a future experiment.
Formal observations are a type of brainstorming that can help you find an idea
and form a hypothesis. Observe your subject and record everything about it. Include
colors, timing, sounds, temperatures, changes, behavior, and anything that strikes you
as interesting or significant.
Variables. When you design an experiment, you are controlling and measuring
variables. There are three types of variables:
 Controlled Variables: You can have as many controlled variables as

you like. These are parts of the experiment that you try to keep constant
throughout an experiment so that they won't interfere with your test.
Writing down controlled variables is a good idea because it helps make
your experiment reproducible, which is important in science! If you have
trouble duplicating results from one experiment to another, there may be
a controlled variable that you missed.
 Independent Variable: This is the variable you control.
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 Dependent Variable: This is the variable you measure. It is called

the dependent variable because it depends on the independent
variable.
Source: https://teachersinstitute.yale.edu/curriculum/units/2009/3/09.03.02/2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yi0hwFDQTSQ
SELF-HELP: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson.
Babaev, E. (2019). Periodic law in chemistry and other sciences. Pure and Applied
Chemistry.Chimie Pure Et Appliquee, 91(12), 2023-2035.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/pac-2019-0821
Gauch, J.,Hugh G. (2013). Scientific method in brief. New York: Cambridge

University Press. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131061565?accountid=31259
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LET’S CHECK
Activity #1. Let us try to check your understanding of the topics. In the space
provided, write the answer being asked in the following statements:
1. What is chemistry?
______________________________________________________________
2. What branch of chemistry would study the amount of mercury present in a soil
sample?Explain.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What branch of chemistry would develop a better insulin-delivery system for

diabetics? Explain.
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. What branch of chemistry would develop a new carbon-based fiber for clothing?
Explain.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. What branch of chemistry would study all other elements except carbon based
materials? Explain.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. What will knowledge of chemistry enable you to do?

__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
7. What is technology and its importance?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Activity #2. Let us try to check your understanding on the topic scientific method:
Complete the flowchart about the scientific method.
A scientific problem is often discovered when an

______________________ is made, which leads to a question.
A _________________ is formed when an explanation is proposed for an

observation.
Testing a proposed explanation requires designing an _______________.
For the results of the experiment to be accepted, the experiment must

produce the same results _________________________.
An explanation may become a ___________________ if the same results

are found after many tests.
The __________________________ variable is changed during an experiment
and the ___________________ variable is observed during an experiment.
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LET’S ANALYZE
Activity #3. In this activity, you are required once again to elaborate your answer
to each of the questions below.
Write a hypothetical experiment of your own. First, describe the

experiment below, and then answer the questions on the bottom of this paper.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What is the question that is being asked?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
What is the hypothesis that you will be testing?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
What tools or equipment will you need to collect the data from your
experiment?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Will the data being collected be more qualitative or quantitative? Why?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
What is the independent variable, dependent variable, control and the

constants?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity #4. Albert Einstein, in a speech at the California Institute of technology
in February 1931, said:
“Concern for man and his fate must always form the chief interest of all
technical endeavors…in order that the creations of our mind shall be a blessing
and not a curse to mankind.”
Give your reaction below to this quotation by citing examples.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Activity #5. Contrary to common belief, the scientific method is applicable not only to
scientific studies but also to ordinary life situations.
Choose one problem that you encounter everyday. Using the scientific
method, propose how you will solve that problem.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Q&A LIST
Do you have any questions for clarification?
QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
chemistry variables data
technology experiment problem
scientific method hypothesis conclusion
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ULOb. Apply the basic principles of measurements.
METALANGUAGE
For you to demonstrate ULOb, you will need to have an operational
understanding of the following terms below.
1. Scientific Measurements. A collection of quantitative or numerical data that

describes a property of an object or event. A measurement is made by
comparing a quantity with a standard unit. Since this comparison cannot be
perfect, measurements inherently include error, which is how much a measured
value deviates from the true value.
2. Calibration. the act of ensuring that a method or instrument used in
measurement will produce accurate results.
3. International System of Units. The International System of Units is
a system of measurement based on 7 base units: the meter (length), kilogram
(mass), second (time), ampere (electric current), Kelvin (temperature), mole
(quantity), and candela (brightness). These base units can be used in
combination with each other.
4. Accuracy. A measure of how close a measurement is to the correct or
accepted value of the quantity being measured.
5. Precision. A measurement system is referring to how close the agreement is
between repeated measurements (which are repeated under the same
conditions).
6. Significant Figures. A number are digits that carry meaningful contributions to
its measurement resolution.
7. Scientific Notation. Is a way of expressing numbers that are too big or too
small to be conveniently written in decimal form. It is commonly used by
scientists, mathematicians and engineers, in part because it can simplify
certain arithmetic operations.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS
In science, a measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data

that describes a property of an object or event. A measurement is made by
comparing a quantity with a standard unit. Since this comparison cannot be
perfect, measurements inherently include error, which is how much a measured
value deviates from the true value. The study of measurement is called
metrology.
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Measurements are calibrated, which is to say they are compared against a

set of standards in a system so that the measuring device can deliver a value
that matches what another person would obtain if the measurement were
repeated. There are a few common standard systems you may encounter:
 International System of Units (SI): SI comes from the French

name Système International d'Unités. It is the most commonly used
metric system.
 Metric System: SI is a specific metric system, which is a decimal system
of measurement. Examples of two common forms of the metric system
are the MKS system (meter, kilogram, second as base units) and CGS
system (centimeter, gram, and second as base units). There are many
units in SI and other forms of the metric system that are built upon
combinations of base units. These are called derived units.
 English System: The British or Imperial system of measurements was
common before SI units were adopted internationally. Although Britain
has largely adopted the SI system, the United States and some
Caribbean countries still use the English system for non-scientific
purposes. This system is based on the foot-pound-second units, for units
of length, mass, and time.
Source: https://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/165/169061/CH01_1.4_Main.html
Uncertainties in Measurement
Qualitative observations are frequently not sufficient for making reliable

conclusions. It may not be enough to say that a solution is blue; measurement of the
wavelength of the color of light that the solution absorbs may be required. Most
scientific observations are quantitative and therefore involve measurements. Errors
that occur during measurements may either be due to the measuring instrument or
due to the procedure followed by the person making the measurement. For example,
a weighing scale may be defective or the one doing the weighing may have been
careless and some of the materials was spilled. The procedure may have called for
dry weigh but the sample was not thoroughly dried.
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The best measurements are those which both precise and accurate. Accuracy
is how close a measurement is to the correct value for that measurement. The
precision of a measurement system is referring to how close the agreement is
between repeated measurements (which are repeated under the same conditions).
Measurements can be both accurate and precise, accurate but not precise, precise
but not accurate, or neither.
How do accuracy, precision, and error relate to each other?
The random error will be smaller with a more accurate instrument

(measurements are made in finer increments) and with more repeatability or
reproducibility (precision). Consider a common laboratory experiment in which you
must determine the percentage of acid in a sample of vinegar by observing the volume
of sodium hydroxide solution required to neutralize a given volume of the vinegar. You
carry out the experiment and obtain a value. Just to be on the safe side, you repeat
the procedure on another identical sample from the same bottle of vinegar. If you have
actually done this in the laboratory, you will know it is highly unlikely that the second
trial will yield the same result as the first. In fact, if you run a number of replicate (that
is, identical in every way) trials, you will probably obtain scattered results.
The more measurements that are taken, the closer we can get to knowing a
quantity’s true value. With multiple measurements (replicates), we can judge the
precision of the results, and then apply simple statistics to estimate how close the
mean value would be to the true value if there was no systematic error in the system.
The mean deviates from the “true value” less as the number of measurements
increases.
Temperature
The temperature measures the hotness or the coldness of an object. It also

determines the direction of the flow of heat. Heat always flows from an object at higher
temperature to another object at lower temperature.
There are three temperature scales being used. These are the Celsius (formerly
Centigrade), the Fahrenheit, and the Kelvin scales. Their units are 0C (degrees
Celsius), 0F (degrees Fahrenheit), and K (kelvins), respectively.
Two commonly-fixed points are the temperature at which water freezes and the
temperature at which water boils at standard atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius
scale, the freezing point of water is 0 0C and its boiling point is 100 0C. the interval
between these points is divided into 100 equal parts. On the Fahrenheit scale, the
freezing point of water is 32 0F and the boiling point is 212 0F. The interval between
these points is divided into 180 equal parts. On the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of
water is 273 K and the boiling point is 373 K. notice that on the Kelvin scale, the degree
sign is not used. The degree interval on the kelvin scale is the same as in the Celsius
scale. The zero point on the Kelvin scale is 0 K, is called the absolute zero temperature
and is equal to -273 0C.
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The following are the formulas used in converting temperatures:
Celsius to Fahrenheit ° F = 9/5 ( ° C) + 32
Fahrenheit to Celsius ° C = 5/9 (° F - 32)
Celsius to Kelvin K = ° C + 273
Kelvin to Celsius ° C = K - 273
Significant Figures
In any measurements, there is always some degree of uncertainty due to

experimental error. Significant figures include all the digits, whether certain or
uncertain. There are certain rules to follow in determining the significant figures.
1. All non-zero digits are considered significant. For example, 91 has two significant
figures (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
2. Zeros appearing between two non-zero digits (trapped zeros) are significant.
Example: 101.12 has five significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, and 2.
3. Leading zeros (zeros before non-zero numbers) are not significant. For example,
0.00052 has two significant figures: 5 and 2.
4. Trailing zeros (zeros after non-zero numbers) in a number without a decimal are
generally not significant (see below for more details). For example, 400 has only
one significant figure (4). The trailing zeros do not count as significant.
5. Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant. For
example, 12.2300 has six significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0, and 0. The number
0.000122300 still has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are not
significant). In addition, 120.00 has five significant figures since it has three
trailing zeros. This convention clarifies the precision of such numbers. For
example, if a measurement that is precise to four decimal places (0.0001) is
given as 12.23, then the measurement might be understood as having only two
decimal places of precision available. Stating the result as 12.2300 makes it
clear that the measurement is precise to four decimal places (in this case, six
significant figures).
6. The number 0 has one significant figure. Therefore, any zeros after the decimal
point are also significant. Example: 0.00 has three significant figures.
7. Any numbers in scientific notation are considered significant. For example, 4.300
x 10-4 has 4 significant figures.
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Scientific Notation
Many numbers used in chemistry are either very large or very small that the
number of zeros becomes difficulty to handle. For accuracy and convenience, these
numbers are written in scientific notation. A number in scientific notation has two parts.
The first part is a number between 1 and 10 (N). The second part is a power of 10
(10y) as show below
N x 10y
The exponent y can be a positive or a negative integer.
To write numbers in scientific notation, move the decimal point such that you
have a number between 1 and 10. Determine the correct exponent by counting the
number of times the decimal point is moved. When the decimal point is moved to the
right, the exponent is written as a negative number. When decimal point is moved to
the left, the exponent is written as a positive number.
Examples:
0.00567 5.67 x 10-3 ; 456,000 4.56 x 105
0.0145 1.45 x 10-2 ; 3,890,000 3.89 x 106
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oAtDAoqdExw
SELF-HELP: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson.
Bailey, D. C. (2017). Not normal: The uncertainties of scientific measurements.

Ithaca: Cornell University Library, arXiv.org.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160600
Vaghela, H. (2017). A proposed technique for automatic sample placing for scientific
measurements. Piscataway: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Inc. (IEEE). Retrieved from
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LET’S CHECK
Activity #6. Based on your understanding on the lesson about measurements,
answer the following:
A. Round off 24.581,650 to the indicated number of significant figures.
a. 6 significant figures _________________________________

b. 5 significant figures _________________________________
c. 4 significant figures _________________________________
d. 3 significant figures _________________________________
e. 2 significant figures _________________________________
B. Write the following numbers in scientific notation.
f. 52,400 _________________________________
g. 1,005,000 _________________________________
h. 0.000,543 _________________________________
i. 0.000,000,870 _________________________________
j. 3.5 _________________________________
C. Mark has a high fever with a body temperature of 104 0F. What is his
temperature in;
k. Celsius scale _________________________________
l. Kelvin scale _________________________________
Activity #7. Based on your understanding on the lesson about measurements,

answer the following:
A. Express the following in scientific notation.

a. 890,000 ________________________
b. 0.000,000,031 ________________________
c. 0.001, 456 ________________________
d. 677 ________________________
e. 1.23 ________________________
B. Express the following in standard notation.
a. 2.34 x 10-4 ________________________
3
b. 4.56 x 10 ________________________
-6
c. 7.60 x 10 ________________________
5
d. 3.44 x 10 ________________________
-2
e. 9.8 x 10 ________________________
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C. Determine if each of the following is an exact or measured quantity

having uncertainties.
a. The mass of a rock sample collected from Mars.
_________________
b. The number of students in a class.
_________________
c. The distance of your house from school
_________________
d. A dozen of eggs on the table.
_________________
e. Annual meeting of the company.
_________________
D. Explain why 0.002,304,0 grams is a measurement having 5 significant

digits.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity #8. Many times when a series of contractors are working on plans, the
units of measurement are sometimes lost and they need to decipher the
pattern that the other builders used.
Place the appropriate measurements in each row to complete the

measurement pattern.
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity #9. Look around your house at all of the items with listed measurements
on packages. Notice that most usually have both the English
measurements and the metric measurements. For this activity you will
practice recording and paying attention to the metric measurements of
common household items.
Make a list of 10 items in your house that have metric measurements.

Record whether they are in mL, grams, 0Celcius, kilograms, km/h and more.
Also include what type of measurement it is such as for volume, mass or
temperature. Try to find different types of measurements within your group of
at least 30 items.
You are not taking the measurements; you are simply reading the
measurements that are labeled on the package. However, if you have
instruments to measure with using the metric system, you can include those
also.
Below is an example of what how you should construct your data table:
Item Metric Measurement Unit Type of Measurement

Bottled Water 0.5L Liters Volume
Answer the following questions briefly and direct to the point.
A. Why is measurement important?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
B. Why do we use a system to measure?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
C. How can we ensure our measurements agree with others?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
D. In what ways do we measure in our world?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Q&A LIST
QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
measurement accuracy english system

quantitative description precision scientific notation
qualitative description metric system significant figures

ULOc. Identify the properties, structures and changes in the phases of matter.
METALANGUAGE
Below are the essential terms that you are going to encounter in the pursuit of
ULOc. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of curriculum.
Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in
understanding educational concepts.
1. Matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. At a minimum,
matter requires at least one subatomic particle, although most matter
consists of atoms.
2. Phases of matter. One of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four
states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas,
and plasma.
3. Element. A substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons:
another way of saying this is that all of a particular element's atoms have
the same atomic number. Elements are chemically the simplest substances
and hence cannot be broken down using chemical reactions.
4. Atom. Smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of
electrically charged particles. It also is the smallest unit of matter that has
the characteristic properties of a chemical element. As such, the atom is the
basic building block of chemistry.
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5. Physical Properties. Properties can be observed or measured without

changing the composition of matter and are used to observe and
describe matter. Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color,
odor, melting point, boiling point, density, solubility, polarity, and many
others.
6. Chemical Properties. Properties that can be measured or observed only
when matter undergoes a change to become an entirely different kind
of matter. They include reactivity, flammability, and the ability to rust.
Reactivity is the ability of matter to react chemically with other substances.
7. Extensive Property. Property that depends on the amount of matter in a
sample. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter that an
object contains. A small sample of a certain type of matter will have a small
mass, while a larger sample will have a greater mass. Another extensive
property is volume. The volume of an object is a measure of the space that
is occupied by that object.
8. Intensive Property. Property of matter that depends only on the type of
matter in a sample and not on the amount. Other intensive properties
include color, temperature, density, and solubility.
9. Compound. A substance that results from a combination of two or more
different chemical element s, in such a way that the atom s of the different
elements are held together by chemical bonds that are difficult to break.
10. Pure Substance. a sample of matter with both definite and constant
composition and distinct chemical properties. To avoid confusion, a pure
substance is often referred to as a "chemical substance."
11. Mixture. a substance made by combining two or more different materials
in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs. A mixture can usually be
separated back into its original components.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
WAYS OF CLASSIFYING MATTER
From your everyday experience, you know that matter exists in different states
or phases. Matter is the "stuff" that makes up the universe — everything that takes up
space and has mass is matter. All matter is made up of atoms, which are in turn made
up of subatomic particles namely; protons (positively charge), neutrons (zero charge)
and electrons (negatively charge). There are four natural states of matter: Solids,
liquids, gases and plasma.
Solids. In a solid, particles are packed tightly together so they don't

move much. The electrons of each atom are constantly in motion, so the atoms
have a small vibration, but they are fixed in their position. Because of this,
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particles in a solid have very low kinetic energy. Solids have a definite shape,
as well as mass and volume, and do not conform to the shape of the container
in which they are placed. Solids also have a high density, meaning that the
particles are tightly packed together.
Liquids. In a liquid, the particles are more loosely packed than in a solid
and are able to flow around each other, giving the liquid an indefinite shape.
Therefore, the liquid will conform to the shape of its container. Much like solids,
liquids (most of which have a lower density than solids) are incredibly difficult
to compress.
Gases. In a gas, the particles have a great deal of space between them
and have high kinetic energy. A gas has no definite shape or volume. If
unconfined, the particles of a gas will spread out indefinitely; if confined, the
gas will expand to fill its container. When a gas is put under pressure by
reducing the volume of the container, the space between particles is reduced
and the gas is compressed.
Plasma. Plasma is not a common state of matter here on Earth, but it

may be the most common state of matter in the universe, according to
the Jefferson Laboratory. Stars are essentially superheated balls of
plasma. Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic
energy. The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are
often used to make glowing signs by using electricity to ionize them to the
plasma state.
Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/phase-state-of-matter
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Changes of Phase
There are four states of matter in the universe: plasma, gas, liquid and solid.
But, matter on Earth exists mostly in three distinct phases: gas, liquid and solid. A
phase is a distinctive form of a substance, and matter can change among the
phases. It may take extreme temperature, pressure or energy, but all matter can be
changed.
There are six distinct changes of phase which happens to different substances at
different temperatures. The six changes are:
 Freezing: the substance changes from a liquid to a solid.

 Melting: the substance changes back from the solid to the liquid.
 Condensation: the substance changes from a gas to a liquid.
 Vaporization: the substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
 Sublimation: the substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without
going through the liquid phase.
 Deposition: the substance changes directly from a gas to a solid without
going through the liquid phase.
Source: https://www.123rf.com/photo_48796158_stock-vector-phase-change-of-water.html
Matter and elements

All matter is made up of substances called elements, which have specific
chemical and physical properties and cannot be broken down into other substances
through ordinary chemical reactions. Gold, for instance, is an element, and so is
carbon. There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur naturally. The remaining elements
have only been made in laboratories and are unstable. Each element is designated by
its chemical symbol, which is a single capital letter or, when the first letter is already
“taken” by another element, a combination of two letters. Some elements follow the
English term for the element, such as C for carbon and Ca for calcium. Other elements’
chemical symbols come from their Latin names; for example, the symbol for sodium is
Na, which is a short form of natrium, the Latin word for sodium. The four elements
common to all living organisms are oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen
(N), which together make up about 96% of the human body. In the nonliving world,
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elements are found in different proportions, and some elements common to living
organisms are relatively rare on the earth as a whole. All elements and the chemical
reactions between them obey the same chemical and physical laws, regardless of
whether they are a part of the living or nonliving world.
The structure of the atom
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties
of an element. For example, a gold coin is simply a very large number of gold atoms
molded into the shape of a coin, with small amounts of other, contaminating elements.
Gold atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the
properties of gold. A gold atom gets its properties from the tiny subatomic particles it's
made up of.
An atom consists of two regions. The first is the tiny atomic nucleus, which is
in the center of the atom and contains positively charged particles called protons and
neutral, uncharged, particles called neutrons. The second, much larger, region of the
atom is a “cloud” of electrons, negatively charged particles that orbit around the
nucleus. The attraction between the positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons holds the atom together. Most atoms contain all three of these types
of subatomic particles—protons, electrons, and neutrons. Hydrogen (H) is an
exception because it typically has one proton and one electron, but no neutrons. The
number of protons in the nucleus determines which element an atom is, while the
number of electrons surrounding the nucleus determines which kind of reactions the
atom will undergo. The three types of subatomic particles are illustrated below for an
atom of helium—which, by definition, contains two protons.
Source: https://pngio.com/images/png-a1355972.html
Structure of an atom. The protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge) are
found together in the tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. The electrons (negative
charge) occupy a large, spherical cloud surrounding the nucleus.
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Properties of Matter
All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are
characteristics that scientists can measure without changing the composition of the
sample under study, such as mass, color, and volume (the amount of space occupied
by a sample). Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance
to react to form new substances; they include its flammability and susceptibility to
corrosion. All samples of a pure substance have the same chemical and physical
properties. For example, pure copper is always a reddish-brown solid (a physical
property) and always dissolves in dilute nitric acid to produce a blue solution and a
brown gas (a chemical property).
Physical properties can be extensive or intensive. Extensive properties vary

with the amount of the substance and include mass, weight, and volume. Intensive
properties, in contrast, do not depend on the amount of the substance; they include
color, melting point, boiling point, electrical conductivity, and physical state at a given
temperature. For example, elemental sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid that does not
conduct electricity and has a melting point of 115.2 °C, no matter what amount is
examined. Scientists commonly measure intensive properties to determine a
substance’s identity, whereas extensive properties convey information about the
amount of the substance in a sample.
Changes in Matter
Physical changes are changes in which no chemical bonds are broken or

formed. This means that the same types of compounds or elements that were there at
the beginning of the change are there at the end of the change. Because the ending
materials are the same as the beginning materials, the properties (such as color,
boiling point, etc) will also be the same. Physical changes involve moving molecules
around, but not changing them. While Chemical changes occur when bonds are
broken and/or formed between molecules or atoms. This means that one substance
with a certain set of properties (such as melting point, color, taste, etc) is turned into a
different substance with different properties. Chemical changes are frequently harder
to reverse than physical changes. One good example of a chemical change is burning
paper. In contrast to the act of ripping paper, the act of burning paper actually results
in the formation of new chemicals (carbon dioxide and water, to be exact). Another
example of chemical change occurs when water is formed. Each molecule contains
two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen chemically bonded.
Classification of Matter
Matter classified into two types, the Pure Substance and Mixture.
1. Pure Substance. Same types of atoms or molecules comprise pure matters.
They have some distinguishing properties. There are two pure matters,
elements and compounds. Iron, alcohol, salt are examples of pure matters.
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a. Elements: Element is the simplest matter which contains one type of

atom. There are 109 known element in nature. We show elements with
symbols like for iron we use "Fe", Carbon "C", Beryllium "Be"
b. Compounds: Two or more than two elements come together in

specific amounts and form new matter that we call compound. Ions or
molecules can produce compounds. Examples of compounds are Salt
"NaCl", Ammonia "NH3", and Iron III Oxide "Fe2O3"
2. Mixture. Different two or more than two types of matter (element, molecule,
compound) are mixed to get mixture. All matters forming mixture keep their
original properties. They are not pure matters. We can explain mixtures under
two titles, homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures.
a. Homogeneous Mixtures: All parts of mixture show same properties
in homogeneous mixtures. We can call homogeneous mixtures as
solutions. Salt water, sugar water, air are examples of homogeneous
mixtures.
b) Heterogeneous Mixtures: Mixtures do not show same uniformity in
all parts of it. In this types of mixtures, you can see different phases of
matters. Water+Sand, milk, blood, soil are some common examples of
heterogeneous mixtures.
 Emulsion: Heterogeneous mixture including two different liquids. For

example, oil-water, gasoline-water are emulsion examples.
 Suspension: Heterogeneous mixture produced by one solid and one liquid

matter. Sand-water, naphthalene-water are examples of suspension.
 Colloids: are heterogeneous mixture type. Solute matters are

homogeneously distributed in solvent however; we can see particles of
solute with naked eye or microscope in colloids but, in solutions we cannot
see particles with microscope. Thus; colloids are assumed to be
heterogeneous mixture.
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Source: http://selfstudy.co/sp/jee/chemistry/basic-concepts-of-chemistry/mole-concept
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NUskg2qWLPQ
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson.
Stock, A. (2012). Properties of matter. Science Scope, 35(7), 96-96,98. Retrieved

from https://search.proquest.com/docview/927534683?accountid=31259
Understanding the properties of matter, 2d ed. (2003, 06). Scitech Book

News, 27 Retrieved from
LET’S CHECK
Activity #10. Using your knowledge about matter, answer the following:
A. Classify the following as chemical change (CC), chemical property

(CP), physical change (PC), or physical property (PP).
_____1. Heat conductivity _____8. Combustible

_____ 2. Silver tarnishing _____9. Water freezing
_____ 3. Sublimation _____ 10. Wood burning
_____ 4. Magnetizing steel _____ 11. Acid resistance
_____ 5. Length of metal object _____ 12. Brittleness
_____ 6. Melting of ice _____ 13. Milk souring
_____ 7. Exploding dynamite _____ 14. Baking bread
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B. Identify the following as being TRUE or FALSE to the left of the

sentence.
_____ 15. A change in size or shape is a physical change.

_____ 16. A chemical change means a new substance with new properties
was formed.
_____ 17. An example of a chemical change is when water freezes.
_____ 18. When platinum is heated, then cooled to its original state, we say
this is a physical change.
_____ 19. When milk turns sour, this is a physical change because a change
in odor does not indicate a chemical change.
_____ 20. When citric acid and baking soda mix, carbon dioxide is produced
and the temperature decreases. This must be a chemical change.
C. Identify each of the following as a physical or chemical change.
___________________21. You leave your bicycle out in the rain and it rusts.
___________________22. A sugar cube dissolves.
___________________23. Scientist break-up water into oxygen and hydrogen gas.
___________________24. Burning coal for a barbecue.
___________________25. Trimming a bush because it has grown too tall.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity #11. Classify each of the following substances as an element, a
compound, a homogenousmixture, or a heterogeneous
mixture.
_______________1. Sand _______________16. Apple Pie

_______________2. Salt _______________17. Orange Juice
_______________3. Pure Water _______________18. Sugar Water
_______________4. Soil _______________19. Oatmeal
_______________5. Soda _______________20. Energy Drink
_______________6. Pure air _______________21. Gold
_______________7. Carbon Dioxide _______________22. tacos
_______________8. Gold _______________23. Lead
_______________9. Brass _______________24. Caesar Salad
_______________10. Oxygen _______________25. Calcium
_______________11. Salad Dressing _______________26. Whole Milk
_______________12. Salt Water _______________27. Skim Milk
_______________13. Corn flakes _______________28. Agua oxinada
_______________14. Silver _______________29. Potassium
_______________15. Lithium Iodide _______________30. Sugar
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Activity #12. Identify each of the following as an example of a physical

property or a chemical property.
_______________________1. Silver tarnishes when it comes in contact with

hydrogen sulfide in the air.
_______________________2. A banana is yellow.
_______________________3. A sheet of copper can be pounded into a bowl.
_______________________4. Barium melts at 725 C.
_______________________5. Gasoline is flammable.
_______________________6. A diamond is the hardest natural substance.
_______________________7. Helium does not react with any other element.
_______________________8. A bar of lead is more easily bent than is a bar of
aluminum of the same size.
_______________________9. Potassium metal is kept submerged in oil to prevent
contact with oxygen or water.
_______________________10. An apple will turn brown is left in oxygen.
_______________________11. Diamond dust can be used to cut or grind most
other materials.
_______________________12. Acid in tomato sauce can corrode aluminum foil.
_______________________13. Rocks containing carbonates can be identified
because they fizz when hydrochloric acid is
applied.
_______________________14. A piece of charcoal, which is mostly the substance
carbon, gives off heat, and becomes a gray ash.
_______________________15. A ripe mango tastes so sweet.
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity #13. In this activity, you are required once again to elaborate your
answer to each of the questions below.
1. Explain why each of the following is a physical change.

a) Boiling water until no water remains _______________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b) Mixing sugar with coffee ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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2. Explain why each of the following is a chemical change.

a) A car rusting _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b) Food digesting _______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. How are elements different from compounds?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Give the meaning of the following.
 Compound: ______________________________________________
 Mixture: _________________________________________________
 Pure Substance: __________________________________________
 Element: ________________________________________________
 Matter: _________________________________________________
Q&A LIST
QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
matter pure substance mixture

elements homogeneous particles
atoms heterogeneous molecules
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WEEK 4-5
Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
d. Demonstrate a thorough understanding of the different atomic

models and atomic theory; and
e. Apply the Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle, and Hund’s
rule in writing electronic configuration of atoms.

ULOd. Demonstrate a thorough understanding of the electrons in atoms.
METALANGUAGE
The most essential terms below are operationally defined for you to have a
better understanding of this section in the course.
1. Atoms. Smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of
electrically charged particles. It also is the smallest unit of matter that has the
characteristic properties of a chemical element. As such, the atom is the basic
building block of chemistry.
2. Subatomic particles. It also called elementary particle, any of various self-
contained units of matter or energy that are the fundamental constituents of all
matter. Subatomic particles include electrons, the negatively charged, almost
massless particles that nevertheless account for most of the size of the atom,
and they include the heavier building blocks of the small but very dense nucleus
of the atom, the positively charged protons and the electrically
neutral neutrons.
3. Isotopes. Each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal
numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence
differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a
radioactive form of an element.
4. Atomic Number. the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which
determines the chemical properties of an element and its place in the periodic
table.
5. Atomic Mass. the mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic
mass units. It is approximately equivalent to the number of protons and
neutrons in the atom (the mass number) or to the average number allowing for
the relative abundances of different isotopes.
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6. Ground state. A quantum-mechanical system is its lowest-energy state; the

energy of the ground state is known as the zero-point energy of the system.
7. Excited state. An excited state is any state with energy greater than the
ground state. In quantum field theory, the ground state is usually called
the vacuum state or the vacuum.
8. Orbitals. Is a mathematical function describing the location and wave-like
behavior of an electron in an atom.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Everything in this world is made up of matter which in turn is made up of atoms.
These atoms, held closely together to form molecules.
Matter is composed of indivisible building blocks. This idea was recorded as

early as the fifth century BCE by Leucippus and Democritus. The Greeks called these
particles atomos, meaning indivisible, and the modern word “atom” is derived from this
term. Democritus proposed that different types and combinations of these particles
were responsible for the various forms of matter. However, these ideas were largely
ignored at the time, as most philosophers favored the Aristotelian perspective.
The concept of the atom was revisited and elaborated upon by many scientists
and philosophers, including Galileo, Newton, Boyle, and Lavoisier. In 1661, Boyle
presented a discussion of atoms in his The Sceptical Chymist. However, the English
chemist and meteorologist John Dalton is credited with the first modern atomic theory,
as explained in his A New System of Chemical Philosophy.
Dalton’s experiments with gases led to some of the earliest measurements of

atomic masses and a concept of atomic structure and reactivity. Dalton’s atomic theory
contained the following ideas:
 All atoms of a given element are identical.

 The atoms of different elements vary in mass and size.
 Atoms are indestructible. Chemical reactions may result in their rearrangement,
but not their creation or destruction.
Dalton also outlined a law of multiple proportions, which described how reactants
will combine in set ratios. Like the early philosophers, Dalton’s theories were not
popularly accepted for much of the 19 th century, but his ideas have since been
accepted, with amendments addressing subatomic particles and the interconversion
of energy and mass.
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Ancient Atomic Theory
One of the first atomic theorists was Democritus, a Greek philosopher who lived
in the fifth century BC. Democritus knew that if a stone was divided in half, the two
halves would have essentially the same properties as the whole. Therefore, he
reasoned that if the stone were to be continually cut into smaller and smaller pieces
then; at some point, there would be a piece which would be so small as to be
indivisible. He called these small pieces of matter "atomos," the Greek word for
indivisible. Democritus, theorized that atoms were specific to the material which they
composed. In addition, Democritus believed that the atoms differed in size and shape,
were in constant motion in a void, collided with each other; and during these collisions,
could rebound or stick together. Therefore, changes in matter were a result of
dissociations or combinations of the atoms as they moved throughout the void.
Although Democritus' theory was remarkable, it was rejected by Aristotle, one of the
most influential philosophers of Ancient Greece; and the atomic theory was ignored
for nearly 2,000 years.
Early Atomic Theory
Although the idea of the atom was first suggested by Democritus in the fourth
century BC, his suppositions were not useful in explaining chemical phenomena,
because there was no experimental evidence to support them. It was not until the late
1700's that early chemists began to explain chemical behavior in terms of the atom.
Joseph Priestly, Antoine Lavoisier, and others set the stage for the foundation of
chemistry. They demonstrated that substances could combine to form new materials.
It was the English chemist, John Dalton, who put the pieces of the puzzle together and
developed an atomic theory in 1803.
Dalton’s Law
The law of multiple proportions, also known as Dalton’s law, was proposed by
the English chemist and meteorologist John Dalton in his 1804 work, A New System of
Chemical Philosophy. It is a rule of stoichiometry. The law, which was based on
Dalton’s observations of the reactions of atmospheric gases, states that when
elements form compounds, the proportions of the elements in those chemical
compounds can be expressed in small whole number ratios.
For example, the reaction of the elements carbon and oxygen can yield both
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2). In CO2, the ratio of the amount of
oxygen compared to the amount of carbon is a fixed ratio of 1:2, a ratio of simple whole
numbers. In CO, the ratio is 1:1.
In his theory of atomic structure and composition, Dalton presented the concept
that all matter was composed of different combinations of atoms, which are the
indivisible building blocks of matter. Dalton’s law of multiple proportions is part of the
basis for modern atomic theory, along with Joseph Proust’s law of definite composition
(which states that compounds are formed by defined mass ratios of reacting elements)
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and the law of conservation of mass that was proposed by Antoine Lavoisier. These
laws paved the way for our current understanding of atomic structure and composition,
including concepts like molecular or chemical formulas.
History of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Although the concept of the atom dates back to the ideas of Democritus, the
English meteorologist and chemist John Dalton formulated the first modern description
of it as the fundamental building block of chemical structures. Dalton developed the
law of multiple proportions (first presented in 1803) by studying and expanding upon
the works of Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Proust.
Proust had studied tin oxides and found that their masses were either 88.1%
tin and 11.9% oxygen or 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were tin(II) oxide and tin
dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will
combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton
found an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in
chemistry – in the case of Proust’s tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either
one or two oxygen atoms.
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different
gases in different proportions: for example, he found that water absorbed carbon
dioxide far better than it absorbed nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the
differences in the mass and complexity of the gases’ respective particles. Indeed,
carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N 2).
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single,

unique type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they
can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). Since Dalton
reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an
empirical fashion, this marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom.
Dalton's atomic theory contains five basic assumptions:
 All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms. Dalton and others
imagined the atoms that composed all matter as tiny, solid spheres in various
stages of motion.
 Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element
cannot be created, destroyed, divided into smaller pieces, or transformed into
atoms of another element. Dalton based this hypothesis on the law of
conservation of mass as stated by Antoine Lavoisier and others around 1785.
 Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms. Dalton
suggested that all atoms of the same element have identical weights.
Therefore, every single atom of an element such as oxygen is identical to
every other oxygen atom. However, atoms of different elements, such as
oxygen and mercury, are different from each other.
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 In chemical reactions, atoms combine in small, whole-number

ratios. Experiments that Dalton and others performed indicated
that chemical reactions proceed according to atom to atom ratios which were
precise and well-defined.
 When elements react, their atoms may combine in more than one
whole-number ratio. Dalton used this assumption to explain why the ratios
of two elements in various compounds, such as oxygen and nitrogen in
nitrogen oxides, differed by multiples of each other.
John Dalton's atomic theory was generally accepted because it explained the
laws of conservation of mass, definite proportions, multiple proportions, and other
observations. Although exceptions to Dalton's theory are now known, his theory has
endured reasonably well, with modifications, throughout the years.
Modern Atomic Theory: Electrically Charged Particles
Approximately fifty years after John Dalton's proposal of the atom, evidence
began to accumulate which suggested that the atom might not be the solid sphere
that Dalton had envisioned. This evidence came in the form of the discovery of
electrically charged particles and radioactive materials. Based on these new
discoveries, Dalton's proposal of a solid, indestructible atom became unacceptable.
Listed below, are a few of the significant discoveries that were clues that led to the
development of the modern theory of the atom.
In the 1830's, Michael Faraday, a British physicist, made one of the most
significant discoveries that led to the idea that atoms had an electrical component.
Faraday placed two opposite electrodes in a solution of water containing a dissolved
compound. He observed that one of the elements of the dissolved compound
accumulated on one electrode, and the other element was deposited on the opposite
electrode. It was clear to Faraday that electrical forces were responsible for the joining
of atoms in compounds.
In 1879, Sir William Crookes studied the effects of sending an electric current
through a gas in a sealed tube. The tube had electrodes at either end and a flow of
electrically charged particles moved from one of electrodes. This electrode was called
the cathode, and the particles were known as cathode rays. The particles were first
believed to be negatively charged atoms or molecules. However, subsequent
experiments showed that these particles could penetrate thin sheets of material which
would not be possible if the particles were as large as atoms or molecules.
In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen, experimenting with cathode rays, discovered new

and different kinds of rays. Roentgen discovered that if he directed these rays toward
a paper plate coated with barium platinocyanide, the plate became fluorescent. During
subsequent experiments, he found the rays created an image on a photographic plate.
These "new" rays were originally known as Roentgen rays. We know them today as x-
rays which are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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Atomic Models
In 1896, Henri Bequerel was studying the fluorescent properties of uranium

salts and placed a piece of the uranium salt on top of a photographic plate wrapped in
black paper. He discovered, upon development, that the plate was exposed in the
shape of the uranium sample. Bequerel had discovered radioactivity. The radiation
emitted by the uranium shared certain properties with x-rays and light. Becquerel and
two of his students, Marie and Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics
for their studies in spontaneous radiation.
Further experiments by other scientists showed that when the beam from a
radioactive ore was passed through a strong magnetic field, there were three kinds of
radiation emitted. These rays were named alpha, beta, and gamma by Ernest
Rutherford. Alpha radiation is a stream of positive particles composed of two protons
and two neutrons (helium nuclei), beta radiation is a stream of particles with negative
charges now known as electrons, and gamma radiation is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Based on the evidence of experiments in the latter part of the 19th century, it
became apparent that the atom was not a solid sphere, and was far more complex
than originally thought by the early Greek philosophers and John Dalton. A
new model of the atom would have to be developed to incorporate these new findings.
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron by experimenting with a

Crookes, or cathode ray, tube. He demonstrated that cathode rays were negatively
charged. In addition, he also studied positively charged particles in neon gas.
Thomson realized that the accepted model of an atom did not account for negatively
or positively charged particles. Therefore, he proposed a model of the atom which he
likened to plum pudding. The negative electrons represented the raisins in the pudding
and the dough contained the positive charge. Thomson's model of the atom did explain
some of the electrical properties of the atom due to the electrons, but failed to
recognize the positive charges in the atom as particles.
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford, a former student of J.J. Thomson, proved

Thomson's plum pudding structure incorrect. Rutherford with the assistance of Ernest
Marsden and Hans Geiger performed a series of experiments using alpha
particles. Rutherford aimed alpha particles at solid substances such as gold foil and
recorded the location of the alpha particle "strikes" on a fluorescent screen as they
passed through the foil. To the experimenters’ amazement, although most of the alpha
particles passed unaffected through the gold foil as expected, a small number of
particles were deflected at an angle, and a few ricocheted straight
back. Rutherford concluded that the atom consisted of a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus in the center of the atom with negatively charged electrons
surrounding it. The discovery of the nucleus is considered to be Rutherford's greatest
scientific work.
In 1913, Neils Bohr, a student of Rutherford's, developed a new model of the

atom. He proposed that electrons are arranged in concentric circular orbits around the
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nucleus. This model is patterned on the solar system and is known as the planetary
model. The Bohr model can be summarized by the following four principles:
 Electrons occupy only certain orbits around the nucleus. Those orbits are stable
and are called "stationary" orbits.
 Each orbit has an energy associated with it. The orbit nearest the nucleus has
an energy of E1, the next orbit E2, etc.
 Energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from a lower orbit to a higher one
and energy is emitted when an electron falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit.
 The energy and frequency of light emitted or absorbed can be calculated by
using the difference between the two orbital energies.
In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, took the Bohr atom model one
step further. Schrödinger used mathematical equations to describe the likelihood of
finding an electron in a certain position. This atomic model is known as the quantum
mechanical model of the atom. Unlike the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model
does not define the exact path of an electron, but rather, predicts the odds of the
location of the electron. This model can be portrayed as a nucleus surrounded by an
electron cloud. Where the cloud is densest, the probability of finding the electron is
greatest, and conversely, the electron is less likely to be in a less dense area of the
cloud. Thus, this model introduced the concept of sub-energy levels.
Until 1932, the atom was believed to be composed of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded
beryllium atoms with alpha particles. An unknown radiation was produced. Chadwick
interpreted this radiation as being composed of particles with a neutral electrical
charge and the approximate mass of a proton. This particle became known as
the neutron. With the discovery of the neutron, an adequate model of the atom became
available to chemists.
Since 1932, through continued experimentation, many additional particles have

been discovered in the atom. Also, new elements have been created by bombarding
existing nuclei with various subatomic particles. The atomic theory has been further
enhanced by the concept that protons and neutrons are made of even smaller units
called quarks. The quarks themselves are in turn made of vibrating strings of energy.
The theory of the composition of the atom continues to be an ongoing and exciting
adventure.
Subatomic Particles
 Charge of Subatomic Particles

 All atoms are made of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a large space occupied by electrons. The nucleus
contains two types of particles - protons with a positive charge, and
neutrons with a neutral charge. Electrons are negatively charged and
are found in regions of space outside the nucleus.
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 The charge of a proton is equal in magnitude, but opposite the charge of

an electron, therefore in a neutral atom there are equal numbers of both
protons and electrons.
 The Atomic Mass Unit and the Masses of Subatomic Particles

 The Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
 A very small unit of mass used to express the mass of atoms and
molecules.
 Is currently defined as the mass of 1/12 of a carbon-12 atom.
 The majority of the mass of an atom is found in the nucleus, which is
composed of both protons and neutrons. It is believed that protons and
neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 amu, since there are twelve
nuclides (protons and neutrons) present in a carbon-12 atom and an
atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 a carbon twelve atom. The mass of a
electron however is believed to much small than a proton or neutron and
is considered insignificant when studying the mass of an atom.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
 Atomic Number
 Each atom of an element has a specific number of
protons that is equal to every other atom of that
element. The number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom is represented by the atomic number of
that element. For example, carbon has an atomic
number of six, therefore each carbon atom
contains six protons in its nucleus.
 Mass Number
 The sum of the nuclides in an atom (protons and
neutrons) is called the mass number. If an atom
has six protons and eight neutrons, then the atom
is said to have a mass number of fourteen.
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Location of Electrons
 Electrons are found around the nucleus in regions of space called orbitals.
 The orbitals in an atom form a series of energy levels in which
electrons may be found. Each electron in an atom has its own distinct
amount of energy that corresponds to the energy level that it
occupies. Electrons can gain or loss distinct amounts of energy that
cause the electrons to move to different energy levels. As an electron
gains energy it is promoted to a higher energy level.
 Ground State Configuration
 When the electrons of an atom occupy the lowest available orbitals, the
atom is said to be in the ground state. The electrons in a ground state
atom have filled the available spaces from the lowest energy level to
higher energy levels until all the electrons are accounted for.
 When electrons are subjected to stimuli such as heat, light, or
electricity, an electron may absorb energy and temporarily move to a
higher energy level. This unstable condition where lower energy levels
are left unoccupied is called an excited state.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thnDxFdkzZs
Shaw, A. (2016, Apr). History of the atomic theory. Skipping Stones, 28, 12.
Retrieved from
Wessel, W. (1995). The atomic model of matter. Accelerator, 21(2), 12-13. Retrieved
from https://search.proquest.com/docview/204159052?accountid=31259
LET’S CHECK
Activity #14. Use your understanding from the Atomic Structure program to
answer the following questions.
1. The atomic number tells the number of positively charged ________ in the nucleus
of an atom. The atom is __________ because this is also the number of
__________ charged __________ in the atom.
2. The mass number tells the total number of________ and _________ in the nucleus
of an atom. These particles collectively are called ___________ since both are
located in the nucleus.
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3. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of _________ which
results in different _______ numbers.
Activity #15. Answer the following questions:
1. How is the chemical symbol of an element determined?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Of what are atoms composed?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Are electrons, protons, or neutrons the smallest particles? If not, what are?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Why do scientists use models to study atoms?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Why has the atomic model changed over time?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity #16. This worksheet provides extra practice for writing electron
configurations.
1. Write the ground state electron configuration of the following neutral

elements in orbital notation, orbital notation with arrows and in short hand noble
gas notation.
a) Beryllium
b) Phosphorus
c) Magnesium
d) Calcium
e) Chlorine
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2. Write the ground state electron configuration for neutral atom Iodine and the
Iodine anion.
3. Write the ground state electron configuration for neutral Hydrogen and then
write the electron configuration for an excited state of Hydrogen.
4. Write the ground state electron configuration for neutral Titanium and then
write the electron configuration for an excited state of Titanium.
5. State in your own words the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund’s rule.
Activity #17. Complete the table below without using your periodic table.
ELEMENT ATOMIC ATOMIC PROTON ELECTRON NEUTRON

NUMBER MASS ( p+ ) ( e- ) ( n0 )
(Z) (A)
Boron 5 11
Copper 29 33
Iron 56 26
Sulfur 16 16
Tin 50 69
Nitrogen 14 7
Neon 10 20
Mercury 201 80
Potassium 39 19
Bromine 35 80
Aluminum 13 27
Gold 79 118
Calcium 20 40
Lead 207 125
Silver 108 61
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity #18. Based on the topic above, answer the following questions:
1. What Democritus Thought?

A. Why were people so resistant to accept Democritus' idea of atoms?
B. Draw your interpretation of Democritus' model of atoms.
C. Compare Democritus' model to what already know about atomic

structure. (i.e. What does his model lack? What does it include?)
2. What Dalton discovered?

A. For close to 2000 years nobody got too excited about atoms. What
do you think made Dalton push to get his theory published?
B. Draw your interpretation of Dalton's' model of atoms.
C. Compare Dalton's model to what already know about atomic

3. What Thompson discovered?

A. By the time Thompson came along people were very "pro atom."
Why the cultural shift?
B. Draw your interpretation of Thompson's model of atoms.
C. Compare Thompson's model to what already know about atomic

4. What Rutherford discovered?

A. Explain Rutherford’s model.
B. Draw your interpretation of Rutherford's model of atoms.
C. Compare Rutherford's model to what already know about atomic

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5. What Bohr discovered?

A. What major weakness in Thompson's model did Bohr correct?
B. Draw your interpretation of Bohr's model of atoms.
C. Compare Bohr's model to what already know about atomic structure.

(i.e. What does his model lack? What does it include?)
6. Subatomic Particles
A. What is an atom?
________________________________________________________
B. Atoms are made up of 3 particles. What are they?

________________________________________________________
C. What are electrons?

________________________________________________________
D. What is the charge of an electron?

________________________________________________________
E. What are protons?

________________________________________________________
F. What is the charge of a proton?

________________________________________________________
G. What are neutrons?

________________________________________________________
H. What is the charge of a neutron?

________________________________________________________
I. What are isotopes?

________________________________________________________
Activity #19. In a document files, make a timeline showing the development of

the atomic theory.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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Q&A LIST
QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
atoms anions neutron

ions proton isotopes
cations electron orbitals

ULOe. Apply the Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule in
writing electronic configuration of atoms.
METALANGUAGE
The most essential terms below are operationally defined for you to have a
better understanding of this section in the course.
1. Quantum Mechanics.
2. Electron Configuration. It also called electronic structure, the arrangement of
electrons in energy levels around an atomic nucleus.
3. Valence electron. It is an electron that is the most likely to be involved in a
chemical reaction. They are typically the electrons with the highest energy level.
4. Energy level. It also called electron shells; are fixed distances from the nucleus
of an atom where electrons may be found. Electrons are tiny, negatively
charged particles in an atom that move around the positive nucleus at the
center.
5. Orbitals. It describes where an electron is likely to be found in an atom.
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ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
The quantum mechanical model is based on quantum theory, which says

matter also has properties associated with waves. According to quantum theory, it’s
impossible to know the exact position and momentum of an electron at the same time.
This is known as the Uncertainty Principle.
The quantum mechanical model of the atom uses complex shapes

of orbitals (sometimes called electron clouds), volumes of space in which there
is likely to be an electron. So, this model is based on probability rather than certainty.
Four numbers, called quantum numbers, were introduced to describe the
characteristics of electrons and their orbitals:
 Principal quantum number: n
 Angular momentum quantum number: l

 Magnetic quantum number: ml
 Spin quantum number: ms
The principal quantum number
The principal quantum number n describes the average distance of the orbital
from the nucleus — and the energy of the electron in an atom. It can have positive
integer (whole number) values: 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. The larger the value of n, the
higher the energy and the larger the orbital. Chemists sometimes call the
orbitals electron shells.
The angular momentum quantum number
The angular momentum quantum number l describes the shape of the orbital,
and the shape is limited by the principal quantum number n: The angular momentum
quantum number l can have positive integer values from 0 to n–1. For example, if the
n value is 3, three values are allowed for l: 0, 1, and 2.
Orbitals that have the same value of n but different values of l are
called subshells. These subshells are given different letters to help chemists
distinguish them from each other. The following table shows the letters corresponding
to the different values of l.
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Letter Designations of the Subshells
Value of l (subshell) Letter
0 s
1 p
2 d
3 f
4 g
When chemists describe one particular subshell in an atom, they can use both
the n value and the subshell letter — 2p, 3d, and so on. Normally, a subshell value of
4 is the largest needed to describe a particular subshell. If chemists ever need a larger
value, they can create subshell numbers and letters.
The following figure shows the shapes of the s, p, and d orbitals.
Source: https://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/atomic-structure-the-quantum-mechanical-model/
As shown in the top row of the figure (a), there are two s orbitals — one for
energy level 1 (1s) and the other for energy level 2 (2s). The s orbitals are spherical
with the nucleus at the center. Notice that the 2s orbital is larger in diameter than the
1s orbital. In large atoms, the 1s orbital is nestled inside the 2s, just like the 2p is
nestled inside the 3p. The second row of the figure (b) shows the shapes of the p
orbitals, and the last two rows (c) show the shapes of the d orbitals. Notice that the
shapes get progressively more complex.
The magnetic quantum number
The magnetic quantum number is designated as: ml. This number describes
how the various orbitals are oriented in space. The value of this number depends on
the value of l. The values allowed are integers from –l to 0 to +l. For example, if the
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value of l = 1 (p orbital), you can write three values for this number: –1, 0, and +1. This
means that there are three different p subshells for a particular orbital. The subshells
have the same energy but different orientations in space.
The second row (b) of the figure shows how the p orbitals are oriented in space.
Notice that the three p orbitals correspond to magnetic quantum number values of –1,
0, and +1, oriented along the x, y, and z axes.
The spin quantum number
The fourth and final quantum number is the spin quantum number, designated
as: ms. This number describes the direction the electron is spinning in a magnetic field
— either clockwise or counterclockwise. Only two values are allowed: +1/2 or –1/2.
For each subshell, there can be only two electrons, one with a spin of +1/2 and another
with a spin of –1/2.
THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are
distributed in its atomic orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a standard
notation in which all electron-containing atomic subshells (with the number of electrons
they hold written in superscript) are placed in a sequence. For example, the electron
configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.
Electron Configurations Provide Insight on the Energy Level of the Orbital, the
Type of Orbital, and the Total Number of Electrons in the Orbital. However, the
standard notation often yields lengthy electron configurations (especially for
elements having a relatively large atomic number). In such cases, an abbreviated or
condensed notation may be used instead of the standard notation. In the abbreviated
notation, the sequence of completely filled subshells that correspond to the
electronic configuration of a noble gas is replaced with the symbol of that noble
gas in square brackets. Therefore, the abbreviated electron configuration of sodium
is [Ne]3s1 (the electron configuration of neon is 1s22s22p6, which can be abbreviated
to [He]2s22p6).
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Source: https://byjus.com/chemistry/electron-configuration/
Standard and Abbreviated Notations for Electron Configuration
Electron Configurations are useful for:
 Determining the valency of an element.

 Predicting the properties of a group of elements (elements with similar
electron configurations tend to exhibit similar properties).
 Interpreting atomic spectra.
This notation for the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of atoms came
into practice shortly after the Bohr model of the atom was presented by Ernest
Rutherford and Niels Bohr in the year 1913.
Filling of Atomic Orbitals
Aufbau Principle
 This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbeen’ which means ‘build
up’.
 The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having
lower energies before occupying higher energy orbitals.
 The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the
azimuthal quantum numbers.
 According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
The order in which electrons are filled in atomic orbitals as per the Aufbau principle
is illustrated below.
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Source: https://byjus.com/chemistry/aufbau-principle/
Writing Electron Configurations with the Aufbau Principle
It is important to note that there exist many exceptions to the Aufbau principle
such as chromium and copper. These exceptions can sometimes be explained by the
stability provided by half-filled or completely filled subshells.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
 The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons, each
having opposite spins, can fit in an orbital.
 This principle can also be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have
the same values for all four quantum numbers”.
 Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers are the same for
two electrons, they must have opposite spins.
Hund’s Rule
 This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals
belonging to a subshell.
 It states that every orbital in a given subshell are singly occupied by electrons
before a second electron is filled in an orbital.
 In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain
one electron all have the same spin (or the same values of the spin quantum
number).
Examples
The electron configurations of a few elements are provided with illustrations in this
subsection.
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134
Electron Configuration of Hydrogen
The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Therefore, a hydrogen

atom contains 1 electron, which will be placed in the s subshell of the
first shell/orbit. The electron configuration of hydrogen is 1s1, as
illustrated below.
Electron Configuration of Oxygen
The atomic number of oxygen is 8, implying that an oxygen atom

holds 8 electrons. Its electrons are filled in the following order:
K shell – 2 electrons
L shell – 6 electrons
Therefore, the electron configuration of oxygen is 1s2 2s2 2p4,

as shown in the illustration provided below.
Chlorine Electronic Configuration
Chlorine has an atomic number of 17. Therefore, its 17 electrons

are distributed in the following manner:
K shell – 2 electrons
L shell – 8 electrons
M shell – 7 electrons
The electron configuration of chlorine is illustrated below. It can
be written as 1s22s22p63s23p5 or as [Ne]3s23p5
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hSkJzE2Vz_w
Pearson, W. H. (2014). A general chemistry laboratory experiment relating electron

configuration and magnetic behavior. Journal of Chemical Education, 91(1),
116. Retrieved from
Garai, J. (2014). Electron configuration of the substitutional nitrogen defect in

diamond. Ithaca: Cornell University Library, arXiv.org. Retrieved from
53 | P a g e
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134
LET’S CHECK
Activity #20. For the following elements list the electron configuration.
1. oxygen = ______________________________________________
2. cesium = ______________________________________________
3. krypton = ______________________________________________
4. titanium = ______________________________________________
5. scandium = ______________________________________________
6. nitrogen = ______________________________________________
7. chlorine = ______________________________________________
8. fluorine = ______________________________________________
9. arsenic = ______________________________________________
10. francium = ______________________________________________
Activity #21. Identify the element that has the following electron configuration
__________1. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p5

__________2. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d5
__________3. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
__________4. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s1
__________5. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4
__________6. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f10
__________7. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p4
__________8. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s24 d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d8
__________9. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p2
__________10. 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity #22. Provide both STANDARD and SHORT HAND Electron
configuration for the following
1. Copper
Standard: _____________________________________________________
Shorthand: ____________________________________________________
2. Iodine
Standard: _____________________________________________________
Shorthand: ____________________________________________________
3. Barium
Standard: _____________________________________________________
Shorthand: ____________________________________________________
54 | P a g e
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134
4. Chlorine
Standard: _____________________________________________________
Shorthand: ____________________________________________________
5. Cesium
Standard: _____________________________________________________
Shorthand: ____________________________________________________
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity #23. Look for an element in a periodic table which starts with the same
letter as your last name.
a. Write its complete electron configuration.

b. Use the appropriate noble gas notation to simplify the electron
configuration.
c. Show the distribution of electrons in an orbital.
d. Illustrate the Hund’s Rule.
Q&A LIST
QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
quantum numbers pauli's exclusion principle valence shell

electron configuration hund's rule orbitals
aufbau principle Valence electron noble gas notation
55 | P a g e

Week 1-3 - Chem

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College of Arts and Sciences Education

2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City

Course Outline: CHEM 205/L– General Inorganic Chemistry 1

Course Coordinator: Ronnel P. Senining

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the course coordinator, with the approval of the

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

a. Demonstrate a thorough understanding the basic concepts in

BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS

The study of geology is also greatly aided by chemistry. Chemists inform

Everything is made of chemical materials. Many things we do involve chemical

Organic chemistry - is the study of the structure, properties, composition,

Inorganic chemistry - is the study of the chemistry of materials from non-

Biochemistry - is the application of chemistry to the study of biological

Physical chemistry - blends the principles of physics and chemistry to study

Analytical chemistry - the area of chemistry responsible for characterizing the

The world is largely made up of chemical processes and reactions. Chemical

Chemistry, as a science, uses methods in investigating problems that need to

Scientific method is a logical sequence of thought processes and activities

1. Purpose/Question. Ask a question. Done by observation.

Usually, a hypothesis is written in terms of cause and effect. Alternatively, it

 Controlled Variables: You can have as many controlled variables as

 Dependent Variable: This is the variable you measure. It is called

Gauch, J.,Hugh G. (2013). Scientific method in brief. New York: Cambridge

3. What branch of chemistry would develop a better insulin-delivery system for

6. What will knowledge of chemistry enable you to do?

7. What is technology and its importance?

Complete the flowchart about the scientific method.

A scientific problem is often discovered when an

A _________________ is formed when an explanation is proposed for an

Testing a proposed explanation requires designing an _______________.

For the results of the experiment to be accepted, the experiment must

An explanation may become a ___________________ if the same results

The __________________________ variable is changed during an experiment

and the ___________________ variable is observed during an experiment.

Write a hypothetical experiment of your own. First, describe the

What is the question that is being asked?

What is the hypothesis that you will be testing?

Will the data being collected be more qualitative or quantitative? Why?

What is the independent variable, dependent variable, control and the

Give your reaction below to this quotation by citing examples.

BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS

1. Scientific Measurements. A collection of quantitative or numerical data that

In science, a measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data

Measurements are calibrated, which is to say they are compared against a

 International System of Units (SI): SI comes from the French

Qualitative observations are frequently not sufficient for making reliable

How do accuracy, precision, and error relate to each other?

The random error will be smaller with a more accurate instrument

The temperature measures the hotness or the coldness of an object. It also

_1. Heat conductivity _8. Combustible

_1. Sand _16. Apple Pie