Parametric Statistics
• The statement being tested.
Parametric statistical
• Procedures are inferential
procedures that rely on testing claims
regarding parameters such as the
population mean, the population
standard deviation, or the population
proportion.
• Apply to data in ratio scale, and some
apply to data in interval scale.
Two Common Forms of Statistical Inference
• Estimation - It is used to approximate
the value of an unknown population
parameter.
• Hypothesis Testing - It is a procedure
on sample evidence and probability,
used to test claims regarding a
characteristic of one or more
populations.
Procedures for Testing Hypothesis
1. State the null and alternative hypothesis.
2. Set the level of significance or alpha level
(α).
3. Determine the appropriate test to use.
4. Determine the p-value.
5. Make Statistical decision.
6. Draw conclusion.
HYPOTHESIS - preconceived idea, assumed
to be true but has to be tested for its truth or
falsity.
Two Types of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis
• Denoted by H0
• Assumed true until evidence
indicates otherwise.
• Must contain the condition of
equality and must be written with
the symbol =, ≤, or ≥.
2. Alternative Hypothesis
• Denoted by Ha or H1.
• Statement that must be true if the
null hypothesis is false.
• Sometimes referred to as the
research hypothesis.
• Must contain the condition of
equality and must be written with the
symbol 6=,<, or >.
Set the level of significance or alpha level (α)
You should establish a predetermined level
of significance, below which you will reject
the null hypothesis.
The generally accepted levels are 0.10, 0.05,
and 0.01.
Determine the appropriate test to use
Parametric Test
1. One-Sample T-test
2. Dependent Sample T-test
3. Independent Sample T-test
4. One-Way Analysis of Variance
5. Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Note: Make sure to verify that the
assumptions of every statistical test are
satisfied.
In stating your decision, you can use:
• Fail to reject the null hypothesis/ Do
not reject the null hypothesis/ Retain
the null hypothesis.
• Reject the null hypothesis.
Note:
It is important to recognize that we never
accept the null hypothesis. We are merely
saying that the sample evidence is not strong
enough to warrant rejection of the null
hypothesis.
Interpretation
➢ Less than alpha, does not follow
normal distribution.
➢ More than alpha, does follow
normal distribution.
Decision Rule:
If p-value is less than or equal to the level of
significance, reject H0, otherwise failed to
reject H0.
➢ Kapag mas mataas sa alpha level,
failed to reject Ho
➢ Kapag mas mababa sa alpha level,
reject Ho
Draw Conclusion
Record conclusions and recommendations
in a report, and associate interpretations to
justify your conclusion or
recommendations.
➢ There is no sufficient evidence -
failed to reject Ho.
➢ There is sufficient evidence – reject
Ho
Assumptions of Parametric Statistics
Common Assumptions
• Approximately Normally Distributed
• Homogeneity of Variances
• Samples must be independent of
each other.
Testing Normality of the Data
To determine if the data follows a normal
distribution, we can use the graphical or
numerical method.
Graphical
1. Histogram
2. Normal Q-Q Plot
Numerical
1. Kolmogorov Smirnov Test
2. Lilliefors
3. Anderson - Darling Test
4. Shapiro Wilk Test
Histogram
Histogram plots the observed values
against their frequency, states a visual
estimation whether the distribution is
bell shaped or not. If the histogram form
a bell shaped it is considered that the
data follows a normal distribution.
Syntax:
hist(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRADE_MATH,
probability = T , col = 'GREEN')
lines(density(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRADE_
MATH) , col = 'RED')
Normal Q-Q Plot
Q-Q probability plots display the
observed values against normally
 distributed data (represented by the line).
If the points are close to the diagonal line
it is considered that the data follows a
normal distribution.
Syntax:
qqnorm(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRADE_MAT
H)
qqline(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRADE_MATH)
Example: Use the four numerical test for
normality to grade in math from the
SAMPLE DATEV2 and determine if the
data is normal.
• shapiro.test(SAMPLE_DATAV2$G
RADE_MATH) – Shapiro wilk test
• lillie.test(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRAD
E_MATH) - Lilliefors Test
• ad.test(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRADE
_MATH) - Anderson Darling Test
• ks.test(SAMPLE_DATAV2$GRADE
_MATH, "pnorm") - Kolmogorov
Smirnov Test
Testing the Homogeneity of Variances
There are many ways of testing data for
homogeneity of variance. Two methods are
shown here.
1. Bartletts test
• If the data is normally
distributed, this is the best
test to use. It is sensitive to
data which is not normally
distribution; it is more likely
to return a ”false positive”
when the data is non-normal.
• Syntax:
bartlett.test(SAMPLE_DATAV
2$GRADE_MATH
factor(SAMPLE_DATAV2$FAV
ORITE_SUBJECT))
2. Levenes test
• More robust to departures
from normality than Bartletts
test.
• Syntax:
leveneTest(SAMPLE_DATAV2
$GRADE_MATH ~
factor(SAMPLE_DATAV2$FAV
ORITE_SUBJECT))
Null Hypothesis:
Equal Variances Assumed.
Alternative Hypothesis:
Equal Variances Not Assumed.
One-sample t-test is used to compare the
mean of one sample to a known standard
(theoretical or hypothetical) mean (μ).
Assumptions
• Samples must be independent of
each other.
• Approximately Normally Distributed.
Syntax: t.test(score, mu = 70, alternative =
'greater', conf.level = 0.05)
To perform inference on the difference of
two population means, we must first
determine whether the data come from an
independent or dependent sample.
Distinguish between Independent and
Dependent Sample
• A sampling method is independent
when the individuals selected for
one sample do not dictate which
individuals are to be in a second
~
sample.
• A sampling method is dependent
when the individual selected to be in
one sample are used to determine
the individuals to be in the second
sample.
Dependent Sample T-test (also called the
paired sample t-test) compares the
means of two related groups to
determine whether there is a statistically
significant difference between these
means.
Assumptions
• Your dependent variable should
be measured at the interval or
ratio level (i.e.,they are
continuous).
• Your independent variable should
consist of two categorical,”
related groups” or” matched
pairs”.
• There should be no significant
outliers in the differences
between the two related groups.
• The distribution of the
differences in the dependent
variable between the two related
groups should be approximately
normally distributed.
Syntax: t.test (pre, post, alternative =
'less', paired = T, conf.level = 1-0.05
Independent Sample T-test is used to
test whether population means are
significantly different from each other,
using the means from randomly drawn
samples.
Assumptions:
• Your dependent variable should
be measured on a continuous
scale (i.e., it is measured at the
interval or ratio level).
• Your independent variable should
consist of two categorical,
independent groups.
• You should have independence of
observations, which means that
there is no relationship between
the observations in each group or
between the groups themselves.
• There should be no significant
outliers.
• Your dependent variable should
be approximately normally
distributed for each group of the
independent variable.
• There needs to be homogeneity
of variances. If the variance of
two independent groups are not
equal, r software will calculate
welch two sample t-test instead
of independent sample t-test.
Syntax: t.test (shallow, deep,
alternative = 'two.sided', var.equal = T,
conf.level = 1-0.10)
One-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) is a method of testing the
equality of two or more population
means by analyzing sample variances.
It is a more general form of the t-test
that is appropriate to use with three
or more data groups.
Assumptions:
• Your dependent variable
should be measured at the
 interval or ratio level (i.e.,
they are continuous).
• Your independent variable
should consist of two or more
categorical, independent
groups.
• You should have
independence of
observations, which means
that there is no relationship
between the observations in
each group or between the
groups themselves.
• There should be no significant
outliers.
• Your dependent variable
should be approximately
normally distributed for each
group of the independent
variable.
• There needs to be
homogeneity of variances. If
the variance of more than
two independent groups are
not equal, R software will
calculate Welch’s anova for
unequal variances.
Syntax:
• factor1 <- c(replicate(6,
'compact'),replicate(6,
'midsize'), replicate(6,
'fullsize'))
• leveneTest(car1~
factor(factor1))
• oneway.test(car1 ~
factor(factor1), var.equal = F)
Pearson product moment correlation
coefficient (Pearson r) is a measure of
thestrength of a linear association between
two variables and is denoted by r.
Syntax: cor.test(<x>, <y>, method =
"pearson", conf.level = 1 - α)
x: independent variable
y: dependent variable
cor.test(number_of_person, no_of_cups,
method = "pearson", conf.level = 1-0.05)
Assumptions:
• Your two variables should be
measured at the interval or ratio level
(i.e., they are continuous).
• There is a linear relationship between
your two variables.
• There should be no significant
outliers.
• Your variables should be
approximately normally distributed.
Non - Parametric Statistics
• It refers to a statistical method in
which the data is not required to fit a
normal distribution. Due to such
reason, they are sometimes referred
to as distribution-free tests.
• Nonparametric tests serve as an
alternative to parametric tests.
• Most non-parametric tests apply to
data in an ordinal scale, and some
apply to data in nominal scale.
Note: Do not use non-parametric procedures
if parametric procedures can be used.
Advantages of Non-Parametric Statistical
Procedures
 • Most non- parametric tests have very
few requirements, it is unlikely that
these tests will be used improperly.
• For some non-parametric procedures,
the computations are fairly easy.
• The procedures can be used for count
data or rank data such as the rankings
of a movie as excellent, good, fair, or
poor.
Disadvantages of Non - Parametric
Statistical Procedures
• Nonparametric procedures are less
efficient than parametric procedures.
• The results may or may not provide
an accurate answer because they are
distribution free.
Non-Parametric Tests
• One-Sample Sign Test
• Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
• Mann Whitney U - Test
• Kruskal Wallis H - Test
• Spearman Rank Correlation Test
• Chi - square Test
One Sample Sign Test is a nonparametric
equivalent of tests regarding a single
population mean.
Assumption:
• The samples must be independent.
Syntax: signmean.test(<numeric vector>, mu
= <known mean>, alternative=’<condition>’,
conf.level=1 – α)
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test is a non-
parametric equivalent to t-test for two
related samples.
Assumptions:
• Your dependent variable should be
measured at the ordinal or
continuous level.
• Your independent variable should
consist of two categorical,” related
groups” or” matched pairs”.
Syntax: wilcox.test(Year_2009, Year_1979,
alternative = "two.sided", paired = TRUE,
conf.level= 1-0.05, exact = FALSE)
Mann Whitney U-Test is a non-parametric
procedure that is used to test the equality of
two population means from independent
samples. Non-parametric equivalent of
independent sample t-test.
Assumptions:
• Your dependent variable should be
measured at the ordinal or
continuous level.
• Your independent variable should
consist of two categorical,”
independent groups”.
Syntax: wilcox.test(ill, healthy, alternative =
"greater", conf.level = 1-0.10, exact = F)
Kruskal Wallis H-Test is a rank based non-
parametric test that can be used to
determine if there are statistically significant
differences between two or more groups of
an independent variable on continuous or
ordinal dependent variable. It is a non-
parametric equivalent to one way ANOVA.
Assumptions:
• One independent variable with two
or more levels (independent groups).
The test is more commonly used
when you have three or more levels.
 • The level of measurement of
dependent variable are ordinal,
interval or ratio level.
• Your observations should be
independent.
Syntax: city<-c(replicate(8, "makati"),
replicate(8, "mnl"), replicate(8, "qc"))
kruskal.test(scores~factor(city))
Spearman Rank Correlation (Spearman Rho)
is used to measure the strength and direction
of association between two ordinal or
continuous variables. It is a non-parametric
version of the Pearson Product-Moment
correlation.
Assumptions:
• The two variables should be
measured on an ordinal or
continuous scale.
• There needs to be a monotonic
relationship between the two
variables.
Syntax: cor.test(<numeric vector
(independent)> , <numeric vector
(dependent)> method = ’spearman’,
conf.level = 0.95)
cor.test(swimming_rank, cycling_rank,
method = "spearman", conf.level = .95)
Chi-Square: Test for independence is
used to discover if there is association
between two categorical variables.
Command for Chi-Square Test:
chisq.test(<x>,<y>)
x: numeric vector or matrix
y: numeric vector; ignore if x is a matrix
Assumptions:
• There are 2 variables, and both
are measured as categories,
usually at the nominal level.
However, categories may be
ordinal. Interval or ratio data that
have been collapsed into ordinal
categories may also be used.
• The two variables should consist
of two or more categorical,
independent groups.
• The data in the cells should be
frequencies or counts of cases
rather than percentages or some
other transformation of the data.
• For a 2 by 2 table, all expected
frequencies > 5.
• For a larger table, all expected
frequencies > 1 and no more than
20% of all cells may have
expected frequencies < 5.
Syntax: matrix(<numeric vector>, nrow = <n>,
ncol = <m>, byrow = <bool>, dimnames =
list(<vector>,<vector>))
chisq.test(<matrix>)
data<c(202,294,300,17,250,302,295,17,102,
110,103,8)
rowname<-c("Obese","overweight","normal
weight","underweight")
colname<c("Thriving","struggling","Sufferig")
bmi<-matrix(data, nrow = 4, ncol = 3, byrow
= F, dimnames = list(rowname, colname))
chisq.test(bmi)