Ce document est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence

Creative Commons “Attribution – Partage dans les mêmes conditions

4.0 International”. https://www.immae.eu/cours/

φ = ⋅

! " φ # "
$ # #% & "

'
()

Γ
µ+
$ = ∧
π *

φ = $ ⋅
& φ =

• -& . /0 µ+ & .1 −

• " >+
•
$ " )

* 1

• " # )

2 " " 3 4 # 1
)
15 φ= $ × 6 747 " "
 $ ) # &
) " )
• " ##

×,
×, ×
,
1

• - 8 )

φ = µ+
φ = µ+ ,

• '#

7 -/
% #% " $ 6 747 &
## %
9 / 1
( = $ θ
7 9 % & %

× ,π 1 = µ +
µ+
( = θ
,π 1
7 4 "

µ+
ϕ= ⋅ = × 1
,π 1
µ+
( ϕ= × ,
,π

,
 7 ))
µ+ ,
µ+ ,
φ= ϕ= ,
1 = ,
1
,π ,π

&

φ
-φ " ) & =− 1

$
φ = =− 1
" ) &
" & " 1

, ) #

= =−

2 ) 2 :1
- % $ "
% ) # " "
& & 1

(
&

= ⋅ τ = φ1 = ,
1
, , ,

= ,
τ >+ >+
,µ+
" # ! 1

, () & 4

9 " ) 2 4
• '
=δ +δ $δ
7 δ = −δ

*
7 δ = 6 ; 6 4 ) 6 747
φ
6= − = 1( δ = φ1

7 ) = φ
,
( δ = φ
,
= ∆φ = ,
∆
, ,
•

4 & = µ+ 1
! " % φ 8
4 $
) #
3 ) ) = µ+ , ,

& ))

& 1
• -
µ+ µ+
= +
,π 1$ − ,π 1
µ+
( # 4 &# φ= 1 +
,π −
µ+
( φ= 1 +
,π + −
" <
• - "

#%
" ) <
,

( )) # > "
" " 1
$ ) " 8 )
) <

* () 4 &

= ,
τ
,µ+

= ,

,
4 ,
τ # 4 ,
1
,
) = , 1

• - 8 )

= $ µ+ ,
= µ+ , ,

,µ + ,
• ?#

−
= =
,.π ,.
,
,

>
4 / = $ 1 θ

$ < =+
µ+
$, < < × ,π 1 = µ+ = θ
,π 1
,

$* > , =+1

µ+, , µ+
= τ= 1,π =
, , , ,
,µ + ,µ+ π, , π

=
 7
µ+
= 1 ,
,π
µ+
( = A = ,
,π
7
,πε +
/ " =
,

,πε +
= A =
,

7
δ δ +δ

δ +δ
δ

+δ
" " ) $ =+ =+
∂,
∂ ,
" ) & )) − =+
∂ , ∂,
,πε + µ+
= ,
=
,
,π ,
+

" # #) 1
B !
$

C $ D E
()

= + ,
( φ = φ → + φ, → = + , ,

φ, = φ,→ , + φ → , = , , + ,

@
 φ
=
,

φ, , , ,

) )) &
φ, →
, =
,
φ →,
, =

, G

µ+
φ, → = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ ,
π
, , ,
Σ ,

µ+ ⋅
= ,
π
,
,

µ+ ⋅
H = ,
,
π ,

• / , = , =
• 3 ) ) ) &
1
• ) 1

9 %

φ →, φ, →
= 1
,

" ) "/ 8 1
C) >4 H $ )
& < I ) & / " ) ) 4 "
8 <
5 " %
φ, → = µ + , , θ1
( φ →, = µ + , θ1

F
 • ,

) "/ & 1
7 5

φ =$ θ− θ θ <
7 5 ,
K )

θ
θ

) θ

µ+ , θ
φ= =
π *

µ+ , θ
= 1 θ 1,π 1 θ
π *

$ &
µ+ α µ+ µ+
φ= θ θ θ= ,
α= *
α
+ , ,
7 5 * " %
& #
=
,

µ+ , µ+
φ →, = φ, → = *
α = *
α
, , , ,

'
&

J
 = φ =
! !
,
+ , + ,
, , + ,
, , , , ,
= ,
+ ,
, , + ,
, ,

= $ + ,
τ= ,
τ+ ,
τ+ ⋅ τ
,µ + ,µ+ ,µ+ µ+
, , ,

( " & &

& , 1

, 1

>+
( ) ) M "1
( >+ , >+ ,
≤ ,

&

6 ,
, 6,
,

2 &

φ
= 6+ " =− =− − ,

( 6 = + + ,

3 6, = , , + ,
,
+

, '

6 = ,
+ + ,

Hδ = 6
δ N = ,
& )) $ &
O
= ,
1
,

L
 O $ # 1
5 % & ))
$ O ## 1
) # %
6, , = ,
, , + , , , + ,
# " ))
$ , 1

* 9 )

•
" ω1

2
=" ω1 − − ,

" , =+
( + =" ω1
( &
+= − ,
,
−

, =

$ + ω 1 ="
, = ω1
ω
( = 1"
+ ω
,

<< ω

, = 1"

) H # 8
4 " 3 1

2 3 &
" 1
2 ) % & " 1
•

=, , =, , $ ##
3

+
 φ →, = φ → =
, ,
φ,→ = ,φ,→, =, ,
# "
1
/ ) &)
& K & 1

)) > $D " E
/ ) )
" &
$D ) E

# * & )) 1
5 # , # &
M 1
&" ) $ K
& 1