MEU 08101: Systems and Control Engineering

✓ Identify the basic notions required for the design and implementation of a
control system
✓ Classify dynamic behavior of control systems
✓ Identify the system transfer function in various physical applications
✓ Illustrate application of feedback control systems

Integrated Methods of Assessment Number of Credits: 6

Continuous Assessment Components: 40%
End of Semester Examination: 60%
References
[1] Ogata, K., (1997): Modern Control Engineering, \3rded. \, Prentice Hall
[2] Younkin, G. (1996): Industrial Servo Control Systems: Fundamentals and Applications, Dekker.
[3] Gopal. M., (1997), Control Systems-Principles and Design, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi
[4] Collect A. V and A. D Hope: Engineering Measurements and Instrumentation. Pitman Publishing (2002)
[5] Adams, L. F.: Engineering Measurements and Instrumentation. The English Universities Press Ltd (2000)
[6] Adams, L. F.: Engineering Measurements Instrumentation and Control IV., The English Universities Press
Ltd.(2003)
[7] Doyle, E. F.: Instrumentation Pressure and Liquid Level, Blackie London (1998)
[8] Haslam, J. A et al (1991) Engineering Instrumentation and Control, Edward Arnold Great Britain
[9] Bass, H. G.: An Introduction to Engineering Measurements, McGraw Hill (200)
[10] Jones, B. E. Instrumentation, Measurement and Feedback, McGraw Hill (1997)
[11] O’higgings, P. J. Basic Instrumentation, McGraw Hill (2005)
 Sub enabling outcome:
Identify the basic notions required for the a) Identify basic components in the control
design and implementation of a control system
system b) Identify component arrangement in a
(1) system
c) Relate control components in a system
Classify dynamic behavior of control a)Identify Dynamic Behaviour in control
systems system
(4) b)Calculate time response
c)Read block diagram on control system
d)Record data
Identify the system transfer function in a)Calculate transfer functions parameters
various physical applications b)Apply the developed transfer function in
(3) actual system
c)Describe transfer function in actual system
d)Analyse the system
Illustrate application of feedback control a) Define feedback control systems
systems b) Distinguish between closed and open loop
c) Describe advantages and disadvantages of
(2) closed and open loop
d) Apply closed and open loop system
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
➢ Represent the system in open loop and closed loop forms.
➢ Define various terminologies related to control system.
➢ Derive the transfer function of commonly used control system
components.
➢ Represent the system in block diagram and to study block diagram
reduction technique.
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
➢ Write the dynamic equations of mechanical, electrical and
electromechanical systems and derive their transfer functions.
➢ Model mechanical systems by Force–Voltage and Force–Current
analogies.
 Control system terminology
❑ A system is a collection, set or arrangement of elements (subsystems).
Or is the interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.
❑ Subsystem is a part of the system. Any system may be considered as a
system of a larger system
❑ Element (component) is the smallest part of a system that can be
treated as whole (entity).
❑ An electrical control system contain several active and passive
components, some of which may work together to form active filter
network contain operational amplifiers resistor and capacitors network
as a whole even though individual component properties dictate the filter
characteristics, it is sufficient to treat the filter as a black box, which
 Control system terminology
A plant or process is any portion of
a system that we want to control.
Control system is the
interconnection of connection of
components forming a system
Fig. 1.a A plant to be controlled
configuration that provides the
and b A plant with a controller
desired output
Block is the set of the elements that can be grouped together,
with overall characteristics described by an input/output
relationship.

Physical
Inputs components
Outputs
within the
block

Fig.1. Block
 Mathematical
Inputs Outputs
expression

Fig.2. Block representation

Control means to regulate, direct, or govern.
Automatic implies self-action without any human intervention.
Control system is a group of physical components arranged to
control themselves or another system.
Control system is the interconnection of connection of
components forming a system configuration that provides the
desired output
Automatic control system is a control system that is self-
regulating without any human intervention.
It does not require human intervention for its operation.
It monitors the output through feedback loop.
Manipulates the plant or process to maintain the output at desired
value. Once the set point is entered the automatic control system
will attempt to maintain the output variable at or near the desired
value
An oven is an example of automatic control system. Once the
desired temperature is set on the dial, the oven temperature
controller takes over and maintain the output variable at or near the
desired value.
Manual control system is a control system that regulated
through human intervention.
Example of manual control system
Opening or closing of a window in a room, thus regulating air
temperature or air quality
Activation of a light switch to change illumination in a room
Porch light activation through optical sensor at dusk or dawn.
Example of automatic control system.
Thermostatic temperature control of home
River water flow control system
Boiler temperature control in the nuclear reactor.
Open loop control system
It is the control system in which the control or action is
independent of the output or the desired result.

Fig. 2 a D.C. motor speed control system and b Block diagram representation of speed control system
Closed loop system
It is a control system in which the control or action is influenced
by the output.
Feedback
For the connection shown in Fig.
3 a, the feedback is negative. If
the polarity of the
tachogenerator is reversed the
feedback is positive.
The control action (Va − VT )
decreases which decreases
the shaft speed ω. a Closed loop D.C. motor speed control system and b Block
diagram of closed loop D.C. motor speed control system
When there is disturbance in the
Closed loop system
It is a control system in which
the control or action is
influenced by the output.
A closed loop system is
defined as a system in which the
measured output is compared
with the reference input.
Here the control action depends
upon the changes in the output. a Closed loop D.C. motor speed control system and b Block
diagram of closed loop D.C. motor speed control system
Closed loop system
It is a control system in which the control or action is influenced
by the output.
Feedback
The control action (Va − VT ) is
also called by the name
Actuating Signal or Error Signal.
ω increases which results in
increase of (Va + VT)
The system is in
unstable mode of operation
a Closed loop D.C. motor speed control system and b Block
diagram of closed loop D.C. motor speed control system
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block diagram is a rectangular block containing one input and one output.
All blocks are interconnected by arrows representing the signal flow path.
The operation the component is described by the mathematical function
enclosed within the block

Inputs Function Outputs

Fig. 2. Block representation

 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Examples
An operational amplifier has a voltage gain of 10. Fig.2 is a block
representation of this amplifier

Inputs 10 Outputs

A complete amplifier has

Fig.2. Block of an amplifier passive components and
a power supply
Examples
Fig. 2 represents a differentiator function. This differentiator
may be mechanical, fluidic, or electronic in nature, but this
information is not available in the diagram

Inputs dl
dt
Outputs

Fig.1. Differentiator function

A rotary potentiometer is being used as an angular position
transducer. It has a rotational range of 0 to 300° and it is powered
by 12V supply. The potentiometer is linear over the entire
operating range. Determine its transfer function.
Output voltage
Potentiometer TF =
Input rotation
12V
= = 0.04 V
300

Rotation angle (°) 0.04 Output Voltage (V)

Basic elements of a block diagram
❑ Blocks
❑ Transfer function of elements inside the block
❑ Summing points
❑ Takeoff points
❑ Arrow
1) Blocks
A block represents a system or a sub system. The block usually has
the transfer function of that system of subsystem which it
represents.

G (s)

Fig. 2. A Block
 Block diagram representation of an equation
❖ Algebraic equations and mathematical functions can be represented by using
block diagrams
y = mx + c x m + y

+
c

25
z = 1.2 x − 10 y + 25 +
x + y
1.2
+
y
10
2) Summing points
Summing point is a block used to represent the addition and
subtraction of signals.
❖ It is shown as small circle connected to arrows representing
signal lines
❖ Incoming signal lines are further identified with either a positive
or negative sign indicating the addition or subtraction process
❖ Output of a summing point is again a signal shown with an
outgoing arrow. a + c c = a −b
❖ No sign is attached to an outgoing signal.
-
b
3) Takeoff points

❖ Takeoff point is used when a signal needs to be routed to two

or more blocks.
❖ It can be thought as electrical junction with voltage being sent
to all connected terminals.
❖ It is represented as a dot (solid circle)n with arrows point away
from it
❖ When we need to use the same signal to feed into multiple
systems, we make use of take off points. a a

a=b
b
4) Arrows
❖ Arrows represent the direction of the flow of signal or
information.
❖ This will tell us how the individual systems/subsystems are
connected.
Arrows

Inputs G (s) Outputs

Fig. 2. Block representation

Transfer functions
❑ Transfer functions of a system is the ratio of output to input.
❑ It is normally expressed in Laplace domain.

Output
Transfer Function (TF ) =
Input
System

Input TF Output

Transfer functions
Transfer function of a closed-loop system
❑ Closed-loop control system can be divided into two categories
based on the nature of the feedback signal.
❑ Negative feedback closed loop system
Forward path
❑ G is the gain of all
E
R +
G
EG C block in forward
Input Output feedback signal.
-
❑ H is the gain the gain
CH of all blocks in
H
Feedback path feedback signal.

Fig. Negative feedback closed loop system

Transfer function of a closed-loop system
❑ Closed-loop control system can be divided into two categories
based on the nature of the feedback signal.
❑ Negative feedback closed loop system
❑ G is the gain of all
E
R +
G
EG C block in forward
feedback signal.
-
❑ H is the gain the gain
CH of all blocks in
H
feedback signal.

Fig. Negative feedback closed loop system

❑ The control system can reduced into just a single block
C = EG
R G C E = R − CH
C = ( R − CH ) G
1 + GH C = RG − CHG
C + CHG = RG
Feedback signal = output x feedback path gain C (1 + GH ) = RG
= CH C G
=
R (1 + GH )
Error signal E = input – feedback signal
= R − CH
output signal C = Error signal E x forward path gain
= EG
 forward path gain
closed − loop transfer function =
1 + forward gain  feedback gain
output C = closed − loop transfer function  input R
C G
Negative feedback CLTF =
R (1 + GH )

❑ The control system transfer function is a property of the

system.
❑ The transfer function is dependent only upon its internal
structure and components
❑ The transfer function is independent of the input applied to
the system
Positive feedback closed loop system
❑ Positive feedback closed-loop system

Forward path
+ E C
R EG
G
Input + Output
CH
H
Feedback path
Fig. Negative feedback closed loop system
 forward path gain
closed − loop transfer function =
1 − forward gain  feedback gain
output C = closed − loop transfer function  input R
C G
Positive feedback CLTF =
R (1 − GH )

❑ The control system transfer function is a property of the

system.
❑ The transfer function is dependent only upon its internal
structure and components
❑ The transfer function is independent of the input applied to
the system
Comparison Positive and Negative feedback closed loop
system
Negative feedback closed-loop system
❑ The transfer function (CLTF) is generally less than 1.
❑ The CLTF remains a finite value as long as the denominator is
greater than zero.
❑ It is commonly used in the control system.
Positive feedback closed-loop system
❖ The CLTF tends to become very large as GH (loop gain)
approaches 1.
❖ It is restricted to specialized applications such as oscillator
Example
❑ Determine the overall gain of a negative-feedback closed loop
system with forward gain of 10 and feedback gain of 2

G = 10
H =2
C G
CLTF =
R (1 + GH )
C 10
CLTF =
R (1 + 10  2 )
C 10
CLTF = = 0.476
R ( 21)
Example
❑ A negative-feedback closed loop system is subjected to an
input of 5V. Determine the output voltage. The system has a
forward gain of 1 and a feedback gain of 1
G =1
H =1
G H Output Important
R = 5V 1 1 2.5 ❑ With an increase in
C G forward gain the
CLTF =
R (1 + GH ) 2 1 3.333
output value
output C =
G
R 5 1 4.1666 approaches input
(1 + GH )
1 10 1 4.545 value but can never
output C =  5V
(1 + 11) 100 1 4.995 become equal to it.
5V
output C = = 2.5V
2
Example
❑ Determine the transfer function for a positive-feedback closed
loop system with forward gain of 1 and feedback gain of 0.5.

G =1
H = 0.5
G
TF =
(1 − GH )
1
TF =
(1 − 1 0.5 )
TF = 2
Example
❑ A positive-feedback closed loop system was subjected to an
input of 5 V. Determine the output voltage. The system has a
forward gain of 1 and a feedback gain of 0.75
G =1
Important
H = 0.75 G H Output ❑ The output value
R = 5V
C G 1 0.9 50 increases as loop gain
CLTF =
R (1 − GH ) 1 0.99 500 (GH) approaches 1. the
output C =
G output becomes very
(1 − GH )
R
1.9 0.5 190 large and approaches
output C =
1
 5V 1.99 0.5 1990 infinity when the loop
(1 − 1 0.75 )
output C = 20V 1.999 0.5 19990 gain approaches 1.
BLOCK DIAGRAM SIMPLIFICATION
1) Blocks in cascade.
When two or more blocks are in a cascade (one after the other), the
can be replaced by a single block with its gain equal to the product
of individual gains.
R C
G1 G2

R G1G2 C

Fig. Cascading block

2) Blocks in parallel.
When there are two or more blocks in parallel, the resultant block
would just be the sum of the transfer functions of individual
blocks.

G2
R + C R G1 + G2 C
+
G1
 3) Eliminating a feedback loop.

E (s) C (s)
R (s) +
G (s)

H (s)C (s)
H (s)

If we just look at the block G(s) with E(s) as input and C(s) as
output,
C (s) = G (s) E (s)
Where E(s) is the difference or sum of the input and the
feedback depending upon the type of feedback.
❑ For a feedback that is negative, E(s) is the difference of the
input and the feedback and
❑ For a feedback that is positive, E(s) is the sum of the input
and the feedback.
E (s) = R (s) C (s) H (s)
C (s) = G (s) E (s)
E (s) = R (s) C (s) H (s)
C ( s ) = G ( s )  R ( s ) C ( s ) H ( s ) 
C (s) = G (s) R (s) G (s)C (s) H (s)
R (s) G (s) C (s)
C (s)  G (s)C (s) H (s) = G (s) R (s) 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) 

C ( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )  = G ( s ) R ( s )
C (s) G (s)
=
R ( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) 
4) Moving a takeoff point ahead of a block
R C
G

R C
G

C
G

Fig. Moving a takeoff point ahead of a block

5) Moving a takeoff point beyond a block

R C
R C G
G
R
1G
R

Fig. Moving a takeoff point beyond a block

6) Moving the summing point ahead of the block
R + C
G
+
A

R + C
G
+
A
1G

Fig. Moving the summing point ahead of the block

7) Moving the summing point beyond a block

R + C
G
+
A

R + C
G
+
A
G

Fig. Moving the summing point beyond a block

Example
❑ Simplify the block diagram in Figure below and determine the
value of output C

10 C
6 1.2 0.5

Gt = G1G2G3
Gt = 6 1.2  0.5 = 3.6 10
3.6 36
output C = Gt  R
output C = 3.6 10 = 36
Example
❑ Determine the transfer function for the block diagram in
figure below and also determine error value E given that R=2,
G1=2/3 and G2=12
R + E C
G1 G2
-
 R + E C
G1G2
-
H =1
2 Error E = reference R − feedback MV
G1 = Error E = R − C
3
G2 = 12 G1G2
TF =
G1G2 (1 + G1G2 H )
TF =
(1 + G1G2 H ) output C = TF  R
2 Error E = 2 − 0.889  2
12
TF = 3 Error E = 0.222
 2 
 1 +  12  1 
 3 
8
TF =
9
TF = 0.889
Example
❑ Determine the transfer function for the block diagram in
figure below

G3

R + + C
+
G1 G2 G4
INPUT OUTPUT
-
 R + C
G1G2 G3 + G4
INPUT OUTPUT
-

R G1G2 C
G3 + G4
INPUT
1 + G1G2 OUTPUT

R G1G2 ( G3 + G4 ) C
INPUT 1 + G1G2 OUTPUT
Table 1 shows the block diagram reduction rules
Table 1Block diagram reduction rules
Table 1Block diagram reduction rules
Table 1Block diagram reduction rules
 Tutorial On Block diagram reduction
Example 1
Reduce the block diagram shown in figure and obtain its closed loop
transfer function C ( s )
R
C G1G2
(s) =
R (1 + G1H1 )(1 + G2 H 2 ) + G1G2
Tutorial 2
Using block diagram reduction technique find the closed loop T.F. of the
system whose block diagram is given in Fig.2

Fig.2
Tutorial 3
The block diagram of a closed loop system is shown in Fig.. Using block
diagram reduction technique determine the closed loop T.F

Fig. Block diagram

Tutorial 3
The block diagram of a closed loop system is shown in Fig.. Using block
diagram reduction technique determine the closed loop T.F

Fig. Block diagram

Main objective
To identify the components/elements that make up the
part block diagram, such as;
a) Gain block,
b) Summing point, and
c) Takeoff point.
 Op-amp simulation of a block diagram
❑ Operational amplifiers can be used for analog simulation of control system.
❑ The built circuit can reveal significant information about operational behavior of
the control system being simulated.
❑ A closed-loop control system can be completely described through a block diagram.
❑ A number of different types of blocks are used in a block diagram, such a gain
block, summing point, and takeoff point.
❑ Operational amplifier can be used to implement each of these functions.
❑ The problem of control system simulation is reduced to representing each element of
a control system block diagram by op-amps and connecting these through wires
 Summing point
❑ Fig. Shows the op-amp implementation of a summing point.
❑ In a block diagram, a summing point accepts two input signals, SP(reference) and
MV(feedback) and it generates signal E(error).
❑ The op-amp is configured as a difference amplifier .
R3
Feedback
R4 R3 10k

= V2 − V1
V1=5 -12V
Vout

11
R1
U2:A
R2 R1 10k 2
LM324
1
Output (Error)

V2=3 3
R2
V2 = Signal aplied at the non − inverting input 10k

4
12V +88.8
R4 Volts

V1 = Signal aplied at the inverting input

Reference 10k
 R3
Feedback
10k
V1=5 -12V

11
R1
U2:A
2 Output (Error)
10k
1
LM324
V2=3 3
R2
10k

4
12V +88.8
R4 Volts
Reference 10k
 R3
Feedback
10k
V=5
V1=5 -12V

11
R1
U2:A
2 Output (Error)
10k
1 V=-1.9961
LM324
V2=3 3
R2
10k

4
12V -2.00
V=3 R4 Volts
Reference 10k
 R3
Feedback
10k
V=3
V1=3 -12V

11
R1
U2:A
2 Output (Error)
10k
1 V=2.00376
LM324
V2=5 3
R2
10k

4
12V +2.00
V=5 R4 Volts
Reference 10k
❑ Resistor R4 and R2 set the gain for the V2 input.
When R4 = R2, the gain for V2 is equal to 1.
❑ Similarly, R3 and R1, which set the gain for the
V1 input, can be made equal for unity gain.

The following points should be considered R3

❑ Select the resistors to be in the range of 10k to V1=5
Feedback
V=5
10k
-12V

100k

11
R1
U2:A
2 Output (Error)
10k
1 V=-1.9961
LM324

❑ Select and match R1 and R2.

V2=3 3
R2
10k

4
12V -2.00

❑ Select and match R3 and R4

V=3 R4 Volts
Reference 10k

❑ Make circuit voltages within the limits of opamp

output swing
❑ If all four resistors are chosen to be of the same value (10kΩ)
❑ R1=R2=R3=R4=R
❑ The output voltage thus becomes
R4 R3
Vout = V2 − V1
R2 R1
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 10k 
Vout = V2 − V1
❑ If the signals are applied in such a manner that becomes
V2 = SP ( reference signal )
V1 = MV ( feedback signal )
❑ Then the output voltage is given by
Vout = SP − MV
❑ Which is equivalent to error (E) signal in a block diagram

SP ( reference ) + E ( error )

-
MV ( feedback )
❑ The preceding equation can now be written as

E (Vout ) = SP (V2 ) − MV (V1 )

 R3
R3
10k
12V
10k
V1=1V 12V
V1=3V
R1

4
U2:A R1

4
10k 3 U2:A
1 10k 3
LM324
V2=5V 2 1
R2 V2=5V 2
LM324
R2
10k
11

+4.00 10k

11
R4 Volts +2.00
10k R4 Volts
-12V 10k
-12V
 R3
R3
12V
10k 12V
10k
V1=5
V1=5
R1

4
R1

4
U2:A U2:A
10k 3
10k 3
1
LM324 1
V2=1 2 LM324
R2 V2=3
R2 2

10k 10k

11

11
-4.00 -2.00
R4 Volts R4 Volts
10k 10k
-12V -12V
 Summing point with adjustable SP input
❑ In laboratory applications, potentiometer is used to provide an adjustable setpoint
input to a closed–loop control system.
❑ The diagram is similar to one without an adjustable setpoint control. All four
resistors, R1 to R4, have their values increased to 33kΩ.
❑ These resistors should generally be much larger than the resistor
used for set point adjustments (R5, R6, and R7)
❑ The potentiometer R7 allows the adjustment of set-point voltage.
❑ The set-point network (R5, R6 and R7) is connected across bipolar
supply.
❑ This permits the bipolar SP voltage to be applied to the circuit
❑ R5 and R6 allow the SP voltage range to be adjusted within the
bipolar supply voltage range
❑ Thus, finer control can be exercised over SP adjustment.
❑ The SP voltage range can be set with the help of the following
expression R5
R3
V1=3

R6 (Vcc − Vee )
3.3k 33k
B1 Feedback
V=3 -12V

min SP voltage = + Vee

5V

11
MV
R1
U2:A
R5 + R6 + R7 R7
33k
R2
2

3
LM324
1
Output (Error
V=-2.35744

R6 (Vcc − Vee )
1k 33k

4
SP 12V

max SP voltage = Vcc −

-2.36
V=0.638459 R4 Volts
B2
R5 + R6 + R7
33k
5V
R6
3.3k
 V1=3
R3
R5
3.3k 33k
B1 Feedback
V=3 -12V
5V

11
MV
R1
U2:A
2 Output (Error)
33k
1 V=-2.35744
R7 R2 3
LM324
1k 33k

4
SP 12V -2.36
V=0.638459 R4 Volts
B2 33k
5V
R6
3.3k
Example
❑ Refer to figure below. Assuming a bipolar supply voltage of ±15V, determine the
value of potentiometer R7, to provide an SP voltage range of ±1V.
❑ Given that R5=3.3kΩ, R6=3.3kΩ, Vcc=+15V, Vee=-15V
❑ The minimum SP voltage =-1V , The maximum SP voltage = +1V
V1=3
R3
R5
3.3k 33k
B1 Feedback
V=3 -12V
5V

11
MV
R1
U2:A
2 Output (Error)
33k
1 V=-2.35744
R7 R2 3
LM324
1k 33k

4
SP 12V -2.36
V=0.638459 R4 Volts
B2 33k
5V
R6
3.3k
Example
❑ Refer to figure below. Assuming a bipolar supply voltage of ±15V, determine the
value of potentiometer R7, to provide an SP voltage range of ±1V.
❑ Given that R5=3.3kΩ, R6=3.3kΩ, Vcc=+15V, Vee=-15V
❑ The minimum SP voltage =-1V , The maximum SP voltage = +1V
R6 (Vcc − Vee )
min SP voltage = + Vee
R5 + R6 + R7 14 ( 6.6k  + R7 ) = 99k 
3.3k  (15 − ( −15 ) ) 99k 
−1 = + ( −15 ) R7 = − 6.6k  = 0.471k 
3.3k  + 3.3k  + R7 14
3.3k   30 R6 (Vcc − Vee )
−1 = − 15 max SP voltage = Vcc −
6.6k  + R7 R5 + R6 + R7
99k 
−1 + 15 =
6.6k  + R7
 R6 (Vcc − Vee )
max SP voltage = Vcc −
R5 + R6 + R7
3.3k  (15 − ( −15 ) ) V
max SP voltage = 15V −
3.3k  + 3.3k  + 0.471k 
3.3k   30V
max SP voltage = 15V −
7.071k 
99V
max SP voltage = 15V −
7.071
max SP voltage = 15V − 14.0008485363V = 0.99915146V

❑ The actual standard value for a potentiometer is 500Ω, which will be used.
The actual SP range for this potentiometer will be ±1.056V
 Gain Block
❑ The input and output relationship of a control element can be described by an
expression containing algebraic, differential, and integral terms.
❑ A block is used to correctly represent each of these types of relationships.

The following types of blocks can be found in a block diagram

representing a control system:
❑ Constant (inverting) gain block
❑ Constant (noninverting) gain block
❑ Derivative gain block
❑ Integral gain block
 ❑ Constant (noninverting) gain block G = 1+
R2
C ( output ) = G ( gain )  R ( input ) R1
R1 R2

R ( input ) C ( output ) -12V

G ( gain )

11
R(input) :A
2 C(output)
1
LM324
3

4
12V +88.8

Fig. Constant gain block Volts

Figure shows Opamp representation of a constant-gain (noninverting) block .

Resistors R1 and R2 set the amplifier gain, G.
Standard resistor values can be chosen for R1 and R2 for fixed gain or a potentiometer
can be used for feedback resistor R2 to allow gain adjustment
Example
❑ Construct a circuit to represent the block in Figure. Identify the range of input
signals over which the circuit will yield true representation.

R2 ( feedbackresistor ) R C
G = 1+ 12.5
R1 ( inverting term resistor )
R2
12.5 = 1 + R1=2K R2=23.2K
R1
-15V
R2

11
12.5 − 1 = R(input)
2
:A
C(output)
R1 LM324
1
3

R2 = 11.5 R1

4
15V +88.8

selecting R1 = 2k  Volts

R2 = 11.5  2k  = 23k 
❑ Maximum input signal: A large supply voltage will result in greater range for
input signal.
❑ An LM324 opamp is employed, which can accept a bipolar supply of ±15V .
❑ A saturation loss of 1 to 1.5V can be expected for LM324.
❑ This leaves a maximum output voltage swing of ±13.5V.
❑ Because the amplifier gain is 12.5V, the maximum range of input signal that can
be safely handled by this opamp is
output saturation range
input signal swing =
amplifier gain
13.5
input signal swing =
12.5
input signal swing = 1.08V
❑ This amplifier is useful when the input signal can be limited to within ±1.08V
 ❑ Constant (inverting) gain block
❖ Figure shows Opamp representation of a constant-gain (inverting) block .
❖ The input signal is applied to the inverting terminal.
❖ The output signal is inverted and is 180 out of phase with the input signal.
❖ Resistors R1 and R2 set the amplifier gain, G.
C ( output ) = G ( gain )  R ( input )
R(input)
R1 R2

 R2 
-15V

11
G = −  2
:A
C(output)

 R1 
1
R3 3
LM324

4
15V +88.8
Volts
❖ It is recommended that a resistor be used between the ground and noninverting
terminal
❖ This resistor helps to cancel the error due to opamp input bias currents.
❖ Ideally, R3 is chosen to be equal to the parallel combination of R1 and R2.
❖ But if feedback resistor R2 is much larger than input resistor R1, R3 can be
made equal to R1
R1 + R2
R3 =
R1 R2

❖ Standard resistor values can be chosen for R1 and R2 for fixed gain or a
potentiometer can be used for feedback resistor R2 to allow gain adjustment.
 Takeoff Point
❑ A takeoff point allows signal information to be communicated to more than one
point.
❑ In equivalent electrical systems, such communication can easily be done via simple
interconnection between two points. Sometimes circuit components can be overloaded
due to low input impedance of the destination. This can be prevented through the
use of unity gain buffers, which reduce the loading on the source and maintain
signal integrity.
❑ Figure below shows a unity gain buffer used to isolate different sections of a circuit.
❑ An input signal is applied to the noninverting terminal.
❑ The inverting terminal is connected to the output terminal.
❑ A circuits can be considered as a modified non-inverting amplifier, with zero feedback
resistance and an infinite resistance connected between the inverting terminal and
ground. R2
Amplifier gain, G = 1 +
R1
R2 = 0, R1 = 
0
Amplifier gain, G = 1 +

G =1
❑ With gain of 1, the output signal is same in terms of magnitude and polarity as the
input signal.
❑ The input impedance of noninverting amplifier (and thus, unity gain buffer) is very
high
❑ This reduces the amount of power drawn from the source circuit.
 Summing point with multiple inputs
❑ The difference amplifier used as summing point is not suitable for obtaining the
algebraic sum of multiple signals.
❑ Summing amplifier is basically an inverting amplifier.
❑ Each input is connected to inverting terminal through an input resistor
❑ Multiple inputs can be applied to the opamp.
❑ The ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor sets the gain for that input
signal.
 R4 R4 R4 
x + c output C = −  Y + Y + Z 
 R1 R2 R3 
+ ❑ If R1=R2=R3=R4, the expression
is simplified to
+ y z output C = − (Y + Y + Z )
 X
 R4 R4 
R1 R4
X(input)
R4
Y
R2
output C = −  X + Y + Z
Y(input)
-12V  R1 R2 R3 
❑ If R1=R2=R3=R4, the expression

11
Z
Z(input)
R3 C(Output)
U2:A
R5
2
LM324
1
is simplified to
output C = − ( X + Y + Z )
3

4
12V +88.8
Volts ❑ The inverting sign can be removed by
feeding the output signal to another
inverting amplifier with unity gain.
 V1 V2
X X
X(input)
R1 R4 R7
10k 10k 10k
Y Y
Y(input)
R2
-12V
10k

11
Z Z
Z(input)
R3

11
U2:A
2 U1:B
10k
1
R6 6
R5 3
LM324
7
10k
5
3.3k R8
LM324

4
12V +88.8 4.7k

4
Volts +88.8
Volts
 V1 V2
X X V=-7.99194 V=7.99576
X(input) V=1
R1 R4 R7
10k 10k 10k
Y Y V=3
Y(input)
R2
-12V
10k
V=4

11
Z Z
Z(input)
R3

11
U2:A
2 U1:B
10k
1
R6 6
R5 3
LM324
7
10k
5
3.3k R8
LM324

4
12V -7.99 4.7k

4
Volts +8.00
Volts
Problem
Construct a circuit to implement Figure below

X +
+ Output C = X + 2Y + 4Z
Y 2
+
Z 4
X +
+ Output C = X + 2Y + 4Z
Y 2
+
Z 4

❖ Input A is added without any

amplification.
❖ Input B is subjected to a gain of 2
❖ Input C is amplified by the factor of
4
 Assume R4 = 10 KΩ

Output C = X + 2Y + 4Z
R4 R4 R4
Gain = − Gain = − Gain = −
R1 R2 R3
10k  10k  10k 
−1 = − −2 = − −4 = −
R1 R2 R3
R1 = 10k  R2 = 5k  R3 = 2.5k 
 V1 V2
X X
X(input)
R1 R4 R7
10k 10k 10k
Y Y
Y(input)
R2
-12V
5k

11
Z Z
Z(input)
R3

11
U2:A
2 U1:B
2.5k
1
R6 6
R5 3
LM324
7
10k
5
2k R8
LM324

4
12V +88.8 4.7k

4
Volts +88.8
Volts
 V1 V2
X X V=-10.9837 V=10.9874
X(input) V=1
R1 R4 R7
10k 10k 10k
Y Y V=2
Y(input)
R2
-12V
5k
V=1.5

11
Z Z
Z(input)
R3

11
U2:A
2 U1:B
2.5k
1
R6 6
R5 3
LM324
7
10k
5
2k R8
LM324

4
12V -11.0 4.7k

4
Volts +11.0
Volts
❑ Draw a schematic diagram to represent Figure below with unity gain closed-loop
control system with a forward gain of 10.
R + E C
10
-
❑ It contains two elements; R + E
10 C

▪ Summing block -
▪ Gain(noninverting) block

V1
R2 Summing Point Constant gain block V2
G = 1+ R4 R6 R7
R1 10k 10k 90k

R2
R2 Feedback signal(MV) -12V

10 = 1 +

11
10k

11
Reference(SP) V1
10k 
U2:A
2 U1:B
1 6
R1 3
LM324
7
R2 Reference(SP) 5

10 − 1 =
10k
Error signal
LM324

4
10k 
R5 12V +88.8

4
10k Volts +88.8
Volts

R2 = 90k 
Feedback signal(MV)
 V1
Summing Point Constant gain block V2
R4 R6 R7
10k 10k 90k

Feedback signal(MV)
R2 -12V

11
10k

11
Reference(SP) V1 U2:A
2 U1:B
1 6
R1 3
LM324
7
Reference(SP) 5
10k
Error signal
LM324

4
R5 12V +88.8

4
10k Volts +88.8
Volts

Feedback signal(MV)
 V1
Summing Point V=0.270947 Constant gain block V2
V=2.73291
R4 R6 R7
10k 10k 90k
V=2.73291
Feedback signal(MV)
R2 -12V

11
10k

11
Reference(SP) V1 U2:A
V=3 2 U1:B
1 6
R1 3
LM324
7
Reference(SP) 5
10k
Error signal
LM324

4
R5 12V +0.27

4
10k Volts +2.73
Volts

Feedback signal(MV)
 Group Assignment
Draw a schematic diagram to represent Figure below with unity gain closed-loop control
system

R + E C
2 10
-
 Group Assignment
Develop a circuit to simulate the operation of a closed-loop control system represented by
the closed-loop block diagram in figure below. The circuit has to be tested for an input
voltage ranging from 0 to 2V DC. Given G1=2.5, G2=2, and H=1.25.

G2
+
R + G1 C
+
−
H

Fig. Block diagram

Effects of Feedback
Effect of feedback on overall gain
G
T=
1 + GH

It can cause the overall gain to increase or decrease depending on

the value of (1+GH).
If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain
increases
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain
decreases
 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system (T) to the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined
as
R C
G

C G
=
C G
This states that for a given R, the change in the output C is
proportional to the change in G. If G is a control valve, a 10%
change in its characteristic will cause a 10% change in the flow
Examine the effect of G on the output C in a feedback system.
G
Assume that R and H remain constant. T =
1 + GH
C G
= dC  dG GHdG   1 + GH 
R 1 + GH = − 
2  
dC d  G  C  (1 + GH ) (1 + GH )   G 

=  
R dG  1 + GH  dC  dG GHdG 
=  − 
dC
=
dG
−
GHdG C  G (1 + GH ) G  For example, if GH = 100, a
R (1 + GH ) (1 + GH )2 10% change in G will result in a
dC  GH  dG
dC (1 + GH ) dG = 1 −  0.1 % change
= −
GHdG C  (1 + GH )  G
( + ) ( + ) in the output C. Hence the
2 2
R 1 GH 1 GH
dC  (1 + GH ) − GH  dG
=   performance of a system with
dC R  dG GHdG   1 + GH  C  (1 + GH )
= − 
2    G
R C  (1 + GH ) (1 + GH )   G 
 feedback is insensitive to the
dC  1  dG
=   changes in G
dC  dG GHdG   1 + GH  C  (1 + GH )  G
= − 
2  
C  (1 + GH ) (1 + GH )   G 
 GH 1
dC  dG GHdG  dC  1  dG
=  −  = 
C  G (1 + GH ) G  C  GH  G
 Effect of Feedback on Stability
•A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control.
•If the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the
output of the control system will be infinite. Thus, the control
system becomes unstable.
 Effect of Feedback on Noise
To know the effect of feedback on noise is done comparing the
transfer function with and without feedback due to noise signal
alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown
below.

N
+
R C
G1 G2
+
Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal
N
+
R + C
G1 G2
+
+
H
The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is
C G2
=
N 1 + G1G2 H
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal
is decreased by a factor of (1+G1G2H) provided that the term (1+
G1G2H) >1