SEMINARS IN MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY

Student’s full name Rahmonova Komila Group No 2016

Date: _____________________

SEMINAR 12: MINOR TYPES OF WORD FORMATION

1. Blending

2. Backformation

3. Phonetic types of word formation: change of stress and sound interchange

4. Lexicalisation of plural forms of nouns

5. Sound imitation and reduplication

6. The lexicological analysis of the text

Task 1: Answer the following questions:

1. Why are some of the types of word formation called ‘minor’?
2. What is the similarity and difference between ‘blending’ and ‘compounding’?
3. Which of the types of word creation coincide with making grammatical forms
of words?
4. Which of the minor types are used in your native language?
5. What latest neologisms made by any of the minor types can you provide for the
class to learn?
1. Some types of word formation are called 'minor' because they are less common
or have a more limited application compared to the major types like derivation and
composition. These minor types include borrowing, conversion, and
onomatopoeia.

2. Both blending and compounding involve combining two or more words to

create a new word. However, they differ in the way they combine these words.
Blending involves merging parts of two or more words, creating a new word with a

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combined meaning (e.g., 'brunch' from breakfast + lunch). Compounding, on the
other hand, involves joining two or more words together without altering their
form or meaning significantly (e.g., 'greenhouse' from green + house).

3. The type of word creation that coincides with making grammatical forms of
words is inflection. Inflection involves adding affixes or making changes to the
existing form of a word to indicate grammatical features such as tense, plural, or
gender. For example, adding '-s' to the noun 'cat' to form the plural 'cats.'

4. The minor types of word formation used in my native language, which is

English, include borrowing (e.g., 'café' from French), conversion (e.g., 'Google'
used as a verb), and onomatopoeia (e.g., 'buzz' to imitate the sound of a bee).

5. One recent neologism made by blending is 'Brexit' (Britain + exit), which refers
to the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union. This term
gained popularity in the media and became widely used. Another example of a
neologism made by compounding is 'selfie' (self + -ie), which refers to a self-
portrait photograph taken with a mobile phone. These words exemplify how
blending and compounding can create new words to describe contemporary
concepts or phenomena.
Task 2: Define which word formation type the following lexemes belong to:
1. To photocopy – Verb
2. NGO – Acronym
3. To enthuse – Verb
4. Motel – Compound word
5. A mobile – Adjective
6. To feed – Verb
7. To bottle – Verb
8. Independent – Adjective
9. To cackle – Verb
10. Ex-minister – Compound word
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11. Hoover – Proper noun
12. To xerox – Verb
13. A patient – Noun
14. Washable – Adjective
15. Smog – Blend
Task 3: Distribute the following words among the word-formation processes.
Make a table of your own:
--------------------------|--------------------------
Acronym | RSVP, ATM, RAM, ASAP, DOS, CEO, CPU, USA, UFO,
CD
Compounding | horseshoe, sitcom, gangster, moped, cheeseburger, anklet,
washable, sunglasses, photo, breathalyzer, megabyte, racetrack, skateboard,
fairground, sailboat, milkshake, fairground
Blending | smog, brunch, Fruitopia, emote, fax (facsimile), math
(mathematics), exam (examination), demo (demonstration), radar (radio detecting
and ranging)
Clipping | memo (memorandum), dorm (dormitory), fridge
(refrigerator), steno (stenographer)
Affixation | childish, readability, washable, feminist, blacklist, kickstand,
scraper, pancake, preempt
Back Formation | enthuse, neighbour, page, televise
Task 4. What way of word formation is used in the following words? Explain the
grounds for the shift of meaning.
1. a colour - colours (=hues) :: colours (=country or regimental flag);
2. a force (=power) :: forces (=an army);
3. a glass - glasses (=vessels for drinking):: glasses (=spectacles);
4. a manner - manners (=ways) :: manners (=behaviour);
5. a moral - morals (=lessons of a story) :: morals (=standards of behaviour);
6. a quarter- quarters (=forth parts) :: quarters (=official lodgings);
7. a line - lines (a long, narrow mark):: lines (= poetry) or (=wrinkles) etc.

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1. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "colours" is the
expansion of meaning. Initially, "colours" referred to different hues or shades.
However, it expanded to also refer to a country or regimental flag, based on the
association of different colors with specific flags.

2. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "forces" is the
metaphorical extension. Initially, "force" referred to power or strength.
However, it metaphorically extended to also mean an army, based on the concept
of a powerful and organized group of individuals.

3. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "glasses" is also the
metaphorical extension. Initially, "glass" referred to vessels primarily used for
drinking. However, it metaphorically extended to also mean spectacles, based on
the similarity between the glass lenses used in spectacles and the glass material
used in drinking vessels.

4. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "manners" is the
semantic widening. Initially, "manners" referred to ways or methods. However,
it underwent semantic widening to also mean behavior, as manners are closely
associated with polite and socially acceptable behavior.

5. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "morals" is the
metaphorical extension. Initially, "moral" referred to the lessons conveyed in a
story. However, it metaphorically extended to also mean standards of behavior,
based on the idea that stories often teach moral values and principles.

6. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "quarters" is the
metaphorical extension. Initially, "quarter" referred to one of four equal parts.
However, it metaphorically extended to also mean official lodgings, based on the
historical association between military personnel being assigned to specific
living quarters.

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7. The word formation used in the shift of meaning for "lines" is also the
metaphorical extension. Initially, "line" referred to a long, narrow mark.
However, it metaphorically extended to also mean poetry or wrinkles, based on
the similarity between the physical characteristics of a line and the form and
appearance of a line in poetry or on the human face.

Task 5. Analyse the following poem by R.Kipling by using the scheme of the
lexicological analysis given below:
IF...

If you can keep your head when all about you

Are losing theirs and blaming it on you,
If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you,
But make allowance for their doubting too;
If you can wait and not be tired by waiting,
Or being lied about, don’t deal in lies,
Or being hated, don’t give way to hating,
And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise:

If you can dream - and not make dreams your master;

If you can think - and not make thoughts your aim;
If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster
And treat those two impostors just the same;
If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken
Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools,
Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken,
And stoop and build them up with worn-out tools:

If you can make one heap of all your winnings

And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss,
And lose, and start again at your beginnings
And never breathe a word about your loss;
If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew
To serve your turn long after they are gone,
And so hold on when there is nothing in you
Except the Will which says to them: “Hold on!”

If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue,

Or walk with Kings - nor lose the common touch,
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If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you,
If all men count with you, but none too much;
If you can fill the unforgiving minute
With sixty seconds worth of distance run
Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it,
And - which is more - you’ll be a Man, my son!
SCHEME OF THE LEXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT

I. Describe the selected text/extract: author’s name, title of the book/number of the chapter, place and year
of publishing, reference to Internet site (if any) .

2. Define the general choice of the vocabulary in connection with the style of the text and its language
(formal/informal, literary, bookish, colloquial, dialogue, monologue, etc.).

3. Write out 2 longest words from the text. Analyse their morphological structure (root, non-root, free,
bound, derivational and inflectional types of morphemes). Provide examples of simple, derived,
compound and compound-derived stems, if any.

4. Write out words formed by affixation, and comment on the types of affixes used (suffix, prefix,
productive or non-productive, native, borrowed, etc).

4. Find conversion in the text. Explain the difference in the meanings of converted member. Give your
own versions of converted pairs of used words.

6. Write out compound words and define their motivation degree.

7. Find shortenings, if there are any, comment of the type and meaning.

8. Find words formed by minor types of word-formation, such as blending, back-formation, sound and
stress interchange, etc.

9. Write out 3 polysemantic words from the text ( a noun, a verb and an adjective), give their semantic
structure and explain in which of their lexico-semantic variants they are used in the text.

10. Find cases of metaphoric or metonymic transference of words, analyse the result of the semantic
change (generalisation, specialisation, pejoration or amelioration).

11. Write out synonyms from the text and indicate the difference between them. Analyse them according
to their classes (ideographic or stylistic synonyms; contextual synonyms, synonymic dominant). Check if
there are word families or clusters in the given text.

12. Write out antonyms from the text, make their classification (contraries, contradictories, root and
derivational antonyms).

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13. Write out homonyms from the text, make their classification (homophones, homographs, grammatical
and lexico-grammatical homonyms, paronyms, etc.).

14. Write out neologisms, archaisms, nonce-words, euphemisms, borrowings, internationalisms, etc., if
used in the text.

15. Write out set expressions and idioms from the text, provide their types (fusions, unities, collocations).
Write out proverbs and sayings from the text, if any, and explain their function.

16. Find and provide the etymological analysis of 5 native and 5 borrowed words at your own choice.

17. Give your opinion of the text, say what you liked or disliked about it.

1. **Description of the Text:**

- Author: Rudyard Kipling

- Title: “If…”

- Publication: The poem was first published in 1910 in the collection “Rewards and Fairies.”

2. **Vocabulary Choice and Style:**

- The vocabulary is formal and literary, reflecting a didactic and inspirational style.

3. **Longest Words:**

- “impostors” and “lexico-semantic”

- Morphological Structure: “impostors” (root: impost; derivational: -or, non-root: s), “lexico-
semantic” (compound-derived).

4. **Affixation:**

- Examples of affixation include “blaming” (suffix -ing), “doubting” (suffix -ing), “waiting”
(suffix -ing), and “twisted” (past tense -ed).

5. **Conversion:**

- Examples of conversion include “dream” (noun) and “wait” (verb).

- **Explanation of Conversion:**
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 - In the line “If you can dream,” “dream” is used as a noun, referring to aspirations or
ambitions.

- In the line “If you can wait,” “wait” is used as a verb, indicating patience.

- **Converted Pairs:**

- Noun to Verb: “dream” to “dreaming”

- Verb to Noun: “wait” to “wait”

6. **Compound Words and Motivation Degree:**

- Examples include “lexico-semantic” and “pitch-and-toss.”

- Motivation Degree:

- “lexico-semantic”: Highly motivated (clearly combines “lexico” and “semantic”).

- “pitch-and-toss”: Moderately motivated (related to the gambling game where a coin is

tossed).

7. **Shortenings:**

- No evident shortenings in the provided text.

8. **Minor Word-Formation Types:**

- No evident examples of blending, back-formation, or sound/stress interchange in the provided

text.

9. **Polysemantic Words:**

- Noun: “wait”

- Semantic Structure:

- Variant 1: The act of staying in expectation.

- Variant 2: Patience, enduring without complaint.

- Usage: Variant 1 in “If you can wait,” referring to patience as an action.

- Verb: “wait”

- Semantic Structure:
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 - Variant 1: To stay in expectation.

- Variant 2: To delay action.

- Usage: Variant 1 in “If you can wait,” indicating patience.

- Adjective: “unforgiving”

- Semantic Structure:

- Variant 1: Not willing to forgive.

- Variant 2: Unyielding, harsh.

- Usage: Variant 1 in “fill the unforgiving minute,” implying a minute that does not forgive
waste of time.

10. **Metaphoric/Metonymic Transference:**

- Metaphoric Transference: “Triumph” and “Disaster” as metaphoric impostors. The semantic

change emphasizes their deceptive nature.

11. **Synonyms:**

- Examples include “doubt” and “wait.”

- Difference: “Doubt” suggests uncertainty in belief, while “wait” implies patience in

expectation.

**12. Antonyms from the Text:**

- **Antonym Pair 1:**

- Words: "hated" and "loving"

- Classification: Contraries

- Explanation: "Hated" signifies intense dislike, while "loving" indicates affection and positive
regard.

- **Antonym Pair 2:**

- Words: "wise" and "fools"

- Classification: Contraries

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 - Explanation: "Wise" implies possessing wisdom and good judgment, while "fools" denotes
lack of wisdom or foolishness.

**13. Homonyms from the Text:**

- **Homonym Pair 1:**

- Words: "your" and "you're"

- Classification: Homophones

- Explanation: "Your" is a possessive pronoun, while "you're" is a contraction of "you are."

- **Homonym Pair 2:**

- Words: "minute" (time) and "minute" (small)

- Classification: Homographs

- Explanation: Both instances of "minute" have the same spelling but different meanings.

- **Homonym Pair 3:**

- Words: "hear" and "here"

- Classification: Homophones

- Explanation: "Hear" relates to the sense of hearing, while "here" denotes a location.

14. **Neologisms/Archaisms/Borrowings:**

- The text does not contain evident neologisms, archaisms, or borrowings.

15. Set Expressions and Idioms:

1. **Set Expressions and Idioms:**

- "Make allowance": This is a set expression, indicating the ability to tolerate or understand the
doubts and skepticism of others.

- "Deal in lies": An idiom, suggesting the act of engaging in falsehoods or deceitful behavior.

- "Hold on": An idiomatic expression, urging perseverance and determination.

2. **Proverb:**

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 - "Pitch-and-toss": While not explicitly stated as a proverb, the expression "pitch-and-toss" can
be considered idiomatic and proverbial. It signifies a risky, uncertain situation or decision-
making process.

3. **Types of Set Expressions and Idioms:**

- **Fusions:** None evident in the provided text.

- **Unities:** "Hold on" is a unity, where the words together convey a specific meaning
beyond the individual meanings of "hold" and "on."

- **Collocations:** "Make allowance" and "deal in lies" are examples of collocations, where
specific words are often used together to convey a particular meaning.

4. **Function of Proverbial Expressions:**

- The use of "pitch-and-toss" serves a metaphorical function in the poem. It symbolizes life's
uncertainties and risks, emphasizing the importance of making wise decisions in the face of
unpredictable outcomes. The proverbial nature of this expression reinforces the thematic
elements of the poem, contributing to its didactic and instructional tone..

16. Etymological Analysis:

Native Words:

1. Head:

- Etymology: Old English "hēafod"

- Analysis: The word has its roots in the Germanic languages, reflecting its ancient origins.

2. Wait:

- Etymology: Old French "waitier"

- Analysis: Derived from the Old French "waitier," which means "to watch" or "to guard."

3. Truth:

- Etymology: Old English "trīewð"

- Analysis: Comes from the Old English word "trīewð," meaning fidelity or faithfulness.

4. Heart:

- Etymology: Old English "heorte"

- Analysis: Rooted in Old English "heorte," reflecting the historical development of the word.

5. Minute:

- Etymology: Latin "minuta" (small)

- Analysis: Borrowed from Latin "minuta," which means small. The word evolved through
Middle English.
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Borrowed Words:

1. Impostors:

- Etymology: Latin "imponere" (to impose, deceive)

- Analysis: Derived from Latin, where "imponere" means to impose or deceive.

2. Lexico-semantic:

- Etymology: Greek "lexis" (word) + "semainein" (to signify)

- Analysis: A compound term borrowing from Greek, combining "lexis" (word) and
"semainein" (to signify).

3. Disaster:

- Etymology: Latin "dis-" (against) + "astrum" (star)

- Analysis: Originating from Latin, where "dis-" conveys a negative sense and "astrum" refers
to a star, suggesting an unfavorable astrological event.

4. Pitch-and-toss:

- Etymology: Combination of words with no direct etymological roots.

- Analysis: A compound term without a clear etymological history, formed by combining

"pitch" and "toss."

5. Triumph:

- Etymology: Latin "triumphus"

- Analysis: Borrowed from Latin "triumphus," indicating a great victory or success.

17. Opinion:

The poem "If..." by Rudyard Kipling is widely appreciated for its timeless wisdom and moral
guidance. Its positive and inspirational tone resonates with readers, and the use of vivid language
creates a powerful impact. The poem’s structure, with its conditional clauses, effectively
communicates the qualities and values Kipling extols.
Some readers may appreciate the universal applicability of the advice given in the poem, finding
it relevant across different times and cultures. On the other hand, others might find the didactic
nature of the poem too prescriptive or idealistic.
In summary, opinions about the poem can vary, but many appreciate its enduring messages about
resilience, integrity, and the virtues of a well-lived life.

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