TRM 36

TECHNICAL REFERENCE Rev 4

MANUAL Date 9/13

Civil & Structural
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INTRODUCTION

Structures may be susceptible to vibration for a number of reasons, and the vibration may be
caused in several different ways. Cyclic loads applied by people walking can lead to vibration in
buildings and bridges. Gusts of wind can cause buildings to vibrate. Road or railway traffic may
cause vibration, either of the supporting structure or through ground borne vibration to other
structures some distance away. Usually vibration is a serviceability limit state - it must not cause
discomfort to the users of the structure. However, in extreme cases the strength of members
can be affected by vibration-induced fatigue.

This TRM gives some guidance on the problems which may occur and on the calculations that an
engineer should carry out. It is mainly concerned with building structures, and in particular with
the serviceability limits for pedestrian traffic. Some advice is provided on footbridges, and on
general dynamics issues. Vibration caused by road and railway traffic and issues related to
fatigue loading are not covered.

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF DYNAMICS

Structural dynamics are complex, and textbooks on the subject 1,2,3 usually involve daunting
mathematics. However, the following simple explanation is adequate for most engineering
problems.

The structure is represented by a mass which is connected to a rigid foundation by a spring (see
figure 1). The mass is allowed to move vertically but prevented from rotating or moving
horizontally. The force applied to the system does two things: it compresses the spring - which
obeys Hooke’s law - and it accelerates the mass - which follows Newton’s second law of motion.

Spring: Ps = k y
Mass: Pm = m ÿ
Total: P =ky+mÿ

where:
P = force (N)
k = spring constant (N/m)
m = mass (kg)
y = spring compression (= distance moved by the mass)
ÿ = acceleration (distance differentiated twice - m/s2)

If it is assumed that the force varies sinusoidally with time at a

circular frequency p (the circular frequency is f p, the frequency
in Hz divided by 2 ) then:
P = p sin pt
Figure 1: mass on spring
Distance moved by the mass is also sinusoidal with an
amplitude C:
y = C sin pt
Differentiating twice with respect to time to obtain acceleration:
2
ÿ = - C p sin pt
Multiplying y by k (to obtain spring force) and ÿ by m (to obtain mass force) and adding the two:
2
p sin pt = kC sin pt - mC p sin pt

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Dividing both sides of the equation by k sin pt:

2
p/k = C - (m/k) C p
If m/k = 1/ 2 then the equation can be rearranged:
p
C
2
p
k1

From this it can be seen that, whatever the magnitude of the applied force, the amplitude of
deflection increases towards infinity as the frequency of the vibration approaches (= [k/m]).
This is known as resonance, and the special value is called the circular natural frequency,
measured in radians per second. (The natural frequency measured in Hz is / 2

In real situations the deflection is limited because energy is

absorbed (“damped”) by the structure, or by its supports, or
even by the people using it. This introduces a damper force
into the equations of motion. This force is generally assumed to
be proportional to velocity:
Damping: Pd = dy
…although in reality this assumption is not very accurate.
Sometimes the damping force is almost constant; sometimes it
is proportional to distance. If there is fluid damping - caused by
the structure moving through air or water - the force is
proportional to velocity squared. Commercial dampers provide
a force proportional to velocity raised to the power , where is
typically between 0.1 and 1.2. But for mathematical
convenience - so that the equations can be solved directly -
force is generally assumed to be directly proportional to Figure 2: mass on spring and
velocity. The inaccuracy due to this assumption is generally no
damper
worse than the uncertainties in the other data.

Damping is often expressed in terms

of “proportion of critical” values. 5
Critical damping is the minimum level
of damping that will cause a structure Undamped
not to oscillate after it is displaced. 4
0.1
(Door closers are often designed to 0.2
have critical damping, so that the door 3 0.5
C = p/k x

returns to the closed position after it Critically damped

has been opened, and does not swing
past and open the other way.) 2

Mathematically: 1

Critical damping dc = 2m = 2 (mk)

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Proportional damping
= d/dc p
/

Figure 3: variation of amplitude with

frequency and damping

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With damping, the equation for amplitude of displacement is:

p
C
0.5
2
2 2
n n
k 1 2

This equation is plotted in figure 3.

At resonance, n = . Therefore C = p/2k ; the deflection at resonance due to a sinusoidal force

psin t is 1/2 times greater than the deflection due to a static force p.

The main difficulties in structural dynamics calculations involve finding suitable values for mass,
stiffness and damping. It is often not possible to predict these figures with any degree of
accuracy, and so any results are rather approximate - even if complicated calculations have
been carried out.

FACTORS AFFECTING VIBRATION SERVICEABILITY

Loading: continuous vibration

Calculations are simplest if the vibration is assumed to be

caused by a force that is stationary in space but with a
magnitude that varies sinusoidally in time - ie following a
continuous sine wave at a constant frequency (as figure 4).

A rotating machine with an out-of-balance component (for

example, a spin dryer with all the clothes on one side of the Figure 4: sine wave
drum) exerts a continuous sinusoidal vibration load on its
supports. However, a pure sine wave is relatively uncommon -
smaller dynamic forces are usually present at two, three, four (etc) times the frequency of the
main force. These forces are known as harmonics - see loading: other loads below.

Loading: impulse loads

Impulse loads are the opposite of continuous vibration: they are

applied suddenly and then stay at a constant level - for
example, a heavy weight dropped onto a floor slab. They cause
the structure to vibrate at its lowest natural frequency. The first
peak of displacement is between one and two times the
displacement that would be caused by the same force applied
statically. The vibration then gradually decays (see figure 5).
For 10% damping vibrations are small after about 10 cycles; if Figure 5: vibration due to
the damping is halved the vibration persists for twice as long. impulse load
“Logarithmic decrement (log-dec)” damping is a measure of the
reduction in amplitude with each cycle:

Log-dec damping = log10 (peak n / peakn+1)

In theory, = 2

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A “heel drop test,” which involves measuring the response of the floor as a person suddenly
transfers their weight from their toes to their heels, is sometimes used to determine natural
frequency and damping values. Damping measured in this way often appears to be greater than
the proportional damping figure determined by other means. This is because the structure
begins to move at the point the sudden load is applied and at this stage relatively little mass is
mobilised - so the response is relatively large. As more mass begins to move the response at
the load application point diminishes. Hence the change in the peak value of vibration is caused
by energy being transferred around the structure, as well as dissipation of energy.

Loading: other loads

Other loads include pedestrian footstep loads, traffic loads and earthquake loads.

Footstep loads are regular but do not have a simple sinusoidal profile. However, like any
repeating function they can be broken down into a series of sine waves at the footstep frequency,
and at multiples of that frequency. These various sine wave components are called a Fourier
series - see TRM 182 for more details.

In figure 6 the blue line shows the vertical force

900
applied by one foot of a 75 kg person and the red 800
line shows the force applied by the other foot. 700
The green line is the sum of the two. The graph is 600
Force (N)

taken from reference 4 and is said to represent 500

400
“normal walking,” although one pace every 0.42 s
300
- a footstep frequency of 2.38 Hz - is actually 200
rather brisk. 100
0
The total force line is shown in green at a larger 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
scale in figure 7. The black line is the Fourier Tim e (s)
series representation:
Figure 6: footstep forces
Total force (N) = 721
+ 42 cos (2 f t - 0.36) 800
+ 37 cos (4 f t + 2.21)
+ 22 cos (6 f t + 2.32)
Force (N)

+ 17 cos (8 f t + 2.76)
700
where f = 2.38 Hz (footstep frequency)
and all the cosine arguments are in radians.

In practice it is usually unnecessary to consider 600

more than one or two terms of the series because 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
the structure resonates at the frequencies nearest Tim e (s)
to the natural frequency, and the other terms have
Figure 7: representation of footstep
a relatively small effect. For example, if the natural
forces by Fourier series
frequency of the structure is 4.8 Hz, responses at
2.4, 7.2 and 9.6 Hz can be neglected. (See figure 3
for the effect of frequency on dynamic response.)

As noted above, forces at integer multiples of the main dynamic force frequency can cause
resonance. For example, someone walking with a footstep frequency of 2 Hz can set off a
resonant response in a structure with a natural frequency of 4 Hz.
The footstep force is usually assumed to be in the same position. For example, in a moderately
busy corridor in a building, it would be assumed that there is always someone walking down the
corridor, and that they are always at the most critical location to cause vibration. This is clearly
not the case, but the over-estimate is assumed to compensate for the times when there is more

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MANUAL Date 9/13

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than one person in the corridor. In critical situations it is possible to use sophisticated numerical
modelling to move the dynamic force across the floor.

Traffic and earthquakes cause vibrations over a wide range of frequencies. They can be
analysed by considering the magnitude of vibration at each of a range of frequencies, calculating
the response at each frequency, and then adding the responses together. The structural
response is greatest at frequencies close to the natural frequencies of the structure.
Alternatively, time step analysis can be used.

Frequency and mode shapes

Structures may have many possible natural frequencies, each of which has a distinctive mode
shape - the shape the structure adopts when it reaches maximum deflection at that frequency.
For example, a simply supported rectangular beam can vibrate up and down, or from side to
side. Or it can vibrate by one half of the beam going up while the other half is going down - or in
a similar fashion from side to side (see figure 8).

The lowest frequency is associated with the lowest

level of strain energy in the structure. In a simply
supported beam this involves bending about the
weakest axis, with the greatest radius of curvature.
The two modes at the top of figure 8 involve greater
curvature than the two modes at the bottom, and so
they have lower natural frequencies. A structure left
to vibrate on its own will tend to adopt the lowest
possible energy state, and so higher frequency
vibrations will drop to the lowest natural frequency.

In multi-bay structures with uniform mass and

stiffness, similar spans vibrate together, leaving
shorter or longer spans stationary. This can lead to
vibration in one part of the building causing a
resonant response in another part - sometimes Figure 8 - some modes of vibration for
several floors above or below, or at a considerable a simply supported beam
distance horizontally.

Structures often have many modes of vibration with very similar frequencies, and in these
situations vibration at one frequency can “set off” other modes. This is known as coupling and is
mathematically very difficult to analyse; it is therefore usually ignored.

Sometimes codes of practice simply place limits on acceptable frequencies. This is the case for
sports stadia5 and floors used for aerobics and other rhythmic activity 6. However more rigorous
guidelines usually limit accelerations.

Frequency: hand calculation

Two main methods are available to engineers for the calculation of frequency. The first uses
hand calculations. The lowest natural frequency of a beam supported at both ends is given by:
f 0 = 18 /
where = deflection of structure in mm due to dead loads.

This appears to be an empirical relationship (in other words, it looks too simple to be true) but it
can actually be proved mathematically. It assumes that the mass supported on the beam is
uniformly distributed, and it uses deflection as a measure of stiffness - so precamber is ignored.

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Hand calculations can be extended to

calculate the system frequency. For
example, figure 9 shows a composite
structure. If f 1, f 2 and f 3 are the natural
frequencies of the slab, secondary beam
and primary beam respectively, the
frequency of the whole system (f) is given
by:
1/f 2 = 1/f 1 + 1/f 2 + 1/f 3
2 2 2

The various frequencies are calculated

using the 18 / equation. Simply
supported deflection is not assumed for all
three components, even if there are no
moment connections in the structure.
Figure 9 - slab - secondary beam -
The mode shape shown involves all the primary beam composite structure
secondary beams vibrating in phase: they all
move up and down together. The deflection of these beams is the same as for a simply
supported beam, and so 2 (and therefore f 2) is calculated from 5WL3/384EI. However, because
vibration deflections are small and cracks in the slab cannot open and close at the vibration
frequency, there is no rotation at the primary beam supports. For this mode of vibration, the
primary beams deflect as if they had fixed ends. Furthermore, the influence of the primary
beams is halved because half the secondary beams are supported directly on the columns.
Therefore 1 (and therefore f 1) is calculated from ½ x WL3/384EI. The slab deflection is usually
very small and has little influence on the result, but if it was important the slab would be taken as
fixed ended for the same reason.

It is often necessary to study other modes of vibration as well, and these require different
assumptions about end fixity. SCI publication P076 7 and the accompanying Advisory Desk
notes8 provide more detail.

Frequency: computer calculation

The second method involves modelling the structure in a computer analysis program. In order to
obtain reasonable results the structure must be modelled using different parameters to static
analysis:
Use the short term Young’s modulus value for concrete - eg 31 kN/mm 2 for C28/35 concrete.
When calculating moments of inertia for composite beams, this gives a lower than normal
modular ratio.
Where appropriate, use cracked section
properties, allowing for the presence of
reinforcement in the tensile zone.
Determining the areas where cracked
properties are used is a matter of judgment;
one approach is to model the structure
using uncracked properties and apply dead
loads. Areas with bending moments
sufficient to cause cracking have their
section properties adjusted. Occasionally a
second iteration is necessary.
Model the structure with a fine subdivision
of elements. Most computer programs
transfer the mass to the node points that Figure 10 - poor arrangement of nodes -
join the beams and finite elements mass nearly all at supports

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together. If a beam is modelled as one element spanning between supports (as in figure 10),
all the mass is transferred to the supports
and the beam is not involved in the
vibration. In figure 11, the beams are
divided into many parts and the mass is
distributed almost uniformly. Results
improve with subdivision, but at the
expense of model size. Use trial runs to
determine an appropriate level of
subdivision. In most cases, little
additional accuracy is achieved by
providing more than ten elements
between supports. (Note that in general,
the model shown in figure 10 would give
acceptable results for static analysis.)
Pin joints may not rotate under dynamic
loads, because of friction preventing
rotation, or cracks being unable to open Figure 11 - fine subdivision of elements - mass
and close several times per second. well distributed between supports.
If a composite structure is modelled using
beam elements for the steel beams and finite (shell) elements for the concrete slab,
remember to allow for the eccentricity of the beams relative to the slab. This can increase
the stiffness of the structure considerably.
Note that most computer programs give mode shapes and natural frequencies only. Actual
dynamic deflections depend on the magnitude of vibrating force applied, its frequency and the
amount of damping present.

Mass of structure

The mass of the structure affects the vibration response in two ways. Often it is desirable to
keep the natural frequency high and the acceleration low. A high natural frequency is obtained
with a low structural mass, while a high structural mass is necessary to minimise acceleration. It
is not possible to prescribe a rule for all circumstances and so a range of values should be
tested. In a building the maximum figure might be obtained from: the weight of the structure;
plus the full design load for ceilings, services and the raised floor; plus 10% of the imposed load
in order to allow for semi-permanent loads such as partitions, desks and filing cabinets. (This is
the mass recommended in P076 7.) The minimum figure would ignore the imposed load
altogether and take a reduced superimposed dead load.

When a structure vibrates, not all parts move by the same amount. In the case of a simply
supported beam, the supports do not move at all and the mid-span point moves the most. If it is
necessary to carry out spring-mass-damper calculations from first principles, the modal mass is
required - the equivalent mass that would be vibrating at the point of maximum deflection. The
modal mass is:
2
M mi y i
all i

where:
m i = mass at point i
yi = deflection at point i, expressed as a fraction (-1 yi +1) of the maximum deflection.

Each mode of vibration has a different modal mass.

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Mass is measured in kg but loads are usually expressed in kN. Make sure you understand
whether the calculation requires mass units or whether is has a built-in factor to allow force units
to be used instead.

Structural damping

It is very difficult to determine suitable levels of damping. Some guidance is given in P076 7, in
SCI Advisory Desk notes8, in P3319 and in TR4310 with reasonable figures as follows:

Structure type Damping

Composite beams, bare structure 1.1%8
Composite beams, normal open plan office 3.0%8
Composite beams, cellular office with many partitions 4.5%8
Prestressed concrete 1% - 2%10
Reinforced concrete 1.5% - 3%10

However, the measured damping level in a structure may be twice, or half, the predicted level.
For example, the figures in reference 3, table C.1, are much lower than the numbers quoted
above. And when WSP carried out calculations to determine the dynamic response of
Hungerford bridge, the available literature implied that damping would be between 0.5% - 1.5%;
a value of 0.7% was adopted as a reasonably conservative figure. However, when the structure
was built and tested, the actual damping was found to be 0.4%. (Despite this, there have been
no problems associated with dynamics on the bridge. 11)

Damping is usually provided by joints opening and closing, and by surfaces moving against each
other. Therefore composite beams with bonded screeds and no suspended services are lightly
damped because there are few joints and those that exist are tightly fixed together. Structures
with precast slabs on non-composite beams supporting many partitions usually have a much
greater degree of damping because there are many joints and interfaces which dissipate energy
as they move. For similar reasons prestressed concrete structures have less damping than
similar reinforced concrete structures.

Calculations should take a range of values into account. For long span and lightweight
structures it is advisable to warn the client that damping values are uncertain, and that this can
affect the conclusions of calculations.

Low damping leads to high deflections when the structure is vibrated at its resonant frequency.
However the response curve is much more “peaky” than is the case for a highly damped
structure - dynamic deflections above 50% of the maximum are observed over a narrower
frequency range (see figure 3). Structural damping is sometimes measured by vibrating the
structure at a range of frequencies, plotting the response curve and measuring the width of the
peak.

When a regular vibration starts, the response of the

structure builds up gradually. This is because time is
needed to transfer energy from the source of the
vibration into the structure. Vibrational energy
alternates between strain energy (when the structure is
at maximum deflection) and kinetic energy (at the mid-
point of the cycle). Lightly damped structures reach
greater magnitudes of deflection and therefore require
more energy - and hence a longer time - to reach the
maximum level (see figure 12).
Figure 12: build up of vibration in lightly
In some cases it may be useful to consider this. For damped structure (blue line) and more
example, a person covered the whole length of a floor heavily damped structure (red line).

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before the “steady state” vibration has been reached. However, this benefit is usually ignored - a
second person could cross the floor and cause the vibration to build up further.

CALCULATIONS

Amplitude of deflection

If the amplitude of vibration becomes large, strain levels in structural elements increase and
there is a corresponding increase in element stress. This may occur as a result of resonance,
and can lead to overloading, or to fatigue problems.

At lower levels of vibration the actual amplitude of deflection is unimportant because users
respond only to the level of acceleration.

As noted above, if a continuous sinusoidal force (p sin t) is applied, then the deflection at
resonance is 1/2 times greater than the deflection that would be caused by a static force p.

Velocity

For sinusoidal vibration, the amplitude of the velocity is (= 2 f) times the amplitude of
deflection. Limits on velocity are commonly specified for ground-borne vibration. Examples
include the vibration at a tunnel caused by piling plant some distance away, or the vibration
transmitted to building foundations from trains in the tunnel.

Acceleration

For sinusoidal vibration, the amplitude of the velocity is (= [2 f] 2) times the amplitude of
deflection. Because force is mass times acceleration, any accelerations imparted to users of the
structure as it vibrates result in forces in their bodies. It is these forces - and not deflections or
velocities - which are perceived by the users. Therefore standards such as BS 647212 set limits
on acceleration when human exposure is considered.

The standard sets out limits for vibration. The limits vary with frequency; the human body is most
sensitive to vibration in the 4 Hz - 8 Hz range. Limits in the head-to-foot direction are not the same as
those for side-to-side movements because the human body perceives vibration differently in the two
directions. Therefore the criteria for places such as hospital wards and hotels where people are likely
to be lying down are different to the criteria for buildings where people are standing or sitting.

Peak acceleration is the value measured from the zero line to the tops of the sine wave. Root mean
square (RMS) acceleration divides the graph into many segments, squares the value in each
segment, calculates the mean of these values and then takes the square root. For sinusoidal curves
the RMS value is the peak value divided by 2.

Accelerations may also be calculated using the method set out for footbridges in TRM 121. This
uses a computer model to determine the modal mass of the structure, and to calculate the
stiffness of an equivalent spring-mass-damper system. The loadings at different points on the
structure are factored by figures derived from the mode shape, and the resulting acceleration is
obtained.

Response factor

BS 647212 gives base line curves for vibration. These give accelerations below which adverse
comments in the most sensitive locations are unlikely. For example, the base line value for

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head to foot acceleration in the 4 Hz - 8 Hz range is 0.005 m/s2 (RMS). However in many
situations people accept higher accelerations and so published guidelines, including SCI P076 7,
refer to a response factor R. This is the factor by which the base line value can be exceeded in
various types of building. A “general” office has an R value of 8, and so head to foot
accelerations up to 0.04 m/s2 (RMS) would be acceptable.

Vibration dose value

If the vibration is not continuous it is possible to calculate an average value. However this is
more complex than an arithmetical mean; design guides usually refer to the vibration dose value
(VDV) and specify limits over a period - usually 16 hours. This is calculated as follows:
0.25
T
4
VDV a t dt
0

Note that this equation has been copied from TR4310. The way it is set out is rather confusing: the
a4(t) term means the acceleration at time (t), raised to the power of four. In other words, the (t) term is
not a multiplier. Because of this, the calculation leads to figures with unusual units: m/s1.75. It has the
effect of making a short period of high vibration more significant than a longer period of low vibration.

The main difficulty with VDV calculations is in deciding the levels of vibration to apply, and for
how long they occur.

Note that Department of Health guidelines13 do not allow operating theatres to be justified by
calculation of VDV values.

QUICK CALCULATIONS AND RULES OF THUMB

Lowest natural frequency of a beam or slab (Hz) = 18 / where = deflection of structure in

mm due to dead loads plus 10% of live load. Note that must not be reduced for precamber.

Damping affects the natural frequency, but for most engineering purposes proportional damping
is less than 10% and so the difference is negligible.

Damping affects the maximum deflection at resonance. If a continuous sinusoidal force (p sin
t) is applied, then the deflection at resonance is 1/2 times greater than the deflection that
would be caused by a static force p. So, for 2% damping, the factor is 1/0.04 = 25.

The deflection at a frequency 20% above or 30% below the natural frequency will be twice the
static deflection. Below about one-third of the natural frequency the increase in deflection is
negligible; above 1.5 times the natural frequency the dynamic deflection is actually smaller than
the static deflection. These figures apply for all damping levels below about 10%.

If the amplitude of deflection at resonance is C, then the amplitude of velocity is C and the
2
amplitude of acceleration is C. ( = 2 f where f is the natural frequency in Hz.)

For sinusoidal vibration, the amplitude is half the peak-to-peak value. The root mean square
(rms) value is equal to 1/ 2 times the amplitude.

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REFERENCES

1 Dynamics of structures, 2nd edition, Clough and Penzien. McGraw Hill International
Editions, 1993. Plenty of daunting mathematics.

2 Structural dynamics in practice: a guide for professional engineers, Bolton. McGraw Hill
international series in civil engineering, 1993.

3 Vibration problems in structures: practical guidelines, Bachmann et al. Birkhäuser Verlag

Basel, 1995.

4 Prediction and control of pedestrian-induced vibration in footbridges, John E Wheeler.

Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol 108, No ST9, September 1982.

5 Dynamic performance requirements for permanent grandstands subject to crowd action,

interim guidance on assessment and design. Institution of Structural Engineers, 2001.

6 BS 6399-1:1996 Amd no 13669 Loading for buildings - Part 1: Code of practice for dead
and imposed loads.

7 SCI P076 Design guide on the vibration of floors. Steel Construction Institute, 1989

8 SCI Advisory Desk notes AD 253, AD 254 and AD 256: Design considerations for the
vibration of floors - parts 1, 2 and 3. Steel Construction Institute, 2002.

9 SCI P331 Design guide on the vibration of floors in hospitals. Steel Construction Institute,
2004.

10 Post-tensioned concrete floors: design handbook. Concrete Society Technical Report No

43 Concrete Society, 2005.

11 Dynamics of the Hungerford Millennium Footbridges, UK, Fletcher, M and Parker, J S.

ICE Proceedings bridge engineering, BE2, June 2003, pp. 57-62.

12 BS 6472: 1992 Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings (1 Hz to

80 Hz)

13 Acoustics design considerations, Health Technical Memorandum DTM 2045 The

Stationery Office, 1996.

14 Design Guide 11: Floor vibrations due to human activity, Murray, Allen and Ungar. AISC,
1997(?)

15 Dynamics: an introduction for civil and structural engineers, ICE design and practice
guides. Thomas Telford Publishing, 1999.

TRM 121 Vibration of footbridges

TRM 146 Gymnasium vibration

TRM 210 Vibration serviceability of buildings

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KEYWORDS

Dynamics; frequency; structures; vibration.

Author: John Parker, WSP Cantor Seinuk, London

Sponsor: Group Technical Centre
Revision record
6/01 Rev 2
10/05 Rev 3. Whole document rewritten.
9/13 Rev 4. TRM references added.

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