Lecture 22

M. Siddikov

Marat.Siddikov@usm.cl

November 21, 2023

Organizational comments

Reminders
Homework 4: Available from Aula
Deadline: 28/11/2023
Outline

Revision of Special Relativity

−Electrodynamics in tensorial notations.
Electromagnetic tensor and Maxwell’s
equations
−Energy-momentum tensor for electro-
magnetic fields
∗
Motion of charged particles
−Equations of Maxwell in moving dielec-
tric
Motion in external EM field (short summary)
Action & equations of motion for a particle in external EM field:
ˆ r ˆ
v2
S = S0 + Sint = −mc 2 dt 1 − 2 + q dxµ Aµ (x)
c

du µ dp µ dxµ
m ≡ = q F µν uν , uµ ≡ , Fµν ≡ ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ (1)
dτ dτ dτ
 Transformation under Lorentz boosts:

Aµ → Λµν Aν , F µν → Λµα Λνβ F αβ , Fαβ → Λαµ Λβν Fµν .

in components:

γ 2 /c 2
E ′ = γ (E + v × B) − v (v · E )
γ+1
γ 2 /c 2
 
v ×E
B′ = γ B − 2
− v (v · B),
c γ+1
If we define fields
i i √
Q=B+ E, Q∗ = B − E, c −1 = ε 0 µ0
c c
Transformation law might be rewritten as

γ 2 /c 2
 
i v ×Q
Q ′= B ′ + E ′ = γ Q + i − v (v · Q)
c c γ+1
v × Q∗ γ 2 /c 2
 
′ i
(Q ∗ ) = B ′ − E ′ = γ Q ∗ − i − v (v · Q ∗ )
c c γ+1

−fields Q, Q ∗ don’t mix, transform as components of vector for small rotation with
angle ±i v /c (we proved for small v /c ≪ 1)
Beyond small-v /c ≪ 1 approximation:
−Rotation matrix (n is direction of rotation axis, θ is finite rotation angle):

Rab (θ = θ n) = na nb + cos θ (δab − na nb ) + εakb nk sin θ

Can see that replacing θ → iarctanh(v /c) = iη,

cos θ → γ ≡ cosh η, sin θ → γ |v |/c ≡ sinh η and using

γ2 2 γ2
 
1
v = 1− 2 =γ−1
1+γ 1+γ γ
the matrix for finite rotations R turns into matrix for transformation of Q
If we define fields
i i √
Q=B+ E, Q∗ = B − E, c −1 = ε 0 µ0
c c
Transformation law might be rewritten as

γ 2 /c 2
 
i v ×Q
Q ′= B ′ + E ′ = γ Q + i − v (v · Q)
c c γ+1
v × Q∗ γ 2 /c 2
 
′ i
(Q ∗ ) = B ′ − E ′ = γ Q ∗ − i − v (v · Q ∗ )
c c γ+1

−fields Q, Q ∗ don’t mix, transform as components of vector for small rotation with
angle ±i v /c
There are 2 invariants:

I1 = Fµν F µν ≡ Fµν Fαβ η µα η νβ = 2 B 2 − E 2 /c 2

and
I2 = ϵαβµν F αβ F µν = 4 E · B/c = ∂ α Jα , Jα = ϵαβµν Aβ F µν
Demonstrate that there are only two independent invariants which we may construct
using Fµν , i.e. any other scalar built using Fµν might be represented as a function of
I1 and I2 .

Some examples:
... Det(F ) = (E · B)2 /c 2 = I22 /4
... If use notation F · F = Fµα F αν , then can show with Mathematica that

Tr (F · F ) ≡ I1
I12 I2
Tr (F · F · F · F ) = − 2
2 4
I13 3 I1 I22
Tr (F · F · F · F · F · F ) = − ,
4 16
...

| · {z
Tr( F ... · F} ) = 0
odd number

Please let me know if You have any ideas how to prove this statement in general ...
−Earlier we’ve seen transformation law for EM fields
−Simplification for infintesimal transformations:

E ′ ≈ (E + v × B) + O v 2


 
v ×E
B′ ≈ B − + O v2


c 2

−For vectors Q, Q ∗ introduced earler:

 
i ′ v ×Q
Q ′= B ′ + E ≈ Q +i (1)
c c
∗
 
′ i ′ v ×Q
(Q ∗ ) = B ′ − E ≈ Q∗ − i (2)
c c

−under boosts Q and Q ∗ don’t mix.

−the transformation laws (1,2) look exactly the same as rotation around axis v̂ by
imaginary angle ±i |v |/c
 (±)
Lecture 19: generators Ta = (Ja ±iKa )/2 allow to rewrite algebra of Lorentz as direct
sum so(3) ⊕ so(3)
h i h i h i
(+) (−) (−)
Ta(+) , Tb = iεabc Tc(+) , Ta(−) , Tb = iεabc Tc(−) , Ta(+) , Tb =0

⇒ Lorentz group (=boosts+rotations) . = SU(2) ⊗ SU(2).

(±)
−{Ta } generate transformations in which we make boosts by v and simultaneous
rotation by ±|v |/c around v̂
(+)
⇒The transformations generated by {Ta } will affect only combination Q ∗ ,
whereas Q won’t change at all (O(v ) terms cancel each other):

Q ∗ → Q ∗ + φ × Q ∗, Q→Q φ = 2v /c (1)
(−)
−Similarly, under transformations generated by {Ta } change only Q (will transform
∗
similar to (1)), whereas Q won’t change at all
 Q ∗ → Q ∗ + φ × Q ∗, Q→Q φ = 2v /c (1)

−Mathematics: the vectors Q, Q ∗ , (which are 0i-components of combinations

Fµν ± iGµν ) form irreducible representations of the Lorentz group which don’t mix
under all transformations.

−Note that in case of transformations (1) absolute values of vectors Q, Q ∗ MUST be

conserved
2
Q2 E2
    
i 1 2i 1 1
∗ 2 = B± E = − 2 B 2 − 2 ± E · B = 4 I1 ± I2
(Q ) c c c c 2c 4c

⇒ I1 = const, I2 = const under Lorentz boosts.

−Since group SU(2) ∼ SO(3) has rank 1, each representation admits only one invari-
ant, square of vector Q or Q ∗ , which is invariant w.r.t. all transformations. Any
other invariant must be function of Q 2 , (Q ∗ )2 , i.e. I1 , I2 .
Control question

Assume that we work in the pseudoeuclidean space of 1 + n dimensions with n = 2.

How many independent invariants Lorentz invariants can we construct in these spaces
from Fµν and its components?

Help: If we introduce imaginary coordinate x 4 = ict, we end up with 1 + n-

dimensional Euclidean space, in which Lorentz boosts turn into rotations (together
with n-dimensional “spacial” rotations).
Control question 2

Assume that in the lab frame we have only magnetic field B(x), i.e. E (x) = 0.
Demonstrate that in any moving frame:
1) E ′ ⊥ B ′
2) |E ′ | < c |B ′ |
Equations of motion for EM field

So far we considered external EM field

Now we would like to add to the full action contribution Sfield which describes the
dynamics of EM field itself,

S = S0 + Sint +Sfield

in order to get Maxwell’s equations

This contribution Sfield :
−Should be gauge covariant⇒can use only Fµν
−Should be translation, rotation and Lorentz invariant⇒should use invariants I1 , I2 .
Equations of motion for EM field (II)

− We expect to get 2nd pair of Maxwell’s equations (linear in fields) after we take
variations over δS/δAµ
⇒Sfield should quadratic in fields A (=linear combination of I1 , I2 )
−However, I2 = ∂α J α , and according to 4D Gauss theorem
ˆ ˛
d 4 x ∂α J α = dS α Jα

reduces to integral over infinite surface; should discard when evaluate variation
⇒Only I1 might contribute !!!
Equations of motion for EM field
Action for a charged particle interacting with EM field:

S = S0 + Sint +Sfield

ˆ   ˆ
4 1 1
µν
= d 4x E 2 /c 2 − B 2


Sfield = d x − Fµν F
4µ0 2µ0
| {z } | {z }
=L =L

−Work with a field, so integral is taken over the whole

´ space dV and time dt.
−L is called lagrangian density. Lagrangian is L = dV L
−choice of coefficient in front is done to match Maxwell’s equations (we’ll see this
later)
−The lagrangian does NOT include ∂t A0 = ∂t ϕ, but includes temporal derivatives of
A (spacial part):
1
L= (∂t A)2 + ...
2µ0
This a consequence of gauge invariance: one of the fields is NOT independent
degree of freedom, bound to others via constraint (gauge condition). E.g. in Weyl
gauge we just set ϕ = 0 ; in Lorentz gauge we define temporal evolution of ϕ from
∂t ϕ = −divA, etc.
Control questions

Action for a charged particle interacting with EM field:

S = ... + Sint +Sfield

ˆ ˆ
Sint = −q dxµ Aµ (x) = q dτ (u · A) ,

ˆ  
1
Sfield = d 4x − Fµν F µν
4µ0
| {z }
=L

Why in our expressions for Sfield we may use only invariants constructed from Fµν ,
but not from its derivatives, e.g. (∂λ Fµν )2 or (∂ν F µν )2 ?
Control questions
Action for a charged particle interacting with EM field:

S = ... + Sint +Sfield

ˆ ˆ
Sint = −q dxµ Aµ (x) = q dτ (u · A) ,

ˆ  
1
Sfield = d 4x − Fµν F µν
4µ0
| {z }
=L

Demonstrate that the minimization of action S = S0 + Sint + Sfield reproduces the

second pair of Maxwell’s equations for EM field. Technically, You need to evaluate
δS/δAµ and request that δS/δAµ = 0.
 ˆ
Equationsˆ of motion ˆfor EM field δSint = d 4 x jµ (x) δAµ (x)
δSint = q δ dxµ Aµ (x) = q dxµ δAµ (x)
jµ (x) = q uµ δ (x − u(τ ))
ˆ ˆ
=q dτ uµ δAµ (x) = 1
δSfield = − d 4 x F µν (∂µ δAν ) =
µ0
ˆ ˆ
1
= d 4 x jµ δAµ (x) =− d 4 x ∂µ (F µν δAν )
µ0
´ ´
| {z }
surface integral
We replaced dτ → d 4 x as in field ˆ
1
integral and introduced density + 4
d x δAν ∂µ F µν
µ0
jµ = q uµ δ (x − u(τ )) −first term reduces to surface integral due
to Gauss’ theorem, does not contribute
−replace dummy indices µ ↔ ν in the last
ˆ  
1 term to get
δSfield = δ d 4x − Fµν F µν =
4µ0
ˆ
 
1 δS 1 µν µ
=− 4
d x F µν δFµν = = − ∂ν F + j =0
2µ0 δAµ µ0
ˆ
1
=− d 4 x F µν (∂µ δAν − ∂ν δAµ ) ∂ν F µν = µ0 j µ (1)
2µ0
F µν ∂ν δAµ = F νµ ∂µ δAν
= −F µν ∂µ δAν
Equations of motion for EM field

Now we are going to practice with covariant notations and demonstrate explicitly their
equivalence to conventional (non-covariant) results
−We should learn to use/work with these covariant notations, avoiding non-covariant
notations whenever possible
∂ν F µν = µ0 j µ (1)

Demonstrate that (1) in terms of the fields E , B is equivalent to Gauss’ and

Ampere’s laws
Equations of motion for EM field

∂ν F µν = µ0 j µ (1)
Write (1) in components:
ρ
µ=0: ∂i F 0i = ∂i Ei /c = µ0 j 0 =
ε0 c
−Gauss law

µ=1: ∂ν F 1ν = ∂0 F 10 + ∂2 F 12 + ∂3 F 13 =
= ∂t Ex /c 2 − ∂y Bz + ∂z By = µ0 ρv = µ0 j 1

⇒x-component of
1 ∂E
rot B = µ0 j +
c 2 ∂t
Similarly µ = 2, 3 will give y , z components of the Ampere’s law
Continuity equation in covariant form

∂ν F αν = µ0 j α (1)
From (1) can get
(α↔ν)
∂α ∂ν F να = −∂α ∂ν F αν −−−−→ −∂ν ∂α F να = −∂α ∂ν F να
να
⇒∂α ∂ν F =0

∂ρ
∂µ j µ ≡ + divj = 0
∂t
Retarded potentials in covariant notations

ϵαβµν ∂ β F µν = 0 (∂ β Gαβ = 0) (1)

∂ν F µν = µ0 j µ (2)
Fµν ≡ ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ (3)

Write out the equations (1-3) in terms of potential Aµ . Demonstrate that in Lorentz
Gauge (∂µ Aµ = 0) it is equivalent to

1 ∂2
 
∂α ∂ α Aµ ≡ □Aµ ≡ − ∆ Aµ = −µ0 j µ
c 2 ∂t 2
Retarded potentials in covariant notations

ϵαβµν ∂ β F µν = 0 (∂ β Gαβ = 0) (1)

∂ν F µν = µ0 j µ (2)
Fµν ≡ ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ (3)

Straightforward substitution of (3) into (1) yields

(2) ≡ 0.

Straightforward substitution of (3) into (2) yields in the left-hand side

∂ν F µν ≡ ∂ν ∂ µ Aν − ∂ν ∂ ν Aµ = ∂ µ ∂ν Aν − ∂ν ∂ ν Aµ
| {z } | {z }
0 □

which yields the desired

∂α ∂ α Aµ ≡ □Aµ = −µ0 j µ (4)

Equations of motion for EM field

1 ∂2
 
α µ µ
∂α ∂ A ≡ □A ≡ − ∆ Aµ = −µ0 j µ (1)
c 2 ∂t 2
We know general solution of (1) in the form of retarded potentials.

Retarded potentials*
ˆ
1 ρ (r ′ , t ′ )
ϕ (r , t) = d 3r ′
4πε0 |r − r ′ |
ˆ
µ0 j (r ′ , t ′ )
A (r , t) = d 3r ′
4π |r − r ′ |

where t ′ = t − |r − r ′ |/c. This result is exact, but clearly not covariant.

−Instead of repeating derivation in covariant notations (which largely coincides with

“non-covariant”), we’ll try to guess how we should rewrite retarded potentials in
covariant notations
Retarded potentials
Joined form:
ˆ ˆ
j µ (r ′ , t ′ ) j µ (r ′ , t ′ ) |r − r ′ |
 
1 1
Aµ (r , t) = d 3r ′ = dt ′ d 3 r ′ δ t − t ′
− (1)
4πε0 |r − r ′ | 4πε0 |r − r ′ | c

Properties of Dirac δ-function: for any f (t)

X 1
δ f (t ′ ) = δ t ′ − ti


f ′ (x )
i
i

where ti are roots of f (t ′ ). Let’s choose

2

2 |r − r ′ |
f (t ′ ) = t − t ′ −
c2
 
ˆ
c2 2
d 4 x ′ j µ r ′ , t ′ θ x0 − x0′ δ  ′ 2 ′

 2
Aµ (x) =


c| (t − t ) {z− ⃗r − ⃗r

2πε0 }
(x−x ′ )2

We added θ (x0 − x0′ ) to eliminate solution with advanced time t ′ = t + |r − r ′ |/c.

While the interval x0 − x0′ is NOT Lorentz-invariant, sign(x0 − x0′ ) is invariant for
events separated by spacelike intervals
Retarded potentials
ˆ
c2

2 
Aµ (x) = d 4 x ′ j µ r ′ , t ′ θ x0 − x0′ δ x − x ′


(1)
2πε0

In some theoretical papers on field theory Graphical illustration:

You may find statements like “Green func-
tion/inverse of d’Alambertian is given by”
1
□−1 ≡ c2 θ (x0 ) δ x 2 ,


x
2π
which in essence encodes (1).

In the integral over dx ′ we get nonzero

contribution only from the surface of the
light-cone pointing to the past due to
δ-function and θ-functions
For illustration use 2+1 space instead of
3+1 space
Energy-momentum tensor for EM field
From Lecture 5:  Momentum conservation in vacuum:
 The energy density of EM field:
∂Si
ˆ + (ε0 µ0 )−1 ∂j Tij = 0
1

B2
 ∂t | {z }
WEM = dV ε0 E 2 + c2
2 µ0
 Flux of energy: −Maxwell’s tensor
 
1 δij
S= E ×B Tij = ε0 Ei Ej − E 2 +
µ0 2
 
 Energy conservation in vacuum: 1 δij 2
+ Bi Bj − B
µ0 2
∂w
+ divS = 0
∂t
All objects obviously NOT Lorentz-covariant, change under boosts:
−Energy & momentum mix under Lorentz boosts
−unit volume (in definition of density) squeezes due to Lorentz contraction
−units of area, time unit (in definition of flux) also change

Our goal: rewrite everything in covariant notations

Energy-momentum tensor for EM field
Action for external EM field in vacuum (no external charges/currents):

ˆ
1
S = Sfield = − d 4 x Fµν F µν
4µ0
 Lagrangian depends on Aµ (its derivatives)
 The lagrangian dos not depend explicitly on x µ , i.e. is invariant w.r.t. translations
xµ → xµ + aµ
Noether theorem: ∃ invariants corresponding to this symmetry (energy and momentum
of the field):

dL ∂Aα ∂L ∂ 2 Aα ∂L
µ
= µ α
+ (1)
dx ∂x ∂A ∂x µ ∂x λ ∂(∂λ Aα )
−Euler-Lagrange:  
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (2)
dx λ ∂(∂λ Aµ ) ∂Aµ

d Lδµλ

 α
From (1,2)

dL d ∂A ∂L
= = (3)
dx µ dx λ dx λ ∂x µ ∂(∂λ Aα )

dT µλ ∂Aα ∂L
(3) ⇒ = 0, Tµλ = − Lδµλ
dx λ ∂x µ ∂(∂λ Aα )
Energy-momentum tensor for EM field

dT µλ ∂Aα ∂L
= 0, Tµλ = − Lδµλ
dx λ ∂x µ ∂(∂λ Aα )

In our derivation of conservation of Tµλ we have NOT used explicit form of L, or the
fact that it is 4-vector. We can generalize it without problem to other cases, when for
example we have scalar field Φ:
∂Φ ∂L
Tµλ = − Lδµλ
∂x µ ∂(∂λ Φ)

Let’s derive explicit form for T µλ in electromagentic field:

ˆ
1 ∂L 1
Sfield = − d 4 x Fµν F µν , = − F λα
4µ0 ∂(∂λ Aα ) µ0

∂Aα λ δµλ
 α 
1 λ ∂A ∂Aµ ∂Aµ λ
µ0 Tµλ = − F α + δµ F αβ F αβ
= − − F λ
α + Fαβ F αβ − Fα
∂x µ 4 ∂x µ ∂xα 4 ∂xα
1 ∂  
= −Fµα F λα + δµλ Fαβ F αβ − Aµ F λα +Aµ ∂ α F λα
4 ∂x
| α {z
| {z }
} =0
surface term
Energy-momentum tensor for EM field
1 λ ∂  
µ0 Tµλ = −Fµα F λα + δµ Fαβ F αβ − Aµ F λα +Aµ ∂ α F λα
4 ∂x
| α {z
| {z }
} =0
surface term

-When we construct conserving quantities (energy, momentum), we need to integrate

Tµλ over the whole volume. The “surface term” might be rewritten as surface integral
and does not contribute to if (as usual) we consider that the fields vanish at infinity.
 
1 1
T µν = −F µα F ν α + η µν Fαβ F αβ .
µ0 4

1  
ϵ0 E 2 + µ1 B 2

2
Sx /c Sy /c Sz /c
0
µν 
Sx /c −Txx −Txy −Txz  ,

T =
 Sy /c −Tyx −Tyy −Tyz 
Sz /c −Tzx −Tzy −Tzz

where T00 is the energy density of the EM field, Si are the components of Poynting’s
vector (density of momentum) and Tij is the Maxwell’s stress tensor
 
1 1 1 2
Tij = ϵ0 Ei Ej + Bi Bj − ϵ0 E 2 + B δij
µ0 2 µ0
Energy-momentum tensor for EM field
Evaluation of components:
 
Energy-momentum tensor
1 − F 0α F 0 α + 1 η 00 Fαβ F αβ  =
T 00 =

  µ0  | {z } 4 |{z} | {z } 
1 1 −E 2 /c 2 +1 2(B 2 −E 2 /c 2 )
T µν = −F µα F ν α + η µν Fαβ F αβ .
µ0 4 1

E2
1


B2

2 2
= + B = ε 0 E +
2µ0 c2 2 µ0

(used µ0 ε0= 1/c 2 in the last line)

 
0 −Ex /c −Ey /c −Ez /c 
Ex /c 0 −Bz By  1  0i 1
F µν = 0i 0α i αβ 
−Bx  T = µ −F F α + |{z} η Fαβ F .

Ey /c Bz 0 4
0
Ez /c −By Bx 0 =0

In the first sum nonzero contribution only

Fµν = ηµα F αβ ηβν = from α ̸= 0, α ̸= j
  F 0α F 1 α 1  02 1
0 Ex /c Ey /c Ez /c T 01 = − F F 2 + F 03 F 1 3 =

=−
−Ex /c µ0 µ0
0 −Bz By 
=  1 Sx
−Ey /c Bz 0 −Bx  = [Ey Bz − Ez By ] = ,
−Ez /c −By Bx 0 µ0 c c
1
S= E ×B
µ0
(similar for other components)
Energy-momentum tensor for EM field
Energy-momentum tensor
 
1 1
T µν = −F µα F ν α + η µν Fαβ F αβ .
µ0 4

∂ν T µν = 0
 Energy-momentum conservation:

1 ∂T 00
   
1 ∂w
+ ∂i T 0i = 0, + div S =0
c ∂t c ∂t
Transformation of components of T µν :

T µν → Λµα Λνβ T αβ , (1)

−To summarize, we can see that covariant (relativistic) notations provide possibility to
write results in a very compact and transparent form, with clear transformation rules
under Lorentz boosts
Control problem

1  
ϵ0 E 2 + µ1 B 2

Sx /c Sy /c Sz /c
1 1 µν 2 0
 
µν µα ν αβ Sx /c −Txx −Txy −Txz  ,

T = −F F α + η Fαβ F =
µ0 4  Sy /c −Tyx −Tyy −Tyz 
Sz /c −Tzx −Tzy −Tzz

Ex2 −Ey2 −Ez2 Bx2 −By2 −Bz2

   
 2
Ex Ey Ex Ez   2
Bx By Bx Bz 
 Ey2 −Ex2 −Ez2   By2 −Bx2 −Bz2 
Tij =  Ex Ey Ey Ez
+
Bx By B y Bz

2 2
   
Ez2 −Ex2 −Ey2 Bz2 −Bx2 −By2
   
Ex Ez Ey Ez 2
Bx Bz By B z 2

 
Demonstrate that Tr T̂ = Tλλ = 0 for electromagnetic field.
Control problem 2
We expect that the transfromation of Tµν is given by

T µν → Λµα Λνβ T αβ , (1)

In matrix form it is exactly the same as transformation for Fµν . However, when we
derived explicit (final) transformation of electromagnetic field, we did not have diagonal
components (α = β, µ = ν) and used antisymmetry to drop some contributions

Write out explicitly (in components) the transformation law for components of T µν in
case of boost in direction x̂.

−Group theoretcal point of view: Both Fµν and Tµν transform via (1), which includes
a direct product of 2 representation matrices Λ. We know that antisymmetric,
symmetric traceless and traceful (∼ ηµν ) parts of any tensor don’t mix under
Lorentz transformations, so the direct product Λµα Λνβ may be effectively decom-
posed into irreducible representations which correspond to different symmetries.
Clearly for Fµν we need only antisymmetric representation (1, 0) + (0, 1), whereas
for Tµν in case of electromagnetism we need only symmetric tracelesses irrep 9 = (1, 1).

∗ (L)
Lorentz algebra ∼ so(3)L ⊕ so(3)R ; use “angular momenta” (max. values of ”Jz ”
(R)
and ”Jz ”-angular momenta in L and R subalgebras) to characterize each irrep .
EM waves in moving matter

Now we’ll consider the last topic: motion of charged relativistic particles in external
electromagnetic field:

−In general complicated topic, requires numerical solution

⇒We’ll consider only motion in homogeneous fields

Control question

Please try to deduce (or recall), what shape has the trajectory of nonrelativistic
particle which moves in:

1) homogeneous electric field

2) homogeneous magnetic field

Motion in uniform electric or magnetic fields

As You may remember, for nonrelativistic particle:

−In homogeneous electric field, trajectory is parabola

−In homogeneous magnetic field, trajectory is a circular helix (or circumference in

special llimit)

Now we are going to consider what happens for relativistic particle ...
Motion in uniform electric field

dp 1
q
= q (E + v × B) x(t) = E02 + (qEt + p0x )2
dt qE
∂A
E = −∇ϕ − , -hyperbolic motion in x-direction
∂t
B =∇×A p0y
vy = c 2 q
Case B = 0, select x̂ in direction of E
2
p0y + m2 c 2 + (qEt + p0x )2
 
ṗx = q E , ṗy = 0 p0y c qEt + p0x
y (t) = arcsinh  q 
px = q E t + p0x , py = p0y qE p 2 + m2 c 2
0y

Can solve algebraically to fix vx , vy Trajectory of particle=catenary curve

2
dx pc
 
v= = E0 qEy
x(y ) = cosh
dt Ekin qE p0y c
qEt + p0x -different from parabola in classical theory
vx = c 2 q
2
p0y + m2 c 2 + (qEt + p0x )2
Motion in uniform magnetic field
Evaluate (1′ ) + i (2′ ):
dp V̇ = −i V Ω
= q (E + v × B)
dt
2
∂A where Ω ≡ q c B/Ekin and V = vx + i vy
E = −∇ϕ − ,
∂t
B =∇×A ⇒ V = V0 e −iΩt
iV0 −iΩt
Case E = 0, select ẑ in direction of B ⇒ x + iy = e (3)
Ω
ṗx = q vy B, (1) vx = ℜe (V) , vy = ℑm (V)
ṗy = −q vx B, (2) Similar to nonrelativistic case, particle’s
ṗz = 0, (3) trajectory is helicoidal line (circumference
if v0z = 0)
Recall that Ekin = const and p = Ekin v /c 2 Angular frequency in transverse plane
v̇x = vy q c 2 B/Ekin , (1′ ) qBp
Ω = q c 2 B/Ekin = 1 − v 2 /c 2
2
v̇y = −vx q c B/Ekin , (2 ) ′ m
v̇z = 0, (3) ⇒ vz = v0z Radius of circumference in transverse
plain from (3):
mv⊥
R = v⊥ /Ω = p
qB 1 − v 2 /c 2
EM waves in moving matter

Now we’ll consider another phenomenon which might be interpreted as manifestation

of relativisitic effects (and is frequently used in different books as manifestation of
relativism)
EM waves in moving matter

Assume that we analyze the Fizeau experiment and try to find the speed of light in
moving water with refractive index n > 1. The velocity of water in lab frame is v .
What will be the velocity in the lab frame? How does this agree with Maxwell’s
equations in static medium ?

(1851, repeated in different modifications)

Note that Maxwell’s equations in medium, which we discussed earlier, do not depend
on v at all (!), whereas Special Relativity claims that only velocity c in vacuum (not in
matter, ∼ c/n) are the same in all reference frames
EM waves in moving matter
 Beware, the Second Postulate of Special relativity requires that c = const in vacuum.
It is NOT applicable for velocity in matter (which is always below c)
−Velocity of light in the water’s rest frame: v0 = c/n. Velocity in lab frame:
v0 ± v c ± vn
v± = = <c
1 ± vv
c2
0
n ± vc

(use upper sign for propagation in direction of flow and lower sign for propagation in
opposite direction). For moving dielectric, the speed of light depends on velocity of
medium.
−If n ≈ 1, then v± ≈ ±c. If v ≪ 1, then
c
± v − nc (
v
1 ± cn
 
c c ± vn c ) 1
v± − = v − =
n v ≈ ±v 1 − 2
n n± c n 1 ± cn n

If length of both horizontal tubes is L, then phase shift due to motion of water is

2L n2 − 1 v


L L 2Ln2 v
∆φ = − ≈ 2
̸= ∆φGalileo ≈
v− v+ c c2
−Effect is smaller than ∆φGalileo expected from Galilo’s theory with v± = c/n ± v
−When discovered, was interpreted as “partial drag of ether”. Now can see that is a
relativistic effect, consequence of Einstein’s velocity summation formula (not ether!)
Electromagnetic equations in moving medium
We learned in Lectures 2-4 that in ma- Maxwell’s equations in static isotropic
terials external fields polarize material linear medium: ε0 → εr ε0 , µ0 → µr µ0
and induce electric/magentic dipole mo-
ments, which might attenuate these ex- ⃗ = ρ,
∇·D (1)
ternal fields. ⃗
−In linear isotropic materials we got formu- ⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E (2)
∂t
las shown in the left panel
−However, we always assumed that mate- ⃗
⃗ = ⃗j + ∂D
rial is at rest in our derivations rotH (3)
−Naively, we could assume that we should ∂t
simply ignore motion of dielectric. How-
⃗ ≡∇·B =0
divB (4)
ever, there are clear signals that this is not
correct:
1) This would lead to wave equaton which predicts the same speed of light c/n of EM
waves in all frames (incorrect for n ̸= 1).
2) We know that under boosts fields E , B mix with each other (form components
of rank-2 tensor Fµν ). Using ε0 µ0 = 1/c 2 , we could rewrite (1,3) in vacuum
as ∂ν F αν = µ0 j α . However, in (isotropic, linear) materials we have independent
“rescalings” ε0 → εr ε0 , µ0 → µr µ0 with different εt , µr , so clearly this will break
our derivation and won’t allow to rewrite it in terms of F αν .
Electromagnetic equations in moving conductors
In metals electrons are quasifree. If we apply external force F , then the current and
average velocity of charges are proportional to each other j ∼ v e ∼ F . From the
structure of the Lorentz force

F = q (E + v e × B)

we guess that should correct Ohm’s law in moving conductor as

j = σE → j = σ (E + v × B)

where v is the velocity of the conductor.

 This extension allows to describe correctly the Faraday’s law:

. −Magnetic field generates flow of electrons from one
extreme of the moving conductor to another, leads
´
to nonzero EMF U ∼ dℓ · [v × B]
Electromagnetic equations in moving dielectrics
In dielectrics we don’t have free charges,
so Lorentz force does not help here.
⃗ = ρ,
∇·D (1)
 The problem how to generalize Maxwell’s
equations to movig medium appeared in ⃗
⃗ =− ∂B
early days of SR and was fundamental ∇×E (2)
∂t
for understanding early experiments (e.g.
Fizeau experiment which tried to measure ⃗
∂D
⃗ = ⃗j +
rotH (3)
light dragging by moving in water etc) ∂t

−Various practical applications: e.g. ⃗ ≡∇·B =0

divB (4)
Doppler effect in case of light reflection
from moving object etc. Main idea:
−Take into account that (1-4) are valid in
I will follow derivation from Section §57
from Landau, Vol. 8, “Electrodynamics of rest frame of the body, checked with huge
continuous media” precision
−Rewrite equations in covariant notations
−We’ll focus on dielectrics for simplificty,
so ρ = 0, j = 0
Electromagnetic equations in moving dielectrics
The Eqs (1, 3) depend on material, might
be rewritten as

⃗ = ρ,
∇·D (1) ∂ν H µν = j µ (= 0) (B)
(for dielectrics j µ = 0), where
⃗
⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E (2)  
∂t 0 −Dx /c −Dy /c −Dz /c
Dx /c 0 −Hz Hy 
H µν =
 
Dy /c Hz 0 −Hx 
⃗
⃗ = ⃗j + ∂ D
rotH (3) Dz /c −Hy Hx 0
∂t
are valid in rest frame of the body, checked
⃗ ≡∇·B =0 with huge precision
divB (4)
⇒Conclude that (A, B) must be valid in
any reference frame.
The Eqs (2, 4) do not depend on material
⇒Major concern now: equations
(same as in vacuum), might be rewritten
as D = εE , B = µ H,
εαβγδ ∂ β F γδ = 0 (A)
are valid only in rest frame of material,
NOT covariant (since fields E , B mix un-
der boosts)
Electromagnetic equations in moving dielectrics
Rest frame: Now we can rewrite (A, B) in arbitrary
reference frame where v ̸= 0 (use u µ =
D = εE , B = µ H, (1) (γ, γv )):
Need to project out separately E and B D + v × H = ε(E + v × B),
components, using covariant velocity 4-
B − v × E = µ(H − v × D),
vector u µ of dielectric and rewrite (1) in
covariant form −Minkowski equations, exact.
−We’ll assume c = 1 for brevity below −We use c = 1 units; in general velocity v
−Rest frame: u = (1, 0)
should be understood as v /c
i i0
E = F = F uν iν −Simplifications for |v | ≪ 1:
1 1
B i = ϵijk F jk = ϵ0ijk F jk =
2 2 D = ε(E + v × B) − v × H
1 α µν
= ϵαi µν u F ≈ εE + (εr µr − 1) v × H,
2
B = v × E + µ(H − v × D)
So (1) in covariant notations gets a form
≈ µH + (εr µr − 1) E × v
H i ν uν = εF i ν uν (A)
(we neglected differences B − µH ∼ O(v )
ϵαβ µν u β H µν = µϵαβ µν u β F µν (B) and D − εE ∼ O(v ) in terms which con-
tributed multiplied by v × ...)
Electromagnetic equations in moving dielectrics
Border conditions for moving dielectric:

(1) (2) (1) (2)

divD = 0 ⇒ D⊥ = D⊥ divB = 0 ⇒ B⊥ = B⊥ (1)

− Let’s introduce n (normal to the surface)

−In rest frame we had for tangential components

n × H (1) = n × H (2) , n × E (1) = n × E (2) ,

−In moving frame we should replace E → E + v × B, H → H − v × E

− Take into account that n × [A × B] = A Bn − B An , where An ≡ n · A ≡ A⊥
⇒ using (1), get in moving frame
   
n × E (2) − E (1) = vn (B 2 − B 1 ) ̸= 0, n × H (2) − H (1) = −vn (D 2 − D 1 ) ̸= 0,

for small v ≪ 1 can approximate in rhs

D ≈ εE + (εr µr − 1) v × H, B ≈ µH + (εr µr − 1) E × v
   
⇒ n × E (2) − E (1) ≈ vn (µ2 − µ1 ) H 2 || , n × H (2) − H (1) ≈ −vn (ε2 − ε1 ) E 2 || ,

(in rhs do not need to distinguish H|| , E|| since in view of lhs such difference is O(v ))
Example problem
. The capacitor consists of two parallel
metallic square plates of width w separated
by a distance h. A slab of dielectric of the
same thickness h and width w is partially
inserted into the space between the plates.
The relative permittivity of dielectric is ϵ,
and the magnetic permeability is µ. The
capacitor is held at constant voltage ∆Φ.
The slab moves with small constant veloc-
ity v inwards (as shown with red arrow in
the Figure). Find the distribution of elec-
tromagntiec fields E , B inside the dielec-
tic. Evaluate the pulling force acting on
the slab of dielectric. Compare your result
with what we found earlier for static dielec-
tric (v = 0 case).
Example problem
.

Major challenge:
−In moving dielectric D ̸= εE , B ̸= µH, and border conditions are different; should
use Minkowski relations instead:
D + v × H = ε(E + v × B), (1a)
B − v × E = µ(H − v × D), (1b)

 ... it matters because in some of the Maxwell’s equations in matter/border

conditions have H, D instead of E , B

−Minkowski’s equations are complicated

− for dielectric moving with constant velocity always easier to jump (make boost) to
the rest frame of dielectric to solve problems there
Example problem
 I will use c = ε0 = µ0 = 1 for simplicity in what follows
−Assume v ∼ x̂, ŷ points in vertical direction, ẑ is ⊥ to vertical plane
Case of static dielectric between two static plates at voltage ∆Φ:
− Field inside: E 0 = (∆Φ/h) ŷ

Claim: The field inside dielectric is the same as in dielectric placed in external homoe-
geneous field E = εE 0
−Border condition:
D1 = D2 ⇒ ε1 E1 = ε2 E2 (1)
. −Can show this more rigorously if we assume that
dielectric’s width is h1 = h − δ, δ ≪ h
−solving (1) with additional condition Eout δ +
Ein h1 = ∆Φ yields
h1 h
Eout ≈ ε∆Φ/h,
Ein ≈ ∆Φ/h

-the same result as for dielectric placed in external

field Eout .
Example problem
Now we’ll analyze dielectric moving in external homogeneous field E out .

Boost “external” field to rest frame of dielectric and analyze everything there:

γ2
Ẽ = γ (E −v × B) − v (v · E ),
γ+1
γ2
 
v ×E
B̃ = γ B + 2
− v (v · B),
c γ+1

The last two terms in expression for Ẽ clearly doesn’t matter since v · E = 0, so have
“external” field
∆Φε
Ẽ = γE = γ ŷ , B̃ = γv × E = v × Ẽ
h
 Inside dielectric the field changes,
γ v ×E
Ẽ diel = E , B̃ diel = µγ
ε c2
whereas outside the dielectric does not changed at all. Respective D̃, H̃ are given by
v ×E
D̃ diel = γE , H̃ diel = γ
c2
Example problem
After boosting back to the lab frame, can get that result is different now
  1
− µv 2 E
E diel = γ Ẽ + v × B̃ = E ε ̸=
1 − v2 ε
 
2v ×E 1
B diel = γ µ− ̸= 0
c2 ε

 
  v ×E
D diel = γ D̃ + v × H̃ = γ 2 E + v × = E γ 2 1 − v 2 = ε∆Φ/hŷ


c2

Now we can summarize result for filed in the whole capacitor (recall E = (ε∆Φ/h)ŷ ):

1 − εµv 2
 
∆Φ
E cap. = ŷ θ(x − vt) + θ(vt − x) ,
h 1 − v2
 
v ∆Φ εµ − 1
B cap. = 2 ẑ θ(vt − x) ,
c h 1 − v2
∆Φ
D cap. = ŷ ε0 [(εr − 1)θ(vt − x) + 1] ,
h

∆Φ
Note that displacement current ∂D cap. /∂t ∼ rotB ∼ h
v ŷ δ(vt − x) ̸= 0
Example problem

Now we can summarize result for filed Please check yourself that the results
in the whole capacitor (recall E = satisfy the Minkowski equations inside
(ε∆Φ/h)ŷ ): dielectric (x < vt)
1 − εµv 2
 
∆Φ D + v × H = ε(E + v × B), (1a)
E cap. = ŷ θ(x − vt) + θ(vt − x) ,
h 1 − v2 B − v × E = µ(H − v × D), (1b)
 
v ∆Φ εµ − 1
B cap. = 2 ẑ θ(vt − x) ,
c h 1 − v2 For very small velocity, negecting O(v 2 )-
∆Φ terms, can see that
D cap. = ŷ ε0 [(εr − 1)θ(vt − x) + 1] ,
h
D ≈ εr ε0 E + O(v 2 ),
Note that displacement current H ≈ B/µ + O(v 2 ),
∆Φ
∂D cap. /∂t ∼ rotB ∼ v ŷ δ(vt − x) ̸= 0.
h |B| ∼ |v | |E |
Example problem

Note however that currents in both plates

are directed in opposite directions, so the
∆Φ
D cap. = ŷ [(ε − 1)θ(vt − x) + 1] , fields almost cancel
h ⇒In the region near x = vt we may ap-
Note that at the border x = vt we have proximate distortions from the fields as a
change of D cap which implies that surface field of magnetic dipole with moment
density σ suddenly changes at x = vt, since ˆ
1
σ = n · D cap m= dV r × j(r ) = O(h)
2
∆Φ located at x = vt
σ= [(ε − 1)θ(vt − x) + 1]
h
For very small h ≪ w we may disregard
⇒ This creates localized current this distortion as tiny correction.
∆Φ
j ∼± (ε − 1)v x̂δ(x − vt)
h
 Force might be found minimizing the en-
ergy, as we did before.
If we decide to work in the lab frame,
should revisit derivations of energy den-
sity from Lecture 5, we would get for the
change of energy density with time
 For this reason we’ll use indirect ap-
proach: we’ll evaluate energy density Tµν
in the rest frame, make boost to the lab
frame and pick the component T00 (energy
density):
00
T(lab) = Λ0µ Λ0ν T(rf)
µν

∂B ∂D
H· +E ·  
∂t ∂t 1 1
T µν = −F µα F ν α + η µν Fαβ F αβ .
 Earlier when we had rest-frame consider- µ0 4
ation, D = ε E and B = µ H, we concluded 1 
ϵ0 E 2 + µ1 B 2

Sx /c Sy /c Sz /c

2 0
that the energy density is T
µν 
= Sx /c −Txx −Txy −Txz  ,


 
 Sy /c −Tyx −Tyy −Tyz 
1 1 2 Sz /c −Tzx −Tzy −Tzz
E= ε0 ε E 2 + B
2 µ0 µ
Ex2 −Ey2 −Ez2
 
1 2
Ex Ey Ex Ez
= (D diel · E diel + B diel · H diel )
 
 Ey2 −Ex2 −Ez2 
2 Tij =  Ex Ey Ey Ez
+
2
 
Ez2 −Ex2 −Ey2
 
Ex Ez Ey Ez
 For moving dielectric situation becomes 2
Bx2 −By2 −Bz2
 
more compliacted because relation of D, H Bx By Bx Bz
 2 
with E , B is given by Minkowski relations  By2 −Bx2 −Bz2 
+ Bx By By Bz

2
 
Bz2 −Bx2 −By2
 
Bx Bz By Bz 2
 In that frame Λ0µ has two nonzero com- Now straightforward integration over the
ponents: volume gives for the potential energy

Λ00 ≡ γ, Λ01 = γv E2
   

1
U(x) = wh γ 2 x 1 + v 2 + µ v2
2 ε
00 2
= γ 2 T(rf)
00
 
T(lab) + v
−4 + (w − x)
ε
+ 2 γ 2 v T(rf)
01
+ γ 2 v 2 T(rf)
11

so the force is given by

and in rest frame we have
1

1 2
 ∂U γ2E 2
00
T(rf) =
2
εẼ + B̃ = F =− =− wh×
2 µ ∂x 2
v2
     

1
× γ2 1 + v 2 + µ v2 − 4
 
1 1 −1
= γ2 + µ v 2 E 2, ε ε
2 ε
01 1 h i 1 If we set µ = ε = 1, then F = 0 for any
T(rf) = Ẽ × B̃ = γ 2 v E 2 ,
µ 1 ε v (as expected)
11

1 1
  If we take v = 0, get
T(rf) = ... = γ 2 + µ v 2 E 2,
2 ε ∂U
F (v = 0) = − =
∂x
2
∆Φ2
   
00 γ2E 2 E
= − wh
1
−1 =− w
1
−1
T(lab) = ×
2 2 ε 2h ε
v2
   
2
1 2
× 1+v + µv −4 in agreement with our earlier result.
ε ε

More complicated problems
A dielectric object (sphere, cylinder, ...)
rotates slowly with angular velocity Ω in
homogeneous constant magentic field B0 .
The object is not charged. Find the
electric potential ϕ and the distribution of
the electric and magnetic fields
E (r , t), B(r , t) inside and outside the
object.
−Naive reply “ϕ = 0 because we do not
have charges” is obviously wrong because
motion affects border conditions.
−Can’t just jump from one frame to an-
other (rotating frame is NOT inertial).
Need to use Minkowski equations
Our expectations: from conditions
D ≈ εE + (εr µr − 1) v × H,
B ≈ µH + (εr µr − 1) E × v
can expect that induced electric field E ∼
O(v ) ∼ O(ΩR)
−Modification of H (vs. static case) is
O(v 2 )-effect and might be neglected in
first approximation
⇒Gauss law: divD = 0
(εr µr − 1)
divE = − div (v × B)
ε r µr
| {z }
ρeff /ε
where ρeff is the effective induced charge
−Can solve the corresponding Poisson’s
equation and find electric field E
Example - rotating sphere
Magnetic field inside sphere and outside
might be reconstructed using magnetic po-
A dielectric sphere of radius R rotates tential ΦM
slowly with angular velocity Ω in
homogeneous constant magentic field B0 . B = ∇ΦM , lim B(r ) = B0 ẑ
r →∞
The sphere is not charged. Find the
electric potential ϕ near the sphere. General solution:

Naive reply “ϕ = 0 because we do not X 

bℓm
have charges” is obviosuly wrong because ΦM = aℓm r ℓ + ℓ+1 Yℓm (θ, φ)
motion affects border conditions. r
ℓm
Our expectations: Yℓm ∼ Pℓ
|m|
(cos θ) e imφ
from conditions
Nonsingular solution with correct asymp-
D ≈ εE + (εr µr − 1) v × H, totic:
B ≈ µH + (εr µr − 1) E × v
B0 r + br10

2 , r >R
ΦM = cos θ ,
can expect that induced electric field E ∼ a10 r , r <R
O(v ) ∼ O(ΩR)
 Modification of H (vs. static case) is
O(v 2 )-effect and might be neglected in first
approximation
Example - rotating sphere

B0 r + br10

2 , r >R
ΦM = cos θ ,
a10 r , r <R

rˆ cos θ B0 − 2br 310 − θ̂ sin θ b10





 r 
B0 r + r3
, r >R
 sin
B= rˆ cos θ − θθ̂ a10 , r <R ,

 r

 | {z }
ẑ

Application of border conditions for B:

3µ 1−µ
a10 = B0 , b10 = B0 R 3
µ+2 µ+2
-inside the sphere the fieldB is homoge-
neous
Example - rotating sphere
Since rotation is homogeneous and time- so
independent, electric field must be station-
divD ≈ εdivE + εr − µ−1


ary, so rotE = 0 r ∇ · (v × B)

⇒ E = −∇ϕ Since B = const inside the sphere, can

rewrite
where ϕ is electric potential
Outside the sphere ∆ϕ = 0, so ∇ · (v × B) = (B × ∇) · v = (B × ∇) (Ω ×

X  = Ω · B = µΩ · H
ℓ bℓm
ϕ= aℓm r + ℓ+1 Yℓm (θ, φ)
ℓm
r ⇒ ∆ϕ = −divE = (εr µr − 1) Ω·H/εr ≡ ρ ̸=

Yℓm ∼ Pℓ
|m|
(cos θ) e imφ i.e. we get inhomogeneous Poisson like in
presence of external (distributed, constant)
Inside the sphere we have divD = 0, but charge (!!!)
In view of coordinate-independence of rhs
D ≈ εE + (εr µr − 1) v × H expect that field inside should be spheri-
≈ εE + εr − µ−1 cally symmetric, ϕ = ϕ(r ), with


r v ×B
2 ′
ϕ′′ (r ) +ϕ (r ) = ρ
r
ρr 2 X (in) ℓ
ϕ(r ) = + aℓm r Yℓm (θ, φ)
6
ℓm
Example - rotating sphere
X
D ≈ εE + εr − µ−1


ϕ= Yℓm (θ, φ) × r v ×B
ℓm
(
bℓm
r ℓ+1
, r >R
× ρr 2 (in) ,
6
δ ℓ0 δm0 + aℓm r ℓ , r <R  
n · E (2) − E (1) = − εr − µ−1


r n · (v × B) ,
Border conditions for E || :
v × B = [Ω × r ] × B =
  = B × [r × Ω] =
n × E (2) − E (1) ≈ vn (µ2 − µ1 ) H 2 || , = r (B · Ω) − Ω(B · r )
 
(2) (1)
In this problem n ≡ r̂ , so vn ≡ n·(Ω × r ) = n· E −E
  = r (B · Ω) − (n · Ω)(B · r )
0 and the rhs vanishes (!), so get the same − εr − µ−1
r
border conditions as in static case
(r · Ω)(B · r )
Border conditions for E ⊥ : = r (B · Ω) −
r

⇒just RHS gives rise to monopole and

 
n · D (2) − D (1) = 0
quadrupole contributions (!!!)
For ℓ ̸= 0, 2 get trivial solution bℓm =
(in)
aℓm = 0
Example - rotating sphere
ℓ
(
bℓm
X X
r ℓ+1
, r >R
ϕ= Yℓm (θ, φ) ρr 2 (in) ,
ℓ=0,2 m=−ℓ 6
δ ℓ0 δm0 + aℓm r ℓ , r <R

Instead of trying to fix orientation of Ω, B (in order to evaluate (r · Ω)(B · r ) and later
a2m , b2m ), we may “guess” that corresponding contribution should be sum of monopole
and quadrupole contributions:
 
α 1
∼ + Dik ∂i ∂k
r r

where α ∼ (Ω · B)quadrupole moment Dik is some bilinear combination of Ω, B, e.g:

2
Dik = Ωi Bk + Ωk Bi − δik Ω · B
3
Final result for the potential inside and outside:
( Dik ni nk
2 r3
, r >R
ϕ= r 2 Dik (εr µr −1) .
r 2 − a2 Ω · B,


2R 5
ni nk + 3εr µr
r <R
Example problem 2

Assume the electromagnetic wave

propagates in a slowly moving dielectric
medium with relative permittivity and
permeability (εr , µr ). Repeat the
derivation of the wave equation for this
case and analyze what happens with linear
O(v ) terms.
Electromagnetic equations in moving dielectrics
Let’s rewrite these equations in Fourier
space, assuming
ˆ
⃗ = ρ,
∇·D (1) dωd 3 k −iωt+ik·x
F (r , t) = e F (ω, k)
(2π)4
⃗
∂B
⃗ =−
∇×E (2) where F = {E , H, D, B}, and for brevity
∂t I’ll use the same letters in Fourier space for
⃗ all quantities
⃗ = ⃗j + ∂D
rotH (3)
∂t ⃗ = 0,
ik · D (1′ )

⃗ ≡∇·B =0
divB (4) ⃗ = ωB
k ×E ⃗ (2′ )
⃗ = −ω D
k ×H ⃗ (3′ )
D + v × H = ε(E + v × B), (5)
k ·B =0 (4′ )
B − v × E = µ(H − v × D), (6)
Note that (1’,4’) are consequence of
(2’, 3’), so can disregard them altogether
Equations (5,6) maintain their form in
Fourier space
Electromagnetic equations in moving dielectrics
If we substitute (2’,3’) into (5,6), can get
 
′ 1 1
⃗ = 0,
ik · D (1 ) − k − v × H = ε(E + v × (k × E )),
ω ω
 
1 1
k − v × E = µ(H + v × (k × H)),
⃗ = ωB
k ×E ⃗ (2′ ) ω ω
⃗ = −ω D
k ×H ⃗ (3′ ) Can rewrite this as
Mij Fj = 0,
k ·B =0 (4′ )
where F = {E , H} is 6D vector, and Mij
is 6 × 6 matrix
-linear algebraic homogeneous system; has
D + v × H = ε(E + v × B), (5) nontrivial solutions only if det M = 0
B − v × E = µ(H − v × D), (6) ⇒Polynomialequation with multiple root
√ 
ω = V v , n ≡ 1/ εµ, k̂ |k|
 While B, D are ⊥to k, we can’t guaran-
tee the same for vectors E , H: from (5,6) where k̂ is unit vector in direction of prop-
agation, and V is merely velocity of EM
εk · E = (k × v ) · (εB − H) ̸= 0, wave in lab frame
µk · H = − (k × v ) · (µD − E ) ̸= 0. (recall that in rest frame of dielectric it has
velocity c n−1 ; under boosts it transforms
using Einsten’t velocity addition formulas)
 Now we are going to analyze how the EM wave looks like in moving dielectric.
Formally we could analyze eigenvectors and try to relate E , H using what we found
earlier. However, mathematically it is quite challenging.
 For this reason now we’ll consider EM wave in dielectric at rest, and simply boost it
to another frame.
 Later we will analyze in the same way the scattering of EM waves on moving objects
and see how the motion affects our previous results
EM waves in matter (rest frame)
.

Analyze how the propagation of waves ⃗ =0⇒k ·E

∇·E ⃗ 0 = 0,
changes inside matter (dielectic
⃗ =0⇒k ·B
∇·B ⃗0 = 0
dia/paramagnetic medium). Assume the
⃗
matter is infinte, border conditions are
∇×E ⃗ = − ∂ B ⇒ −i ⃗k × E ⃗ 0 = −iω B
⃗0
not relevant, so ∂t
⃗ = εr ε0 E
D ⃗, H⃗ = B/(µ
⃗ 0 µr ) But ω = v |k| so if k̂ = ⃗k/k, then
Velocity of EM waves:
⃗ 0 = 1 k̂ × E
B ⃗0
1 v0
v02 = (ε0 µ0 εr µr )−1 = (c/nr )2 , nr = √
ε r µr
⃗ 20 = 1 E
B ⃗ 20 = nr2 ε0 µ0 E
⃗ 20
nr -refractive index, depends on material v02

⃗ =1 ⃗ ⃗ = k̂ nr E⃗ 2
S E ×B
µ0 µr µ0 µr c
2
!
1 2 ⃗
B
w= ⃗ +
εr ε0 E ⃗2
= ε0 εr E
2 µ0 µr
-electric and magnetic fields carry the
same energy
EM waves in moving matter
Assume:  Wave vector
 k ′ in new frame: 
 we have monochromatic wave of fre- ′ k ·v 0
k =k + v (γ − 1) − γk
quency ω v2
 we’ve chosen our reference frame in
  
v cos θx
such a way that k̂ points in x-direction, =ω n x̂ + v n (γ − 1) − γ
v2
Fields E , B in new frame:
E
E 0 = E ŷ , B0 = ẑ = c −1 E n ẑ
γ2
 
v0
E ′ = γE ŷ + n v × ẑ − v v cos θy
We make boost in arbitrary direction of γ+1
γ2
 
vector v v × ŷ
B ′ = γE n ẑ − − v v cos θ z
Components of k µ transform as 4- c2 γ+1
vector, and k = ωc −1 n x̂, so for change
of frequency get Let’s assume v = v ŷ , θy = 0, θx,z =
π/2:
⇒ ω ′ = γω (1 − v n cos θx ) , k ′ = ω (n x̂ − γv ŷ ) ,
γ2v 2
 
where θx is angle between v and x̂ (later E ′ = γE ŷ + n v x̂ − ŷ ,
we’ll use similar notations θy , θz ) γ+1
B ′ = γEn ẑ,

-as expected, k′ · B′  = 0, yet k ′ · E ′ =

γ2v 2

2
γωvE n − γ + γ+1 ̸= 0 now
Scattering on static dielectric For TE wave:
 In Lecture 9 we analyzed in detail the Et 2
⇒ = (1)
scattering of EM wave on the surface of Ei 1+ µr n2 cos θt
(2)
dielectric and found reflection and trans- µr n cos θi
1

mission coefficients.
(1) (2)
Er µr n2 cos θt − µr n1 cos θi
= (1) (2)
Ei µr n2 cos θt + µr n1 cos θi

 2
Er
RTE = =
Ei
!2
(1) (2)
µr n2 cos θt − µr n1 cos θi
Major results: = (1) (2)
,
µr n2 cos θt + µr n1 cos θi
 All waves have the same frequency
θr = θi , n sin θx = sin θi (Snell’s law)
Results for TE and TM waves differ, but S⃗t cos θt
might be related via TTE = =
S⃗0 cos θi
⃗ → λB,
E ⃗ ⃗ → −λ εr µr E
B ⃗,
c2 (1) (2)
4µr µr n1 n2 cos θt cos θi
εr → µr , µr → εr , λ = µ−1 =  2
r (1) (2)
µr n2 cos θt + µr n1 cos θi
Scattering on moving dielectric
 Now we’ll analyze scattering when di- Assume TE polarization in the lab frame
electric moves: S all electric fields (incident, reflected,
transmitted) are given by

E = E ŷ e −iωt e i(kx x+kz z) ,

B = nk ×E

kx = k0 sin θ0 , kz = k0 cos θ0
k0 = ω/c.

We will use indices (i), (r ), (t) for inci-

dent, reflected, transmitted waves
In the moving frame S ′ of dielectric the
components of k are given by
 General consideration techncially com-
plicated, so let’s focus on special case kz′ = γ(kz − ωvz ),
when dielectric moves upwards kx′ = kx ,
ω ′ = ωγ(1 − vz kz /ω)
Ey′ = γEy (1 − vz kz /ω)
′ ′ ′
Expect that k(i) x = k(r ) x = k(t) x .
Scattering on moving dielectric -there is a Doppler effect which is different
Border conditions at z = 0 (Lecture 9): for reflected and transmitted waves. For
′
E(i) + E(r′ ) = ′
E(t) very small v (linear approximation)

′ n cos θt ′
E(i) − E(r′ ) = E ω (r ) ≈ ω [1 + 2vz cos θi ] ,
cos
′
θi (t)  q 
′ 2E(i) cos θi ω (t) ≈ ω (1 + vz cos θi ) − vz n2 − sin2 θi .
⇒ E(t) =
cos θi′ + n cos θt′
Components of k (r ,t) -vectors:
n cos θt′ − cos θi′ kx(i) = kx(r ) = kx(t) = k0 sin θi ,
E(r′ ) = ′
E(i)
n cos θt′ + n1 cos θi′
kz(i) = k0 cos θi
Now we need to make boost back to lab-
kz(r ) = −k0 γ 2 2vz + cos θi (1 + vz2 ) ,
 
frame S, and here we get importat differ-
ences between waves because vectors k are kz(t) = k0 γ 2 [vz (1 + vz cos θi ) − vz Q] ,
different for incident, reflected and trans-
(i) (r )
mitted cases: ⇒Since kz ̸= kz , so θr ̸= θi (θ =
ω (r ) = γ ω ′ − v k(r′ ) z =


arctan(kx /kz )).
Values for E(r ) , E(t) in lab-frame:
= ωγ 2 (1 + vz2 ) + 2vz cos θi ,
 
ω (r ) (vz + cos θ) − Q
 
ω (t) = γ ω ′ − v k(t)
′ E(r ) = E(i) ,


z = ω (vz + cos θ) + Q
= ωγ 2 [(1 + vz cos θi ) − vz Q] ,    
q (vz + cos θ) 2ω (t) /ω
E(t) = E(i)  ,
Q ≡ n2 (1 + vz cos θi )2 − sin2 θi (1 − vz2 ) (vz + cos θ) + Q
Scattering on moving dielectric
Case of normal incidence (θi = 0) For the case of TM waves we have quali-
Angles θr = θt = 0 tatively the same conclusions (Doppler ef-
 2 fect, θr ̸= θi , corrections to Snell’s law).
1 + vz 1 − n Now let’s consider briefly motion in hor-
R=
1 − vz 1 + n izontal direction (vx ̸= 0):
4 (1 − n vz ) (n − vz )
T =
(1 − vz )2 (1 + n)2
p √
 For n = ε1 /ε0 = 2 ≈ 1.41:

Consideration is very similar, but

Doppler effect does not appear and θr = θi
Reason: component kx (which “mixes”
with ω under Lorentz boosts) does not
change during reflection/transmission.
Scattering on moving dielectric
Obviously we can generalize this algo- We expect that in the rest frame the so-
rithm to the case of scattering on moving lutions should have a form
3D objects: X X ℓm, a ′ −iω′ t
. A plane monochromatic EM wave E scat (r )e ,
a=TE, TM ℓm
scatters on a homogeneous dielec- a ′ ′ ′
(1)
E ℓm,
scat (r ) ∼ hℓ (k r )
tric ball of radius R which moves
with constant velocity v . The ma- (1)
hℓ (z) -spherical Hankels, ∼ e iz at z →
terial of the ball has dielectric per- ∞
mittivity ε. Evaluate the ampli- In the rest frame scattering does not
change frequency, only direction of wave
tude of the scattered wave. Locally we can approximate each spheri-
We are not going to solve this problem,
cal harmonic as plane wave with wave vec-
only discuss main qualitative features and tor
algorithm of solution
Similar to previous problem, we can k ′ = k ′ sin θ′ cos φ′ , sin θ′ sin φ′ , cos θ′


make boost from S-frame to S ′ -(rest)
frame After that can make boost back to S-
frame, thus reducing the problem to a
mere exercise on Lorentz boosts
Expect that frequency of ω of reflected
wave will depend on scattering angle (!)