The Central Nervous System (CNS) ▪ the 2nd is concerned with

 CNS develops from the embryonic neural integrating sensory input, primarily
tube with the visual system
→ The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord Functions of the Occipital Lobe
→ The opening of the neural tube becomes ▪ Mapping the visual world, which
the ventricles helps with both spatial reasoning and
● Four chambers within the brain visual memory.
● Filled with cerebrospinal fluid ▪ Determining color properties of the
Regions of the Brain items in the visual field.
1. Cerebrum ▪ Assessing distance, size, & depth.
2. Cerebellum ▪ Identifying visual stimuli, particularly
3. Diencephalon or Interbrain familiar faces & objects.
3.1 Thalamus ▪ Transmitting visual information to
3.2 Epithalamus other brain regions
3.3 Hypothalamus ▪ Receiving raw visual data from
4. Brain stem perceptual sensors in the eyes' retina.
4.1 Midbrain/Mesencephalon Functions of the Temporal Lobe
4.2 Pons ▪ The formation of visual memories,
4.3 Medulla oblongata including long-term memories
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) ▪ Interpreting the meaning of visual
▪ Paired (left & right) superior parts of the stimuli, including recognizing objects
brain ▪ Production of speech
▪ Include more than half of the brain mass ▪ Recognition of language
▪ The surface is made of ridges (gyri) & ▪ Controlling unconscious and
grooves (sulci) apparently automatic reactions, such
Lobes of the Cerebrum as appetite, thirst, hunger
 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the ▪ Helping the body maintain
cerebrum into lobes homeostasis
 Surface lobes of the cerebrum Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
▪ Frontal lobe  Somatic sensory area – receives impulses
▪ Parietal lobe from the body’s sensory receptors
▪ Occipital lobe  Primary motor area – sends impulses to
▪ Temporal lobe skeletal muscles
Functions of the Frontal Lobe  Broca’s area – involved in our ability to
▪ emotional control center & home to speak
our personality  Wernicke’s area - region of the brain that
▪ motor function, contains motor neurons involved in the
▪ problem solving; comprehension of speech.
▪ memory;  Cerebral areas involved in special senses
▪ spontaneity, ▪ Gustatory area (taste)
▪ language, ▪ Visual area
▪ initiation, ▪ Auditory area
▪ judgment, ▪ Olfactory area
▪ impulse control; and  Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
▪ social & sexual behavior ▪ Speech/language region
Functions of the Parietal Lobe ▪ Language comprehension region
(Wernicke’s area)
▪ The 1st function is sensation &
perception and ▪ General interpretation area

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Control of muscular movements in
the brain
 This control is conveyed mainly through the
pyramidal tract, which arises from the
primary motor cortex, which divides into:
1. Corticospinal tract, which synapses with the
lower motor neurons innervating the muscles in
the limbs & trunk
2. Corticobulbar tract, which synapses with the
cranial nerves to control muscular movements
of the face, head, & neck.
Decussation of nerve fibers
 Decussation means the crossing of nerve
fibers to the opposite side of the body.
 This occurs at the level of the lower
medulla, where 85% to 90% of the fibers
cross to form the lateral corticospinal tract
(LCST).
Layers of the Cerebrum
Gray matter
● outer layer found in the CNS
● Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies &
dendrites
● Mostly unmyelinated axon bundles
● Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain
White matter
● inner layer in the CNS
● Few neuron cell bodies
● Mostly myelinated axon bundles also
called “tracts”
● Example: corpus callosum connects
hemispheres
The Basal Ganglia
Basal ganglia: internal islands of gray matter.
Components of the basal ganglia include the:
→ striatum; both dorsal striatum (caudate
nucleus & putamen)
→ ventral striatum (nucleus
accumbens & olfactory tubercle)
→ globus pallidus
→ ventral pallidum
→ substantia nigra
→ subthalamic nucleus
Grouping of Neural Tissue
1. Nucleus/Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies &
dendrites within the white matter of the CNS
2. Ganglion/Ganglia – clusters of cell bodies
in the PNS
→ A typical sympathetic ganglion can have
20,000 to 30,000 individual cell bodies
3. Tract - bundle of nerve fibers in the CNS
4. Nerve - bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS
The Cerebellum
 Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
 Provides involuntary coordination of body
movements
The Diencephalon
 Sits on top of the brain stem
 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
 Made of three parts:
1. Thalamus: relay & processing
centers for sensory information passing upward
to the sensory cortex (for pain and touch)
2. Hypothalamus: makes up the floor of
the diencephalons; centers controlling our
emotions, temperature, H2O balance &
metabolism & hormone production; the
mamillary bodies (reflex center for olfaction) are
located in the hypothalamus.
3. Epithalamus: Forms the roof of the
3rd ventricle; impt parts include the pineal body
& the choroid plexus of the 3rd ventricle
The Brain Stem
 Attaches to the spinal cord
 Parts of the brain stem
▪ Midbrain
▪ Pons
▪ Medulla oblongata
Mesencephalon or Midbrain
 Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
 Has two bulging fiber tracts - cerebral
peduncles
 Processing of visceral & auditory data,
maintenance of consciousness
 Has four rounded protrusions –
corpora quadrigemina
→ Reflex centers for vision and hearing
Pons varolii
 The bulging center part of the brain stem
 Mostly composed of fiber tracts
 Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.2
 Relays sensory information to cerebellum &
thalamus, regulates breathing pattern
Medulla Oblongata
 The lowest part of the brain stem
 Merges into the spinal cord
 Includes important fiber tracts
 Most inferior part of the brain stem
 Contains important control centers
▪ Heart rate control
▪ Blood pressure regulation
▪ Breathing
▪ Swallowing
▪ Vomiting
Reticular Formation
 Diffuse mass of gray matter along the
brain stem
 Involved in motor control of visceral
organs
 Reticular activating system plays a role in
awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
2. Arachnoid layer
 A thin, transparent, web-like middle layer
made up of fibrous tissue
3. Pia mater
 a thin, translucent, mesh-like inner layer
made up of fibrous tissue
 clings to the surface of the brain
The Cerebrospinal Fluid
 its composition is similar to blood plasma
 it is produced by the ependymal cells in
the choroid plexus
 it forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
 circulates in arachnoid space, ventricles, &
central canal of the spinal cord
 amount produced reaches 800 mL in 24H
but only about an average of 150mL at any
given time
Ventricles & Location of the CSF

Protection of the Central

Nervous System
 Scalp and skin
 Skull and vertebral column
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood brain barrier The CSF Flow
1st. CSF is secreted by CHOROID PLEXUS in
The Meninges of the Brain & each lateral ventricle (1st & 2nd Ventricle)
Spinal Cord
1. Dura mater 2nd. CSF flows through interventricular
 a double-layered outer covering made up foramina into third ventricle
of dense fibrous tissue
1. Periosteum – attached to surface of the 3rd. Choroid Plexus in the third ventricle adds
skull more CSF.
2. Meningeal layer – outer covering of the
brain 4th. CSF flows down cerebral aqueduct to
 subdivided or partitioned into several fourth ventricle.
septa or areas.
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.3
5th. Choroid plexus in fourth ventricle adds  Substances that can easily pass are:
more CSF. ▪ Water & Glucose
▪ Respiratory gases (O2, CO2, NO2, & Xe)
6th. CSF flows out two lateral apertures and ▪ Ethanol & Nicotine
one median aperture. (2-Foramina ▪ Volatile anesthetics
Luchska ; 1-Foramen Magendie) ▪ L-Dopa
▪ Caffeine
7th. CSF fills subarachnoid space and bathes ▪ Vit. B6 & B12
external surfaces of Brain and Spinal Cord. ▪ Diazepam
▪ Essential amino acids (leucine, tyrosine,
8th. At Arachnoid villi , CSF is reabsorbed into isoleucine, valine, tryptophan,
venous blood of dural venous sinuses. methionine, histidine, phenylalanine,
Additional info: arginine, lysine, glutamine)
 Choroid plexus is a type of Ependymal cells
→ produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) via
the ependymal cells.  Substances that can pass but at a SLOW
→ found in each of the brain ventricles rate are:
 Ependymal Cells play a critical role in ▪ glycine, taurine, choline, adenine,
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) homeostasis, brain adenosine
metabolism, and the clearance of waste ▪ catecholamines (epinephrine &
from the brain. norepinephrine)
 A CSF sample is obtained by a physician ▪ phenobarbital
usually via lumbar puncture in the L3-L4 ▪ Phenytoin
region.
Monro-Kellie Doctrine
 Substances that are RESTRICTED are:
→ the sum of volumes of brain, CSF, and
intracranial blood is constant. ▪ alanine, proline, & GABA
▪ glutamate
brain→bony skull→ no room for expansion →
▪ aspartate
increase in the bulk of the brain →compression
of the brain structures & blood supply→cerebral
ischemia→cerebral hypoxia→ necrosis (cerebral
infarction)→inflammation→cerebral The Spinal Cord
edema→ increased ICP
Note:
An ↑ in any one of the contents of the
cranium normally is accompanied by reciprocal
decrease inone of the other 2 components.
Normal CSF Values
 Pressure: 0-15mmHg
 Glucose: 50-80 mg/dl
 CHON: 20-50 mg/dl
Blood Brain Barrier
 includes the least permeable capillaries  Extends from the medulla oblongata to the
(Tight Junction) of the body which excludes region of T12
many potentially harmful substances  Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection
 three cellular elements of the brain of spinal nerves)
microvasculature compose the BBB:  Enlargements occur in the cervical and
1. endothelial cells lumbar regions
2. astrocyte end-feet Spinal Cord Anatomy
3. immune cells (perivascular  Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
macrophages & microglia)  Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
▪ Dorsal (posterior) horns
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.4
 ▪ Anterior (ventral) horns
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Meninges cover the spinal cord
 Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
▪ Dorsal root
→ Associated with the dorsal root ganglia
– collections of cell bodies outside the
central nervous system
 Ventral root
Peripheral Nervous System
 It is made up of nerves & ganglia outside
the CNS
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers or axons
 Neuron fibers are bundled by connective
tissue
Structure of a Nerve
 Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
 Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by
perineurium
 Fascicles are bound together by
epineurium
Classification of Nerves
 Mixed nerves:
→ are both sensory and motor fibers
 Afferent (sensory) nerves:
→ are nerves that carry impulses toward the
CNS
 Efferent (motor) nerves:
→ are nerves that carry impulses away from
the CNS
Cranial Nerves
→ 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the
head & neck
→ Numbered in order, front to back
→ Most are mixed nerves, but three are
sensory only
Distribution of Cranial Nerves
T he T welve C ranial Nerves
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.5
 T he R eflex Arc
 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary
responses to stimuli
 Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
Simple R eflex Arc

Summary of the F unctions of Cranial

Nerves

T ypes of R eflexes and R egulation

 Autonomic reflexes
▪ Smooth muscle regulation
▪ Heart & BP regulation
▪ Regulation of glands
▪ Digestive system regulation
 Somatic reflexes
▪ Activation of skeletal muscles
Spinal Nerves
 There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level
of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
 Spinal nerves are formed by the
combination of the ventral and dorsal roots
Mnemonics for the C ranial of the spinal cord
Nerves  Spinal nerves are named for the region
from which they arise
Anatomy of Spinal Nerves
 The spinal nerves divide soon after leaving
the spinal cord to become the:
1. Dorsal rami – serve the skin and muscles of
the posterior trunk
2. Ventral rami – forms a complex of networks
(plexus) for the anterior trunk

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.6

Autonomic Nervous System intestinal function, disinhibition of the
 The involuntary branch of the Efferent spinal reflexes& shaking.
(Motor) peripheral nervous system 2. Parasympathetic – “rest and digest” or the
 Consists of only motor nerves “feed and breed”
 It is divided into 2 divisions:
1. sympathetic division  focused on conserving energy &
2. parasympathetic division housekeeping activities
Differences Between Somatic and  Effects include: salivation, lacrimation,
urination, digestion, & defecation
Autonomic Nervous Systems
 Maintains usual body functions & releases
“acetylcholine” & sometimes
SOMATIC AUTONOMIC
Nerves ● one ● preganglionic “cholecystokinin”.
motor and T he Adrenergic R eceptors
neuron postganglioni 1. alpha receptors
c nerves
1.1 -1 receptors
Effector organs ● skeletal ● smooth 1.2 -2 receptors
muscle muscle, 2. beta receptors
cardiac 2.1 -1 receptors
muscle, and
2.2 -2 receptors
glands
Nerurotransmitters ● always ● use T he Alpha R eceptors
use acetylcholine
acetylchol , 1. α-1 receptors: α-1 receptors cause the ff:
ine epinephrine,
or
norepinephri  vasoconstriction of the blood vessels
ne supplying the skin, GIT, kidneys, brain,
ciliary body causing mydriasis.
 contraction of the following: ureters &
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division urethral sphincter, bronchioles, arrector pili,
 Originates from T1 through L2 vas deferens, & uterus when pregnant
 Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near  mydriasis (caused by vasoconstriction of
the spinal cord) blood vessels supplying the ciliary body);
 Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long decreased secretion of salivary
postganglionic neuron transmit impulse glands;relaxation of the urinary bladder
from CNS to the effector
 Norepinephrine and epinephrine are 2. α-2 receptors: α-2 receptors cause the ff:
neurotransmitters to the effector organs  inhibits the release of norepinephrine
 Originates from the brain stem and S1 &insulin;dilates the blood vessels
through S4 producing hypotension; stimulates the
 Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs release of glucagon;contracts the
 Always uses acetylcholine as a sphincters of the GIT;decreases the
neurotransmitter motility of the GIT & tone;negative
F unctions of the Autonomic Divisions feedback in the neuronal synapses
1. Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight” (presynaptic inhibition of noradrenaline
 body’s response to unusual stimulus & release in the CNS)
release a hormone called “epinephrine or
norepinephrine” T he Beta R eceptors
 remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, & embarrassment 1. �-1 receptors: the β-1 receptors cause
 Effects include: tachycardia, tachypnea, the ff:
skeletal muscle dilation, liberates glucose &  (+) chronotropic effect →tachycardia
fats into the skeletal muscles, mydriasis,
tunnel vision, inhibition of stomach & upper

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.7

 (+) dromotropic effect → increases
impulse conduction from the atrium to the
ventricles
 (+) inotropic effect →increase the
force or strength of the contraction
 ↑ renin secretion (from the
juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney)
which can lead to reabsorption on
water causing the BP to go up

2. �-2 receptors: the β-2 receptors cause

the ff:
 relaxation & dilation of the bronchi &
bronchioles;
 lipolysis in adipose tissue;
 anabolism in skeletal muscle;
 dilates arteries in the skeletal muscles
(causing an increase in bld flow);
 stimulates insulin secretion;
 glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis (causing
an increase in bld sugar);
 contracts sphincters in the GIT;
 relaxation of GI motility & uterus;
 inhibits release of histamine

T he Acetylcholine R eceptors
1. Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptors:
 bradycardia (↓in heart rate & conduction
velocity)facilitates the effects of the Vagus
nerve
2. Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptors:
 increase Na + & K+ permeability of
the body cells

Development Aspects of the Nervous

System
● The nervous system is formed during the
first month of embryonic development
● Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
● The hypothalamus is one of the last areas
of the brain to develop
● No more neurons are formed after birth,
but growth and maturation continues for
several years
● The brain reaches maximum weight as a
young adult

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.8