Water and wastewater Quality Management and modelling ) by: Girma Tufa

Email:girmatufa2014@gmail.com
 WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION
➢Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and contains number of
impurities in varying amounts
❖ Introduction of Wastewater to water body
❖ Seepage of leaching from waste disposal area to groundwater body
❖ Allowing of surface runoff to waterbody
❖ Wind blowing
❖ Washing of agricultural waste to waterbodies..
➢The rainwater, which is originally pure, also absorbs various
gases, dust and other impurities while falling, when moves on
the ground further carries salt, organic and inorganic
impurities(contaminants)
✓ Mobile sources – such as cars, buses ,etc.…
✓ Stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries,
industrial facilities, and factories.
✓ Area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood
burning fireplaces.
✓ Natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and
volcanoes
Such pollutants are:
❖ Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5)
❖ Ozone (O3)
❖ Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
❖ Carbon monoxide (CO) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
❖ Particulate matter is a term that describes extremely small solid particles and
liquid droplets suspended in air, and it can be made up of a variety of
components including nitrates, sulfates, organic chemicals, metals, soil or dust
particles,…
❖ Particle pollution mainly comes from
✓ motor vehicles, wood burning heaters and industry.
❑PM10 (particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less): these particles are
small enough to pass through the throat ,nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled,
these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects.
❑PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less): these particles are
so small they can get deep into the lungs and into the bloodstream.
So water before supplying to the public should be treated and purified for:-
▪ The safety of public health
▪ Economy (health care cost)
▪ Protection of various industrial process
The water supplied to the public should be strictly according to the standards laid
down, i.e. National and Internationals standards (Ethiopian Water quality
Standard and WHO)
➢ An assessment of the aquatic macroinvertebrates can also provide an indication
of water quality.
➢ Water quality is determined according to purpose of use (drinking, agriculture
or industrial)
STANDARDS PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY FOR DRINKING PURPOSE
Parameters Ethiopian Standard

PH (6.5-8.5)
Turbidity(NTU) <5
TDS(mg/l) <1000
EC (µs/cm) 400-1200
Nitrate(mg/l) 50
Nitrite(mg/l) 3
Fluoride(mg/l) 1.5
Total Hardness(mg/l as <300
Caco3)
Iron(mg/l) <0.3
Alkalinity(mg/l) 200
Manganese(mg/l) 0.5
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Following are the main sources of water pollution
Domestic sewage:
➢ If domestic sewage is not properly managed after it is produced or if the
effluent received at the end of sewage treatment is not of adequate standard,
there are chances of water pollution.
➢ The indiscriminate way of handling domestic sewage may lead to the
pollution of under ground sources of water supply such, as wells.
➢ Similarly if sewage or partly treated sewage is directly discharged into
surface waters such as rivers, the waters of such rivers get contaminated.
Industrial wastes:
➢ If industrial wastes are thrown into water bodies without proper treatments,
they are likely to pollute the watercourses.
➢ The industrial wastes may carry harmful substances such as grease, oil,
explosives, highly odorous substances, etc.
Catchment area:
➢ Depending upon the characteristics of catchment area, water passing such area
will be accordingly contained.
➢ The advances made in agricultural activities and extensive use of fertilizers
and insecticides are main factors, which may cause serious pollution of surface
waters
Distribution system:
➢ The water is delivered to the consumers through a distribution of pipes which
are laid underground.
➢ If there are cracks in pipes or if joints are leaky, the following water gets
contaminated by the surrounding substances around the pipes
Oily wastes:
➢ The discharge of oily wastes from ships and tankers using oil as fuel may lead
to pollution
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
➢ For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories
1.Physical Characteristics
➢ Physical characteristics of water (temperature, color, taste, odor and etc.) are
determined by senses of touch, sight, smell and taste.
➢ For example temperature by touch, color, floating debris, turbidity and
suspended solids by sight, and taste and odor by smell
Physical characteristics include:
✓ Solids
✓ Turbidity
✓ Color and taste
✓ Odor
✓ Temperature
✓ Foam
➢ Solids
Solids may be present in suspended and /or in solution (Dissolved)
Suspended solids (SS):- are discrete particles which can measured by filtering a
sample through a fine paper(Sieve)
Dissolved solids (DS):- are due to soluble materials measured by evaporating
a filtered sample of water and weighting the remainder.
Total solids (TS) = SS+DS
Note: it can be easily measured within portable EC/TDS Meter
According to National and International standards the drinking water TDS, less
than 600mg/l is generally considered to be good, and greater than 1000mg/l has
become unpalatable water.
Turbidity:
➢ Water turbidity is defined as the measure of water clarity, the amount of light
scattered or blocked by suspended and Colloidal particles (particles of soils,
fine organic and inorganic matters, metals, algae, and microscopic organism )
that make water appears cloudy or dark that decreases the aesthetic quality of
water
➢ Transparency of natural water bodies is affected by human activity, decaying
plant matter, algal blooms, suspended sediments, and plant nutrients.
➢ Nephelometer Turbidity Units (NTU): Different standard unit of turbidity
➢ The suspended solids may be dead algae or other organisms.
➢ It is generally silt, clay ,rock fragments and metal oxides from soil
➢ The turbidity of the water was measured in the laboratory using a turbidity
meter (HACH 2100Q) by following steps:
➢ First, within the HACH turbidity standards, calibrate (adjust) the instrument
for 0.01, 20, 200, 1000, 4000, and 7500 NTU (Nephelometry turbidity unit ).
➢ After that, measure the turbidity of the water sample as follows:
➢ The turbidity meter (HACH 2100AN) was switched on, add water sample in
10ml, insert into the instrument, the turbidity values display in NTU, the value
is record. Turbidity Meter Calibrators
The allowable drinking water turbidity set by WHO and national standard
(Ethiopian water quality standard) was less than 5NTU.
Tastes And Odor:
➢ Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during
human use may consequence visible taste and odor
➢ Substances that produce an odor in water will almost in variably convey a
taste as well (from industry, agricultural area, from community sanitation)
➢ These include minerals, metals, and salts from the soil, and products from
biological reactions, and constituents of wastewater. .
➢ Alkaline material imports a bitter taste to water, while metallic salts may give
salty or bitter taste
➢ Organic material, is likely to produce both taste and odor.
➢ Biological decomposition of organics may also result in taste-and odor
producing liquids and gases in water
➢ Algae can produce sever taste and odor problems
➢ Because water is should have to be tasteless and odorless for consumers
Temperature
➢ The temperature of surface waters governs to a large extent the biological
species present and their of activity.
➢ Temperature affects a number of water quality parameters Such as dissolved
oxygen which is a chemical characteristic.
➢ Total coliform bacteria are a big collection of different bacteria and are found in
environment (soil, and vegetation) growth at the temperature of 37.5 oc
➢ Fecal coliform is the group of bacterial that found in intestines and feces of
humans and animals grow at the temperature of 44.5Oc
➢ The recommend temperature of drinking water is (16-25)Oc
Foam(lathers or bubbles):
➢ Foam form various industrial waste contributions and detergents(soaps,
shampoo, and others cleaners ) is primarily unpleasant from the aesthetic
viewpoint.
Electrical Conductivity
➢ Water can passage electricity like metals for the reason that the presence of
liquified salt that originated from (rocks, and soil) in water, it is approximately
proportional to the TDS content.
➢ Conductivity (µs/m)*(0.6-0.8) =TDS (mg/1)
➢ Conductivity therefore used to determine the concentrations of dissolved salt
The EC was measure using a Portable /mobile EC/TDS (CO150) meter as
follow: The meter was activated;
➢ The EC parameter was selected from the instrument by pressing the
SET/HOLD button
➢ The display a list of parameters, with EC selected from the list by µs/cm
➢ The sensor should have to be clean with distilled water before the test begin
➢ Insert the sensor into the water sample, then the value of EC is automatically
display on the machine within µs/cm
Chemical Characteristics
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen is present in variable quantities water.
➢ Its content in surface waters is dependent upon the amount and character of
the unbalanced organic matter in the water.
➢ Clean surface waters are normally saturated with DO.
➢ The higher the temperature, the smaller will be the DO.

➢ Oxygen saturated waters have pleasant taste and waters lacking

in DO have an uninteresting tastes.
➢ It measured within spectrophotometer.
➢ Alkalinity
➢ Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water
➢ The aggregate measure of the sum of all bases in water due to the presence of
carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide anion in the water while flows through the
geology(rocks, soil, and salts) contact with some industrial waste discharge
➢ Increasing alkalinity(basic) in drinking water causes unwanted test, dry skin,
and also scaling in pipe and fixtures, the lower level of alkalinity(acidic)
cause pipe corrosive, and irritating eye
➢ According to the national standard (ES), the Alkalinity of drinking water
should have to be within the range of (20-200)mg/l
➢ Alkalinity in water samples is determined in the laboratory using the Titration
method following HACH Standards.
➢ To begin, the titration unit, (Phenolphthalein indicator powder pillow HACH),
(0.02N sulfuric acid standard solution), Bromocresol green methyl red solution
(HACH), Erlenmeyer flask, Graduated Cylinder, Hand glove, and waste
container should be prepare
➢ Second, a 50ml water sample was collected in the graduated cylinder (Pipet)
and transferred to a 250ml Erlenmeyer flask.
➢ The water sample was then pipetted with six drops of Bromocresol green
methyl red solution, thoroughly mixed, and titrated against a 0.02N Sulfuric
acid standard solution until the color changed from green to pink.
➢ Finally, the total hardness was used to calculate sample concentration.
Phenolphthalein
indicator powder
pillow

Titration
Erlenmeyer flask

Graduated Cylinder
➢ PH of the water
➢ The PH of the water is the measure of the acid-base balance, in most natural
water is controlled by the carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, and carbonate
balance of the system
➢ An increased carbon dioxide concentration will decrease PH and decrease
carbon dioxide results will increase PH.
➢ The PH of most drinking water lies within 6.5-8.5
➢ Natural water can be lower PH as a result of acid rain(cause pipe corrosion)
and higher PH in limestone areas
➢ The PH is measure using a portable PH-meter Hanna instrument (HI 9124)
following procedure :
➢ The PH meter was turned on and the sensor of the PH-meter should have to
be clean within distilled water before testing the sample water.
➢ The PH sensor is put/submerge into the beaker within the water sample, and
the PH value of the water sample is automatically display on the PH-meter
Nitrite(No2) and Nitrate(No3) of water
Nitrate ion is originated from
➢ Agriculture fertilizer
➢ From wastewater
➢ From oxidation of nitrogenous waste product(the waste that contain nitrogen)
in humans and animals excrete .
Nitrite is formed chemically in the distribution system pipe by Nitrosomonas
bacteria during the stagnation nitrate-containing and oxygen-poor drinking water
in the pipe water distribution
➢ The permissible limit for (Nitrate and Nitrite) of drinking water should have to
be below 50mg/l and 3mg/l respectively to protect methemoglobinemia
problems
➢ The concentrations of nitrate and nitrite are measure in the laboratory using a
spectrophotometer as follow:
✓ Reagent (HACH NitraVer5 nitrate reagent powder pillow),
✓ two 25ml sample cells for photometer,
✓ Spectrometric (DR 5000 HACH),
✓ Pipettes, gloves, and a waste container should be ready.
❖ The spectrophotometer (DR5000) is started, calibration automatically and
nitrate is select from the instrument program
❖ The cleaned cell is then fill with a 25ml water sample and the other with 25ml
deionized water using pipettes.
❖ Finally, the NitraVer5 Nitrate reagent contents are add to both cells (sample
and deionized) and the mixture is thoroughly shake.
❖ The blank cell is then close and place in the cell holder, and the 'ZERO' button
on the instrument is press, resulting in the zeroing (0 mg/l Nitrate) being
display on the display.
❖ Finally, the dissolved pillow and the cell within the sample is place into the
cell holder and close, and the nitrate concentration in mg/l was automatically
measured by the instrument
❖ The nitrate concentration was measured using the same procedures, with the
exception that the NitraVer5 Nitrate reagent was replaced with the NitriVer3
Nitrite reagent
NitraVer5 nitrate reagent powder pillow

Sample cells photometer

Pipettes

NitriVer5 Nitrite reagent

Hardness:
➢ The hardness of water is due to the presence of soluble bicarbonates, chlorides
and sulfates of calcium and magnesium.
➢ Water which does not give lather with soap is hard water.
➢ Formed when penetrates through deposits of limestone, and chalk which is
chiefly made up of magnesium and calcium carbonate.
➢ Calcium is dissolved in water as it passes through limestone deposits
➢ Magnesium is dissolved with water as the water passes through dolomite
and other magnesium bearing formation
➢ Hardness caused by calcium and magnesium (calcium and magnesium is
usually indicated by precipitation of soap scum(foam) and need of excess soap
to achieve the cleaning
➢ Cause scale deposition in the treatment works, distribution system, pipe
network.
➢ According to the National Standard (ES), the maximum permissible total
hardness for drinking water should have to be less than 300mg/l
➢ The total hardness of a water sample was determined in the laboratory using
the Titration method
The hardness compounds are divided in to temporary and permanent:
1. Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)
✓ Calcium bicarbonate (Ca (HCO3) 2)
✓ Magnesium bicarbonate (Mg (HCO3) 2)
2. Permanent hardness’ (non- carbonate hardness)
✓ Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
✓ Magnesium chloride (MgSo4)
✓ Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
✓ Magnesium chloride (Mg cl2)
 ➢ A generally accepted classification of hardness is as follows:

Fluoride:
➢ It is generally associated with a few types of sedimentary or igneous rocks;
fluoride is hardly found in surface waters and appears in ground water in only
few geographical regions.
➢ Is toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities, while small
concentrations can beneficial
➢ Concentrations of approximately 1.0 mg/1 in drinking water help to prevent
dental cavities(cracks) in children
➢ During formation of permanent teeth, fluoride combines chemically with
tooth surface, resulting in harder, stronger teeth that are more resistant to
decay.
➢ Fluoride is often added to drinking water supplies if quantities for good
dental formation are not naturally present.
➢ Excessive intakes of fluoride can result in discoloration (yellowing )of
teeth.
➢ Visible discoloration, called mottling, is relatively common when fluoride
concentrations in drinking water exceed 2.0 mg/1, but is rare when
concentration is less that 1.5 mg/1
➢ Excessive concentrations of grater than 5 mg/1 in drinking water can also
result in bone fluorosis and other skeletal abnormalities
The fluoride concentration in a water sample was determined in the laboratory
using a spectrophotometer (HACH DR 5000) with the following procedures:
➢ Preparation of reagent (SPADNS reagent),
➢ Two 10ml sample cells for photometer,
➢ Photo spectrometric (DR 5000 HACH),
➢ Pipettes,
➢ Gloves, etc..
❖The spectrophotometric(DR5000) is start, calibrate automatically
❖Fluoride is select from the instrument program
❖The clean cell is then fill with 10ml of water sample and the other with 10ml of
deionized water using pipettes
❖2ml SPADNS reagent is add to both cells (sample and deionized) and properly
shake for the mixture.
❖ The blank cell is then place in the cell holder and close, and the
instrument's ZERO' button is press, resulting in the display zeroing (0
mg/l F)
❖ Finally, the sample containing SPADNS reagent is place in the cell
holder and close
❖ The fluoride concentration in mg/l is automatically measured by the
instrument. Spectrometric (DR 5000 HACH)

sample cells for photometer Pipettes

SPADNS reagent
Biological Characteristics
➢ Water polluted by pathogenic micro- organisms may penetrate into private and
public water supplies either before or after treatment.
➢ Testing the biological characteristics of drinking water is the most important to
avoid disease-causing- organism in drinking water
➢ Water born-disease such as typhoid fever, paratyphoid, dysentery, infectious
hepatitis, and cholera are distributed to water supply from all feces of warm-
blooded humans and animals, the environment through break down of water
supply safety (sources, distribution pipe, and treatment)
➢ Total coliform bacteria are a big collection of different bacteria and are found
in environment (soil, and vegetation) growth at the temperature of 37.5 oc
➢ Fecal coliform is the group of bacterial that found in intestines and feces of
humans and animals grow at the temperature of 44.5 oc
➢ Total coliform and fecal coliform should have not to be detected in drinking
water (should have to be Nil) .
Methods for Biological water quality test
➢ Biological water quality is determined within membrane filtration method as
follow:
❖ Water samples is collect from representative locations (sources, reservoirs, and
customer taps) using the following procedures
❖ Water is run from the sampling point for 2-3 minutes to flush the system, and
adjust the flow
❖ The sample bottle is open, rinse with the water to be sample before taking the
sample, and slowly fill by allowing the sample to gently flow down inside the
bottle
❖ Covered, labeled, and placed in an ice-filled cooler before being shipped to the
laboratory
Then prepare the following materials
✓ Nutrition soup (used to grow the target organism)
✓ Incubators
✓ Absorbent pad
✓ Petri dish
✓ Forceps ,membrane filters
✓ And the pump were then set up in the laboratory for testing
➢ After all of the membrane filter apparatus had been adjusted, the biological
contamination is measure as follows:
❖ The absorbent pad is place in a Petri dish, the pad is saturate with nutrition
(Broth)
❖ A sample of water is filter through a membrane filter (Vacuum pump)
❖ Take the membrane filter by forceps, and placed on the saturated pad
❖ he filter was incubated within 24 hours at 37°C for total coliform and 44°C for
fecal coliform and count the colon of the bacteria from membrane filter
 Forceps
Target organism
membrane filter

Incubators

Water samples
Membrane filter apparatus

Petri dish
Finally the bacteriological results is reported as this picture
Others Parameters that pollute water quality
Pesticides.
Pesticides includes
➢ Insecticides
➢ Fungicides
➢ Herbicides an algicides
Common pesticides include:
Insecticides
Chlorinated hydrocarbons: aldrin, chloridane, DDT compounds
dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, methoxychlor, lindane. Toxaphene,
hexachlorohexane (HCH)
Organophosphates: diazinon, malathion, parathion
They are stable in the environment and, like heavy metals, accumulate in the
food chains of the ecosystem
Herbicides
•Carbamate: carbyl
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons; 2, 4-D, 1,3,5-T, Sllvex
Fungicides: copper sulphate, ferbam, ziram
Algicides: mainly copper compounds
Radioactivity
➢ Common radioactive elements include iodine-131, strontium-90 cesium-
137, and radium-226.
➢ Natural water may contain low level radioactivity, especially those
originating from deep underground
➢ Human cause comes from the nuclear power industry, the use of
radioactive isotopes in medicine and industry, and nuclear weapon
tests
Radioactive contamination sources
➢ Mining and testing of radioactive materials
➢ Nuclear power stations
➢ Nuclear weapons as well as medical diagnostics and treatment
procedures
2.Water Quality Survey within catchment assessment and Smart Technology
Water Quality Survey from Community perception
2.Water Quality Survey
What is Water Quality Survey mean?
❖Water Quality survey: is a process of gathering information within questions sent out,
often through an online and offline survey, to residents within a specific location
relating with water quality problems

❖The goal is to understand residents’ fears, attitudes, opinions, experiences, and needs

❖A successful survey provides helpful perceptions into what the public wants regarding
issues with water quality (waterborne diseases, pollution sources, etc.).

❖ Surveys process provide information on the cultural makeup of the community, its
local languages,cultures, and even lifestyles.(Did not conflict within community acceptance)
Who Should Conduct WQ Surveys?
The groups that may use a WQ survey include:
1.Local government offices.
❖Governing bodies and public services depend on surveys to understand the needs of residents so they can
come up with policies accordingly.
❖These surveys help them understand people’s importance(status) and allocate budgets.
2.Nonprofits.
❖These organizations may use surveys to gain an understanding of people’s first choice regarding the
issues they wish to support and how they want to extend their support. i.e. WQ
3.Local businesses
❖Local businesses may use a community survey as a market research tool, gathering information about
how locals feel about their products or services in order to make improvements, modify their products to
specific needs, or expand their offerings. i.e. .Chemicals, indicators, Laboratory Equipment's…..
Procedures for Conducting Surveys
❖When conducting survey a problem, you want to gather high-quality, useful data.
You must take below steps to get there.
1.Outline Your Goals
❖What are you hoping to achieve with your survey? Do you want to gather
information on residents’ experiences, or are you looking for understandings into
their points of view on a particular issue?
❖Outlining the main purpose of your survey will give you direction and help you
streamline the rest of the data collection process.
 2. Set Benchmarks(standards)
❖ A benchmark is a standard or point of reference people can use to measure
something new.
❖ You may want to consider how many people need to respond to your survey to
make it representative of the population at large.
✓ Sample Size
❖ So, by setting a benchmark, you’ll know whether your survey was a success
when it concludes.
❖ For example if the total numbers of households in one town is10000HHs ,and
your sample size that you can afford 5% of total households,500HHs is one of
the process of survey Benchmarks
 Cont.…
3.Choose Your Target Community.
❖Are you conducting a area/population-wide survey, or are you looking at a
specific audience?
❖For example, if you’re surveying about the water quality problems at school
system, you may only want to send your survey to families with school-age
children.
❖You’ll want to think carefully about this; in this example, you may still want to
include everyone, as some people who do not yet have children but plan to may
have very understanding thoughts on the Water quality problems in the
✓Random sampling techniques
✓Systematic
Example –if the total of sampled HHs in steps two(500HHs),then you have to be
contact each of them within their names (HH1-Said ,HH2-chala….)
 Cont.…
4.Consider Your Survey Questions Carefully
❖Next, you’ll want to write down all the questions that are necessary to get the
insights you need.

❖Your survey questions should be clear and direct, so it’s often best to choose
closed-ended questions like multi-choice questions, ratings(ranking), and Likert
scale questions( strongly agree , agree, disagree ,strongly disagree…)
❖Create non-biased questions and always provide good, bad, and neutral choices
❖Provide a good range of answers for multiple-choice questions, not just two
options. for example,
✓ using Highly satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied, highly dissatisfied
 Cont.…
5.Create a Shareable Mission Statement
❖You know why you’re conducting the survey, but will respondents?
❖People are chewed for time these days, and many may not take the time to complete a survey
unless they understand the intent.
❖By letting them know how the survey will benefit them, they’re more likely to take the time to
respond.
❖A clear mission, and respondent benefits, will also allow you to forgo incentivizing the survey.
❖After all, people will be interested if they know they stand to gain something by responding.
 Cont..
6.Test Your Survey
❖Now you’re ready! Before you send your surveyors to the study area, test it
internally.
❖This will help to check anything you may have missed, such as:
✓Errors and grammatical errors
✓Unclear phrasing
✓Overly complex questions
7.Choose Your Survey Method
❖Will you send someone door to door
❖Take to the phone?
❖Mail your survey directly to households?
❖Conduct it online?
 Cont.….
8. Analyze the Responses
9. Take Action
❖Now that you’ve collected insightful responses, it’s time to take action.
❖Whether this means creating new policies, putting new projects to a vote, or taking immediate
action on a common problem, etc..
Example of Shareable Mission Statement

My name is …….and I’m studying on the behalf of drinking water

Quality among the community of ….town, ……..District, …..Zone,
2022/2023 by the permission of …………..The study aims to gain
knowledge about Water quality and its related issues, as part of the
questions I would like to see your response on the ideas of water quality
issues , and in addition to the question I ask, I will take notes about the
reflections of your ideas. Your household has been chosen for the
interview and the interview will take some minutes.
Would you agree to participate in the interview?

1. Yes (ask the question below) 2.No (reject)

II. Personal information
Q2. What is your name? _________________________________________
Q3. Sex? 1. Male 2. Female
Q4. How old are you? 1. Under 14-year 2.15-40-year 3.41-65 year
4. Above 66 years
Q. What is your education level? 1. Above degree 2. Degree 3. Diploma 4.
Preparatory school 5. High school 6. elementary school 7. Uneducated
Q. What is your Kebele (Ganda)? _______________________________?
Q.what is your marital status?
1. Single 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed
Attitudes toward water quality
Q. How did you visualize the quality of your drinking water services now (muddy, sediment,
etc.)? 1.Good 2. Medium 3. Poor 4. I don’t know
Catchment Water Quality Assessment
❖ A water catchment (commonly referred to as a “watershed”) is an area of land
where all water flows to a single stream, river, lake or even ocean
❖ Catchment areas are locations in low lying regions in which water from higher
areas collect into a single water body
❖ Pollution from higher regions usually ends up in drainage basins(water
catchment ),which reduces the quality of water
❖ Sediment from soil erosion, usually accelerated by human activities, are
generally highly concentrated in catchment basins, which makes the water
unsuitable for drinking
❖ Some of the most significant pollutants include farm chemicals, such as
fertilizers, that increase nutrients in the water
❖ This increase in nutrients causes rapid growth in water plants that reduce the
amount of oxygen available to other aquatic life.
❖ Toxic waste from factories and sewage is also continuously dumped into river
basins contaminating the water supply and exposing people to waterborne
diseases.
 Conservation Of Water Catchment Areas
✓ Governments all over the world have established multiple
agencies(organization),to manage the vital resource.
✓ Such agencies develop regulations to ensure that catchment areas are
appropriately maintained, including the creation of buffer zones(safeguard)
between human activity and water catchment areas to reduce pollution from
human activities.
✓ The agencies also encourage planting more trees to reduce the rate of soil
erosion and the amount of sediment in the basins.
Managing our catchments requires us to understand a range of information –
❖ How the water flows from where it falls to the catchment
❖ How people use the land and water bodies.
❖ To understand possible sources of pollution, including urban waste water
treatment plants, septic tanks, and runoff from farming, forestry and landfills.
The Data Collected during Surveying Water Quality at Catchment Area
❖ Location of the stream's, and where it flows
❖ The population in the watershed, and the communities through which it flows
❖ Roles of various rules in managing the stream and watershed
❖ Land uses in the stream's watershed
❖ Industries and others that discharge to the stream
❖ Gathering the best available information to understand the catchment – where
the water comes from, and what activities in the catchment may be causing
pollution.
❖ Engaging communities and involving them in decision making and
management of their catchment
 Water Quality Sampling Techniques

❖ Checking the water quality of the Nation's streams, rivers, and lakes is one of
the main responsibilities of all countries to protect the health of the community
❖ There are different methods and equipment when taking a sample of water from
a stream—
Sampling a small stream
❖ For a small stream, it is possible to take a single "grab sample", just dips a
bottle in the stream at one location, still trying to move the bottle up and down
to sample the entire vertical column of water.
❖ Quite often it is important to take a water sample that represents the stream as a
whole
Sampling a larger river
❖ It takes a lot more work to get a water sample from a larger river.
❖ There may be a tributary(branch) coming in from the left side above the
sampling point or there may a wastewater treatment outflow pipe a mile
upstream on the right bank
❖ To understand the water properties of the whole river it is necessary to obtain
individual samples at set increments across the river.
❖ Bridges make this task very convenient, although samples can be taken using
a boat, if no bridge is available.
❖ If the water is moving fast or if the depth is too deep, then a crane with an
electric motor is used to obtain the water sample .
❖ It is too dangerous (due to high flows or floating debris) to use a boat for
sampling.
❖ In these cases, a cable can be pass through across the river, and sample and
measure the river as needed.
Sampling size selection for Physio-chemical and biological water quality
analysis from Community Water Distribution Line .
❖ Before analyzing the water quality of the water sample of the study area
sampling analysis plan is prepare (sampling location)
✓ Representative points like customers taps
✓ Sources
✓ And reservoir, i.e.
❖ Next, the laboratory should be checked before sample collection to ensure that
✓ sampling pieces of equipment
✓ preservatives
✓ procedures of sample collection
✓ instruments used for water quality parameters measurement,
✓ other reagents, and solutions
❖ Then a sample of water is collect from representative points (Sources,
Reservoir, and customers taps) within the following procedures:
✓ First, water run from the point of sampling for 2-3 minutes to stabilize the
temperature of the water, flushing, and adjust of the flow.
✓ Secondly, the sample bottle is open, rinse with the water to be sample
before the sample is take, and fill slowly, cover, label, and place the
sample in the cooler with ice, and is ship to the laboratory
❖ Regarding the sample size recommend that
✓ For the households(Customers) less than 100, 10-20% customers are used
as the sample size for water quality analysis,
✓ For the customer's greater than 100,5-10 % Households(customers) are
taken as sample
❖ Example----Total sample (364) ,5% total sample is taken as a representative
sample since the numbers of households(customers) was greater than 100, such
as 19 samples from customers taps.
❖ In addition to customers taps, two samples from storage (service reservoir), and
three samples from sources(boreholes), in total 24 samples

Types of sources Amount Annotations

Customers taps 19 Represented by HHT

Sources 3 S-1 to S-3

Reservoirs 2 R-1 to R-2

Total samples 24 Together with sources and reservoirs

Surveying Water quality within Water Quality Information System
❖ Nowadays Internet of Things (IoT) and Remote Sensing (RS) techniques are
used in different area collecting and analysis data from remote locations.
❖ Due to the vast increase in global industrial output, rural to urban drift and the
over-utilization of land and sea resources, the quality of water available to
people has declined greatly.
❖ The high use of fertilizers in farms and also other chemicals in sectors such as
mining and construction have contributed immensely to the overall reduction
of water quality globally .
❖ The internet of Things (IoT) is a innovatory new concept that has the potential
to turn essentially anything “SMART”.
❖ It is the machines function without any perception of human interaction.
❖ A future where machines communicate with -other machines and make
decisions based on the data collected and all independent of an end user.
❖ The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical objects that are fitted with
sensors, software and other technologies.
❖ Connected to the Internet, these ‘things’ are able to exchange real time data with
other connected devices and systems over networks
❖ These connected devices combine with automated systems to gather data that
can be analyzed.

Specific, Measurable, Achievable(possible), Realistic(True), Time-bound

3.WATER QUALITY MODELING
❖ A model is an useful representation of an object, person or system
❖ Modelling is the process of creating a simplified representation of a system,
situation or process.
❖ It is a tool used across various fields to help understand complex systems
and make better decisions
❖ A model is a simplified representation of the real world
Why modeling?
❖ It helps inform both decisions and policies.
❖ Improve the understanding of natural systems and how they react to
changing conditions, such as introduction to hazardous substances and the
temporal and dose effects from the introduction
❖ Predict future environmental concentrations of pollutants under various waste
loadings and/or management alternatives.
❖ Satisfying regulatory and legal requirements relating to environmental
emissions, discharges, transfers, and releases of controlled pollutants
Conceptual model
❖ A mental picture of the system processes (e.g. Maps of places, ideas,
relationships; Flow charts, graphs; Hypotheses, theories)
When should the conceptual models be used?
As an initial step:
❖ For hypothesis(guess, assumption )testing
❖ For mathematical model development
❖ As a framework(outline) – For future monitoring(checking), research, and
management actions at a site
Conceptual Model, Example

Increased nutrient loading

+ + + Macrophytes
Primary productivity
+
Algal biomass
+ Fish cover
- +
-
Transparency - green algae
% blue Mean zooplankton
+
-
Grazing impact size

+ +
Sedimentation rate Zooplankton refuges
+
Hypolimnetic oxygen depletion
 Mathematical model
❖ Mathematical equations that translate a conceptual understanding of a system or
process into quantitative terms
❖ The most common modeling tool ==> various levels from very simple algebraic
models to lumped parameter models
❖Models and relationships among variables
Y = f (X1, X2, …, Xn)
✓ Independent variables Xi (e.g. cause, stimulus, forcing functions)
✓ Dependent variable Y (e.g. effect, response, state variables)
Diagnosis:(e.g., what is the cause of reduced water clarity in a lake?)
Prediction:(e.g., how long will it take for lake water quality to improve, once
controls are in place?)
Categories of Mathematical Models
Type

Empirical Mechanistic
Based on data analysis Mathematical descriptions based on theory

Time Factor

Static or steady-state Dynamic

Time-independent Describe or predict system behavior over time

Treatment of Data Uncertainty(Doubt) and Variability

Deterministic Stochastic
Do not address data variability(Depends on Numbers) Address variability/ uncertainty
(Depends on Chart, graphs…)
 Empirical vs Mechanistic?
Empirical model: based on statistical relationships between parameters of interest
and other variables
Mechanistic models :are based on the fundamental laws of natural sciences,
including physical and biochemical principles.
Less experimental data is needed to calibrate the model and determine unknown
model parameters, such as adsorption coefficients, diffusivity, or material properties
Eg: law of conservation of mass
❖ The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an enclosed system is
neither created nor destroyed by a chemical reaction.
❖ Thus, in a chemical reaction, the mass of the reactants must be equal to the mass
of the products.
ρ1A1v1=ρ2A2v2
ρ=fluid density , A=cross-sectional area ,v= fluid velocity
Antoine Lavoisier proposed the law of conservation of mass.
❖ This law states that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is
always equal to the total mass of the reactants; and atoms are neither created nor
destroyed, but rearranged to form new substances.
Law of Conservation of Energy
❖ The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed.
❖ It can only be transformed from one form to another. Hence, the total energy of
an isolated system never change
Static vs. Dynamic?
Static models -do not depend on time.
Dynamic models -predict how state variables change with time
Deterministic vs. Stochastic?
Deterministic: each component and input is determined exactly by
mathematical equations
Stochastic: A mathematical model which contains random (stochastic)
components or inputs model output variables are known only in terms of
probability distributions
Stochastic
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚−2
Example of Non-
Stead state
Hypereutrophic