EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION

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Group Technology for Enhancing the Efficiency of

Engineering Activities

REUVEN R. LEVARY

To cite this article: REUVEN R. LEVARY (1993) Group Technology for Enhancing the Efficiency of
Engineering Activities, EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION, 18:3, 277-283, DOI:
10.1080/03043799308923245

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03043799308923245

Published online: 29 Oct 2007.

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European Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 18, No.3, 1993 277

Group Technology for Enhancing the Efficiency of

Engineering Activities

REUVEN R. LEVARY

SUMMARY The concept ofgroup technology is presented. Irs advantages as well as some of irs
many applications to manufacturing are described. Group technology's role in enabling
manufacturers to organize facilities as cellular manufacturing units is also described. The role
of group technology in engineering education is emphasized. Remarks on implementation of
group technology programs are included.

1. Introduction to Group Technology

Today's market-place is characterized by both a high level of global competitiveness

and a large volume of information. Engineers working in such an environment must be
familiar with techniques for improving the efficiency of performing design and other
engineering-related functions. Furthermore, engineers who deal frequently with com-
puter-aided technologies (e.g. computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided
engineering (CAE)) must be familiar with effective techniques of data labeling. Data
that are effectively labeled contribute to the efficiency' of engineers interacting with
computerized databases by:
• eliminating or reducing duplication of data,
• easing the retrieval of data by attributes,
• automating the copying of data from one file to another,
• making it easier to automate the integration of various engineering functions.
Implementation of the group technology (GT) concept can improve the efficiency of
engineering functions as well as the efficiency of interacting with computerized data-
bases.
Group technology is a concept of grouping parts, resources or data according to
similar characteristics. The objective of GT is to improve efficiency by eliminating
duplications of activities, resources and data. Furthermore, a GT database can enhance
the effectiveness of information systems. For example, by grouping parts according to
similarities in geometry, design features, manufacturing features, materials used and/or
tooling requirements, manufacturing efficiency can be enhanced and productivity
increased. Manufacturing efficiency is enhanced by:
• performing similar activities at the same work center so that set-up time can be
reduced,
• avoiding duplication of effort both in the design and manufacture of parts,
• avoiding duplication of tools,
• automating information on storage and retrieval.
278 R. R. Levary

A B

C D

FIG. 1. Partitioning of a universe of parts into part families.

Effective implementation of the GT concept necessitates the use of a classification and

coding system. Such a system codes the various attributes that identify similarities
among parts, resources or data. Each part, resource or datum is assigned a number or
alpha-numeric code that uniquely identifies the attributes or characteristics of each
part, resource or datum. For example, a part's code must include both design and
manufacturing attributes. Examples of design attributes include external shape, internal
shape, dimensions, types of raw materials, weight, surface finish and tolerance require-
ments. Examples of manufacturing attributes include type of machine tools needed,
type of tools, jigs and fixtures needed, part dimensions, part demand, sequence of
production operations, requirements for special processes like chemical treatment,
surface finish and tolerance requirements. It should be noted that certain attributes like
surface finish and tolerance requirements characterize both the design and manufacture
of a part.
A classification and coding system must provide an effective way of grouping parts,
resources or data into families. All parts, resources or data in a given. family must
have some similar characteristics. For example, all parts in a given part family are
similar in some aspect of part design, manufacture or recycling. All resources in
a given resource family are similar in some aspect of procurement, transportation,
usage, storage or hazard. All data in a given datum family are similar with regard to
confidentiality, aspects of application and/or the type of analysis for which the
data are used. A part, resource or datum may belong to more than one family as shown
in Fig. 1. For example, family X that is shown in the figure has parts belonging to
families A, Band D. All parts in family X, however, have one or more similar
characteristics.
The code of a part, resource or datum is typically composed of a large number of
characters that allow for identification of all pertinent attributes. The larger the number
of attributes included in a code, the more difficult the establishment of standard
procedures for classifying and coding. While numerous methods of classification
and coding have been developed, none has emerged as the standard method. Because
different organizations have different requirements regarding the type and com-
position of codes, customized methods of classification and coding are generally
required. Some of the better known classification and coding methods are listed by
Groover [1].
 Group Technology 279

The following formats are often used to capture information regarding the attributes
in a code:

• fixed
• indirect
• hybrid.
In a fixed format code, the particular location of each alpha-numeric character records
information regarding a given attribute. For example, the first alpha-numeric character
may record the type of material used in the manufacturing of a part while the second
records the part's external shape, and the third records the part's internal shape and so
on. This coding format is relatively easy to implement. It may, however, require that
codes have a large number of characters.
An indirect format records substantially more information for the same number of
characters than a fixed format because the interpretation of each character in an
indirect format code relies on information recorded in a previous character. Consider,
for example, a two-character code. Suppose that the second character of a part code is
3. In a fixed format code, interpretation of this value is always the same. In an indirect
format code, however, interpretation of the second character (i.e. 3) is dependent upon
the value of the previous character. For example, if 3 is preceded by 6, 3 is interpreted
as the part's length being in the range of 10-15 inches. If 3 is preceded by 7, on the
other hand, 3 is interpreted as the part's diameter being 2-3 inches. It is obvious from
the example that an indirect format code makes it possible to record substantially more
information in a given number of characters than a fixed format code. It is also obvious,
however, that implementation of an indirect format code is substantially more complex
than implementation of a fixed format code.
A hybrid format code incorporates the simplicity of a fixed format code with the
large amount of information characteristics of an indirect format code. This is accom-
plished by designating one portion of the code according to a fixed format and another
portion according to an indirect format.
Interactive computerized systems have been developed to facilitate the process of
coding parts, resources or data. Such a system directs the planner of codes via a series
of questions. The planner responds to the questions and thereby establishes the code
of a part, resource or datum. Interactive computerized systems are particularly helpful
in assisting planners of indirect and hybrid format codes.
Once a code is established for each part, resource or datum, the parts, resources or
data are grouped according to similarities and are assigned to families. Each family is
specifically designed to enhance the efficiency of performing engineering functions
and/or the efficiency of interacting with computerized databases. The information
regarding each part, resource or datum is arranged according to families in a GT
database. The GT database is designed in such a way that users can efficiently retrieve
desired information by using the appropriate code.
Consider, for example, part families that are based on similarities of design features.
A GT database enables design engineers to search for existing part designs that have
characteristics similar to those of a new part that is to be designed. The search begins
when the design engineer describes the main characteristics of the needed part with the
help of a partial code. The computer then searches the GT database for all items having
the same code. The results of the search are listed on the computer screen and the
designer can then select or modify an existing part design after reviewing its
specifications. Selected designs can be retrieved easily. When design modifications are
needed, the file of the selected part is transferred to a computer-aided design (CAD)
280 R. R. Levary

system. Such a system enables the design engineer to effectively modify the part's
characteristics in a short period of time. In this way, efforts are not duplicated when
designing parts.
Hyer and Wemmerlov [2] illustrate the wastefulness of design effort duplication.
They cite an example from General Dynamics' Pomona Division in which a virtually
identical nut and coupling unit was designed five different times. The duplication
resulted in five design engineers designing their 'own' product and five different
draftspersons drawing the respective designs. Without a GT database, a design engineer
has no way of finding a similar part even if one exists. Therefore, he/she eventually
designs a new part from scratch. Such duplication of effort in design can be eliminated
once a GT database is established.

2. Cellular Manufacturing

The establishment of part families enables a manufacturer to organize hislher facility

along the lines of cellular manufacturing. A cellular manufacturing facility is composed
of several manufacturing cells. A manufacturing cell is an arrangement of several
machine tools and those fixtures and tools designed to support the manufacture of one
or several part families. Each of the families is made up of parts that share either a
similar shape or similar manufacturing process. The simplest cell is composed of a
single machine tool having manual material handling. The most sophisticated manufac-
turing cell is composed of several computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools
arranged around one or more material handling robots. There are many levels of
sophistication to be found between these two extremes. Irregardless of their sophistica-
tion, manufacturing cells are advantageous because they help to reduce the following.

(I) Set-up time since all parts produced at a given cell have similar manufacturing
characteristics. Reduced set-up time leads to the shortening of manufacturing
lead times. This, in turn, leads to reductions in a manufacturer's response time
to customer demand.
(2) The number and variety of tools and fixtures as parts are similar. Accessibility
to tools and fixtures is enhanced because they are typically stored within the
boundary of the cell. Reduction in the number and variety of both tools and
fixtures as well as improved accessibility contribute to the reduction in set-up
time.
(3) Work-in-process inventory as both set-up time and manufacturing lead time are
shortened. Finished inventory is also reduced because response time to cus-
tomer demand is shortened as well.

Manufacturing cells are also advantageous because the flow of materials in a cellular
manufacturing facility can be managed more efficiently. Since several manufacturing
steps are performed by each cell, parts travel less throughout the facility as a whole. The
quality of parts is improved in a cellular manufacturing system since each cell is
specialized in the manufacture of a few similar parts. Job satisfaction is improved since
a cell is staffed by a small number of workers that work as a team. Together they
convert raw materials into a finished part. Improved job satisfaction motivates workers
to increase productivity and to maintain high standards of quality. Finally, manufactur-
ing cells help to simplify accountability. It is easy to trace a part to its origin in cellular
manufacturing.
 Group Technology 281

____ Information

,----------------
I
---l
,------''---L---,
,-?::::::--...---i-+l Data regarding I
-...::::..::::./._-+.., Data regarding manufacturing I
product facility I
characteristics characteristics I
I
I
I
I
I
Data regarding I
manufacturing I
process I
characteristics I
I
I _J
~-----------------
Engineering
L- ---' database

FIG. 2. A conceptualized information system integrating the programmable design of a

product and its manufacture.

3. Advantages of Group Technology Databases

It was mentioned earlier that implementing the concept of GT contributes to the

improved efficiency of interacting with computerized databases, as well as to the ease
of automating the integration of various engineering functions. To illustrate the effec-
tiveness of a GT database, consider the design of a product and its manufacturing
process. A conceptualized information system (IS) that integrates the programmable
design of a product and its manufacture and has a database containing the engineering
data of both is illustrated in Fig. 2. As shown in the figure, the database is comprised
of three distinct components. The first component includes data regarding product
characteristics, the second component includes data regarding manufacturing facility
characteristics and the third includes data regarding the characteristics of the manufac-
turing process. A change of data in one component may lead to changes in the data of
other components. Thus, data components are distinct yet interdependent. Changes in
product characteristics, for example, may necessitate changes in the characteristics of
the manufacturing process. Changes in the manufacturing process may lead to changes
in the layout and set-up of the computer-controlled hardware used in the manufactur-
ing process (e.g. CNC machine tools and robots). This, in tum, may lead to changes
in the data characterizing the manufacturing facility. To allow for effective interaction
among the three components of the database, it is essential that data be labeled
effectively. Implementation of the GT concept makes this possible.
Engineers interact with the engineering database through a CAD system as they
design or modify the product and/or the manufacturing facility. Similarly, engineers
and/or operations researchers interact with the engineering database through a com-
puter-aided process planning (CAPP) system as they design or modify the
manufacturing process. Design of a product's manufacturing process first involves
determining the machines, tools, robots and operations needed for manufacturing the
282 R. R. Levary

parts and assembling the product. Design next involves the sequencing of operations,
material movements and assembly steps needed in the manufacture of the product.
CAPP is the programmable design technology that was developed to improve the
effectiveness of designing this phase of the manufacturing process. It helps to reduce
the time needed for the design process. With a GT database and a CAPP system, a
manufacturer can first standardize plans for manufacturing processes and then store,
retrieve and edit them. This leads to elimination of duplicated plans and reduces the
time needed to develop necessary new ones.
Using a computer-integrated manufacturing (CAM) system, both engineers and/or
programmers interact with the engineering database as they develop and update the
software that controls the manufacturing process. By implementing the GT concept,
data are labeled more effectively and engineers, operations researchers and pro-
grammers are able to interact more effectively with the engineering database via CAD,
CAM and CAPP systems.
To illustrate the abundance of duplicate process plans generated by manufacturers
not having CAPP technology, Hyer and Wemmerlov [2] cite the case of a single
company that developed 477 process plans for 523 different products. Analysis revealed
that more than 400 of the plans could have been eliminated.
The creation of a GT database helps to reduce redundancy in the purchase of pans
as well. The database enables manufacturers to identify similar pans produced by
different companies. It also helps manufacturers to identify components that can serve
more than a single function. In such ways, GT enables manufacturers to reduce both
the number of pans and the number of suppliers. Manufacturers that can purchase
large quantities of a few items rather than small quantities of many items are able to
take advantage of quantity discounts.
A GT database can also be valuable in sales. In the case of a company that is out
of stock for a particular item that a customer urgently needs, for example, a search of
the GT database may identify a substitute item that meets the customer's requirements.
Another application of a GT database is pan cost estimation. For example, when
cost data for the pans belonging to a panicular pan family are available and stored in
the GT database, the time spent in cost estimation can be reduced.

4. Implementation of Group Technology Programs

Hyer and Wemmerlov [2] repon on the successful implementation of GT programs in
many large US corporations. In an effort to identify difficulties related to implementa-
tion of GT technology, they surveyed 20 US manufacturers using GT. They found that
implementation of GT typically necessitates organizational change and that this change
frequently meets with resistance. Difficulties related to the classification and coding of
pans were identified as well. Hyer and Wemmerlov also discovered that manufacturing
cells create difficulties for companies too. It appears that implementation of a GT
program is often a 2-3 year project that will have a major, long-term impact on a
company. Implementation of such a program is costly. Benefits, however, will increase
with time and will eventually compensate for the cost incurred.

s. Group Technology and Engineering Education

Engineering schools have traditionally emphasized the design of products, facilities and
processes as the main functions performed by engineers. While the effectiveness of the
design is essential to success, the efficiency of the design process is equally imponant
 Group Technology 283

if the economic aspect of the design is considered. Engineering schools must increase
emphasis on the economic aspects of design in today's highly competitive global
environment. By grouping parts, resources or data according to similar characteristics
and by organizing this information into a computerized database, the efficiency of
performing engineering activities can be enhanced. Engineers can minimize duplication
of effort by interacting with a GT database and, in this way, reduce or eliminate waste
in both time and resources.
Although the concept of GT was developed in manufacturing engineering, it can be
implemented in many other engineering disciplines as well. All engineering students
must become adept at taking advantage of similar characteristics of different products,
facilities or processes just as they have become adept at designing effective products,
facilities or processes. Engineering schools must devote more effort to teaching students
to take advantage of the similarity among characteristics of different products, facilities
or processes and they must teach students ways of incorporating these advantages into
effective designs.

REFERENCES
[I] GROOVER, M.P. (1987) Automation, Production Systems, and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall)
[2] HVERN.L. & WEMMERLOV U. (1984) Group technology and productivity, Harvard
Business Review, July-August, pp. 140-149.