This chapter covers:

the three states of matter, and changes of state

atoms, molecules and ions
sepa rating and pu rifying substances
filtration
use of a separating fu nnel
• crysta llisation
distillation
paper chromatography
criteria of pu rity
elements and com pounds
atomic theory
the kinetic model and changes of state
diffusion
atomic structure and sub-atomic particles
proton (atomic) nu mber and n ucleon (mass) n u m ber
isotopes
relative atomic mass
the a rrangement of electrons in atoms.
 C2.0l The states of matter
There are many different kinds of m atter. The word is used
to cover all the substances and materials of w hich the
Universe is composed. Samples of all of these materials
have two properties in common: they each occupy space
(they have volume) and they have mass.
Chemistry is the study of how matter behaves, and of
how one kind of substance can be changed into another.
Whichever chemical substance we study, we find it can
on the conditions. These three different states of matter
exist in three different forms (or physical states) depending
are known as solid, liquid and gas. Changing temperature
and/or pressure can change the state of a substance.
The different physical states have certain general
characteristics that are true whatever chemical substance
is being considered. These are summarised in Table C2.0l.
matter: anything that has mass and takes u p space. There are
three physical states: solid, liquid and gas.
H 188
The three physical states show differences in the way
they respond to changes in temperature and pressure.
All three show an increase in volume (an expansion)
when the temperature is increased, and a decrease in
volume (a contraction) when the temperature is lowered.
The effect is much bigger for a gas than for either a solid or
a liquid.
The volume of a gas at a fixed temperature can easily be
reduced by increasing the pressure on the gas. Gases are
easy to 'squash' - they are easily compressed. Liquids, on
the other hand, are only slightly compressible, and the
volume of a solid is unaffected by changing the pressure.
P hysical state Vo lume j Den sity
I
1
solid has a fixed volume high
liquid has a fixed volume moderate to high
gas no fixed volume - low
expands to fill
the container
101Liquids and gases are called fluids.
Ta b le C2.0l D ifferences i n the properties of the three states of matter.
Changes in physical �tate
Large changes in temperature and pressure can cause
I
changes that are more dramatic than, �xpansion or
I
contraction. They can cause a substance to change its
physical state. The changes between the three states of
matter are shown in Figure C2.0l. At atmospheric pressure,
these changes can be brought about by raising or lowering
the temperature of the substance.
Melting and freezing
is called the melting point (m.p.). This always happens at one
The temperature at which a pure substance turns to a liquid
particular temperature for each pure substance (Figure C2.02).
liquid is cooled down. It is then called the freezing point (f.p.).
The process is reversed at precisely the same temperature if a
The melting point and freezing point of any given substance
are both the same temperature. For example, the melting and
freezing of pure water take place at 0 C.
0
Gallium is a metal that has a melting point just above room
temperature. Because of this it will melt in a person's hand
(Image C2.0l).
Sublimation
A few solids, such as carbon dioxide ('dry ice'), do not melt
directly into gas. This change of state is called sublimation:
when they are heated at normal pressures. Instead, they turn
the solid sublim es. Like melting, this also happens at one
particular temperature for each pure solid. Iodine is another
solid that sublimes. It produces a purple vapour, but then
condenses again on a cold surface (Image (2.02).
Evaporation, boiling and condensation
If a liquid is left with its surface exposed to the
air, it evaporates. Splashes of water evaporate at
room temperature. After rain, puddles dry up!
j S h a pe I Fluid ity
has a definite shape does not flow
no definite shape - generally flows
takes the shape of easily/0!
the container
no definite shape - flows easily/0!
takes the shape of
the container
 gas

0
0 Evaporation and condensation take
place over a range of temperatures; boiling
takes place at a specific temperature.
�
Sublimation: a few solids change .a
directly from solid to gas on heating; C
the term sublimation is used for 0
·.;:; E
2l
the change in either direction.
::0
liq u id 01)
C
·;;;
:::,
V,
u
Melting: a pure substance melts suddenly C
at a particular temperature.
Freezing: the reverse takes place sharply at
the same temperature.

so lid

I lgure C2.0l Changes of physical state and the effect of increasing temperature at atmospheric p ressure. N ote that the
d r ct conversion from gas into solid can a lso be called reverse sublimation or deposition.

increasing temperature

0 ;
solid liqu i d gas

meltin'g point boi ling point

(m.p.) (b.p.)

decreasing temperature

1 1 ure C2.02 The relationship between the m elting point

1 11d boi ling point of a su bstance.

I m age C2.02 Iodine subli mes. O n warming, it prod uces a

pu rple vapour, which then con denses again on the cool
part of the tube.

When liq u id s ch a nge i nto ga ses in this way, the p rocess

i s ca lled eva poration. Eva poratio n ta kes p l ace from the
su rface of the liquid. The l a rger the surface a rea, the faster
the liquid eva po rates.

The warm e r the liquid is, the faster it eva porates.

Image C2.01 The metal gallium has a melti n g point just Eventually, at a certa i n temperature, it beco m es hot enough
bove room tem perature. It will litera lly melt in the hand. for ga s to form within the liquid a n d not just at the surface.
 ubbl of gas appear inside the liquid. T his process is
known as boiling. It takes place at a specific temperature,
known as the boili ng point (b.p.) for each pure liquid
( igur C2.02). Water evaporates fairly easily and has a
r latively low boiling point - it is quite a volati le liquid.
Ethanol, with a boiling point of 78 °C, is more volatile than
water. It has a higher volatility than water. nitrogen gas -210 -196
ethanol liquid -117 78
(alcohol)
A volatile liquid is one which evaporates easily and
has a relatively low boili ng point.
water liquid 0 100
■
Ethanol (b.p. 78 °C) is a more volatile liquid th an sulfur solid 1 15 444
water (b p. 100 °C) . common solid 801 1465
■
salt (sodium
chloride)
The reverse of evaporation is condensation. This is usually
copper solid 1083 2600
brought about by cooling. However, we saw earlier that the
gas state is the one most affected by changes in pressure. carbon gas
It is possible, at normal temperatures, to condense a gas dioxide
into a liquid by increasing the pressure, without cooling.
Table C2.02 The m e lting a n d boi ling points of some
/a!Sublimes.

The boiling point of a liquid can change if the surrounding

pressure changes. The value given for the boiling point is
usually stated at the pressure of the atmosphere at sea
level (atmospheric p ressure or standard pressure).
If the surrounding pressure falls, the boiling point falls.
T he boiling point of water at standard pressure is 100 °C. On
a high mountain it is lower than 100 °C. If the surrounding
pressure is increased , the boiling point rises. In a pressure
cooker, the boiling point of water is raised to around 120 °c
and food cooks more quickly at this higher temperature.
A pure s u bstance consists of only one substance. There
Pure substances
is nothing else in it: it has no contaminating impurities.
A pure substance melts and boils at d efinite temperatures.
Table C2.02 shows the melting points and boiling points of
some common substances at atmospheric pressure.
A substance's melting and boiling points in relation to
room temperature (taken as 20 °C) determine whether it
is usually seen as a solid , a liquid or a gas. For example,
common chemical su bsta nces.
if the m. p. is below 20 °C and the b.p. is above 20 °C,
the substance will be a liquid at room temperature.
The values for the melting point and boiling point of a pur
substance are precise pnd predictable. This means that we
can use them to test th:e purity of a sample. T hey can also
be used to check the identity of an unknown substance.
The melting point can be measured using an electrically
heated melting-point apparatus or the apparatus shown in
Figure C2.03. A small amount of powdered solid is put in a
narrow (capillary) melting-point tube so that it can be heat
easily. A water bath is used to heat the tube; or an oil bath c,1
be used if melting points above 100 °C need to be measured
rubber band

TIP

t
Remember to practise using melting and boiling point
data to decide whether a particular substance is a solid,
a liquid or a gas at room temperature. These are quite
common questions. heat

Be careful with temperatures below 0 °C; -100 °C is a Figure C2.03 Apparatus for measuring the melting point of
higher temperature than -150 °C. a solid. A water bath can be used for melting points below
100 °C and a n oil bath for those above 100 °c.
 ffect of impurities 90

�v )'
o
. i i r is impure water. You can show this if you put L,,
11 •, water in an evaporating d ish and boil away ('
hap 1th, len1

.)v
v, 1 1 r, because a solid residue of salt is left behind 80

--- I
1 11 t lish. Seawater freezes at a temperature well below ('
\;'

v
�rx
1 1 1 11 Ling point of pure water (0 °C) and boils at a ◄r-
I i 1 1 1 ture above the boiling point of pure water (100 °C). �
QJ
� 70
1 , 1 Impure substances show similar differences. Q_
E

vr
,.":' - J�
, l i l l lion, the impurity can also reduce the 'sharpness'
1 1 11 1 m elting or boiling point. An impure substance
60 ./
, 11 1 1 I mes melts or boils over a range of temperatures,
1 1 , particular point.

h1 1 presence of an impurity in a substance:

√@̈́
0
I 2 8 10

lowers the melting point

ö́ è̈́
Time / m in utes

raises the boiling point.

Figure C2.04 T h e heati n g cu rves for n a p hthalene (a p u re
su bstance) a n d wax (a mixtu re of s u bsta nces) .

IP

■
gas

---
111 member that pure substa nces have definite, sharp
111 lting and boiling points. The presence of a n impurity \;' 78 - -------
1 , 1 ans that these changes will be spread over a ra nge of
l 1 1 mperatures in each case.
Q_
QJ
f--
0
ting and cooling curves - 15
1 1 1 1 1, lhe melting point apparatus shown in Figure C2.03, solid
1 , in follow the temperature of the sample before and Time

Figu re C2.05 The cooling cu rve for a su bstance.

1 melting. These results can then be used to produce

The temperature stays consta nt w h i le the gas condenses,

11 , 1 l ing curve (Figure (2.04). Similar apparatus can be

and while the l i q u id freezes. A coo l i n g mixture of

i i to produce a cooling curve, but the thermometer

ice a n d s a lt could be used to lower the tem pe rature

11 I be placed in a test tube containing the solid

below O 0 C.
1 1 w, studied.

111 (2.04 shows how the temperature changes when

1 1 1 1ple of solid naphthalene (a single pure substance)
1 11 1 . ited steadily. The solid melts at precisely 80 °C.
11 1 that, while the solid is melting, the temperature
1 1 1• , rising. It will only begin to rise again when all the
1 il 1 l halene has melted. Generally, the heating curve for
1 1 1 1 1 solid stops rising at its melting point. The heating
The level portions of the curve occur where the gas
condenses to a liquid, and when the liqui d freezes.
These experiments show that heat energy is needed
to change a solid into a liquid, or a liquid into a gas.
During the reverse processes, heat energy is given out.

lid wax melting over a range of temperatures.

11 v1 for wax, which is a mixture of substances, shows the

I I ossible to heat a liquid in the same apparatus until its
1 1 1 1 1 1 point is reached. Again, the temperature stays the
1 1 H until all the liquid has boiled. The reverse processes
11 1 I > shown if a sample of gas is allowed to cool. This
1 1 i l uces a cooling curve (Figure (2.05).
When a solid is melted, or a liquid is boiled, the
temperature stays constant until the process is
complete. The same is true in reverse when a gas
condenses or a liquid freezes.
 ACTIVITY C2.01

• Plotting a cooling curve

Skills:
A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use
techn iques, apparatus and materials (including
following a sequence of instructions where
a ppropriate)
A03.3 M ake and record observations, m easurements
and estimates
A03.4 I nterpret and evaluate experi mental
observations and data
In this experiment, you will p lot cooling cu rves for two
different su bstances.
A worksheet, with a self-assessment checklist, is
included on the accompanying CD-RO M .
Adaptations of. this experiment a n d details of the use of
it in assessi ng practical skills AO3.3 and AO3.4 are given
in the Notes on activities for teachers/tech nicians.
Types of m ixture
Our world is very complex, owing to the vast range of
pure substan ces available and to the variety of ways in
which these pure substances can mix with each other.
In everyday life, we do not 'handle' p u re substances very
often. The air we breath e is not a single, pure su bstance ­
and we could not live in it if it were! Water would be rather
tasteless if we drank it pure (distilled).
Each mixture must be made from at least two parts, which
may be solid, liquid or gas. There are a number of different
ways in which the three states can be combined. In some,
the states are completely mixed to become one single
state or phase - 'you cannot see the join'. Tec h nically, the
dissolving
liquid solvent solution -
solute particles
can not be seen
Figu re C2.06 When a solute disso lves in a solvent, the
solute pa rticles a re comp letely dispersed i n the liquid.
a solid dissolved in a liquid. Two-thirds of the Earth's surface
is covered by a solution of various salts in water. The salts ar ,
totally dispersed in the water and can not be seen. However,
other substances that are not normally solid are dissolved
in seawater. For example, the dissolved gases, oxygen and
carbon dioxide, are important for life to exist in the oceans.
Less obvious perhaps, but quite common , are solutions of
one liquid in another. Alcohol mixes (dissolves) completely
with water. Beer, wine and whisky do not separate out i nto
layers of alcohol and water (even when the alcohol contenl
is quite h igh). Alcohol and water are completely miscible:
they make a solution .
Alloys are similar mixtures of metals, t hough we do not
usually call them solutions. They are made by mixing the
liquid metals together (dissolving one metal in the other)
before solidifyin g the alloy.
QUESTIONS

term solution is used for this type of mixture.

C2.0l
Solid salt dissolves in liquid water to produce a liquid
mixture - a salt solution (Figu re (2.06). In general terms,
the solid that dissolves in the liquid is called the solute.
The liquid in which the solid dissolves is called the solvent.
In other types of mixture, the states remain separate. One
phase is broken up into small particles, droplets, or bubbles, C2.02
within the main phase. Perhaps the most obvious example of
C2.03
this type of mixture is a suspension of fine particles of a solid
in a liquid, such as we often get after a precipitation reaction .
C2.04
Solutions
There are various ways in which substances in different
C2.05
states can combine. Perhaps the most important idea here
is that of one substan ce dissolving in another - the idea of a
solution. We most often think of a solution as being made of
Give the names for the following p hysical changes.
a liquid to solid
b liq uid to gas at a precise tem perature
c gas to liq u id
d solid to gas directly
What effect does the presence of an impu rity have
on the freezing point of a liq uid?
Sketc h a cooling cu rve for water from 80 °C to
-20 °C, noting what is taking place in the different
regions of the graph.
What do you un dersta nd by the word volatile
when used in chemistry?
Put these th ree liquids in order of volatility, with
the most volatile first: water (b.p. 100 °C), ethanoic
acid (b.p. 128 °C), ethanol (b.p. 78 °C).
 .02 Separating and purifying
a

bstances
l o 1 1 1 ke sense of the material world around us,
The solid remai ns in the
1 1 1 ed methods for physically separati ng the filter as the residue.
1 1 1t 1 1 1y and varied mixtures that we come across.
I 1•! 1 1g able to purify and identify the many substan ces support
/ Ii i ,,, nt in these mixtures not only satisfies our curiosity
1 1 1 1 Is crucial to our well-being and health. There is a --t=-....:::::---- - The liquid filters
1 1 1 1 11 of physical techniques available to make the through: it is called
1 11 t ssary separations (Table (2.03). They all depend i n
the filtrate.

, 11 1 1 way o n a difference i n the physi cal properties of

1 1 11 1 ubstances in the mixture. b

f--- - -- A Buchner fu nnel has a

perforated plate, which
I he most useful separation method for a particular is covered by a circle of
filter pa per.
mixture depends on:

■ the type of mixture

A vacuum pump is connected
which substance in the mixture we are most to the side-a rm flask; it
interested in. speeds up t he flow of
liquid th rough the fu nnel.

Figu re C2.07 Filtration sepa rates an i nsoluble solid

from a liquid.
pa rating insoluble solids from liquids
111 ome ways these are the easiest mixtures to separate.

liquids is filtration (Figure C2.07a). Here the insoluble

1 1 1 ite often, just leaving a suspension of a solid in a liqui d A more generally useful method for separating solids from
l i 1 tand achieves a separation - especially if the particles
, ii olid are large enough. Once the solid has settled to the material is collected as a residue on filter paper. Filtration is

, , ill d deca nting.

I I ttom, the liquid can be carefully poured off - a process
The liquid phase is collected as the filtrate. The process
useful because both phases can be obtained in one process.

Mi� re I M ethod of separatio n

•,olid + solid
(1 owdered mixture)
can be speeded up by using a vacuum pump to 'suck' the
liquid through the filter paper in a Buchner funnel and flask
(Figure C2.07b). Various large-scale filtration methods are
use some difference in
used in industry. Perhaps the most useful of these are the
properties, e.g. density,
filter beds used to treat water for household use.
solubi l ity, sublimation,

liquid is centrifugation where the mixture is spun at high

magnetism Another method of separating an i nsoluble solid from a
•,uspension of solid in liquid filtration or centrifugation
liquid + liquid (immiscible) use a separating fun nel or speed in a centrifuge. This causes the solid to be deposited
deca ntation at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. The liquid can be
carefully decanted off.
•,olution of solid i n liquid to obtain solid: use
evaporation (crystallisation)
Separating immiscible liquids
Mixtures of two immiscible liquids can be separated if the
to obtain liquid: use
distillation
l wo (or more) liqui ds mixed fractional distillation mixture is placed in a separating funnel and allowed to
l ogether (miscible) stand. The liquids separate into different layers. The lower,
denser layer is then 'tapped' off at the bottom. This type of
1
, lution of two (or more) chromatography
separation is useful in industry. For example, at the base of the
•1olids i n a liquid

ble C2.03 Separating d ifferent types of mixture.

blast furnace the molten slag forms a separate layer on top of
the liqu id i ron. The two can then be 'tapped' off separately.
Separating mixtu res of solids
Th separation of a solid from a m ixtu re of solids depends
largely on the particular substance being purified. Some suitable
While the solvent is
evaporating, d i p a

difference in physical properties needs to be found. Separations

glass rod into the

can be based on differences in density, magnetic properties

solution from time
�:i,-;.,,�- boiling water

(separating i ron objects from other metals in a scrapyard, for

to time. When small
crystals form on the ����

instance), or sublimation. In the laboratory it usua lly helps if

rod, take the solution gauze

the m ixture is ground to a powder before any sepa ration is

off the water bath
and leave it to cool.

attempted. By far the most important m ethod for separating

this type of m ixture is based on differences in solubility.
Figu re C2.08 An evaporation method. This method sh ould
Separations based on differences in solubility n ot be used if the solvent is fla m ma ble. I nstead, use a n
One very usefu l way of sepa rating a solu ble su bstance from electrical heating element a n d a n o i l or water bath.
a solid m ixtu re is as follows. The m ixture is first ground to
a powder. A su itable liquid solvent is added. The solvent
m ust d issolve one of the solid su bsta nces present, but not
the others. The solvent is often water, but other liquids can
11--- thermometer

be usefu l. The m ixtu re in the solvent is then wa rmed a n d

stirred. Care m ust b e taken a t t h e warm i n g stage w h e n using
solvents other than water. The warm m ixtu re is then filtered
(Figu re (2.07). This leaves the insoluble substa nces as a
resid ue on the filter paper, which can be d ried . The solu ble
su bstance is in the liq u id filtrate. D ry crysta ls can be obtained
by evaporatio n and crystallisation (see Figu re (2.08).
......
heat
Separating solutions
The sepa ratio n of this type of m ix t u re is often s lightly m o re
Figure C2.09 The disti l lation of seawater.
I

co m p licated because there is no p hysica l sepa r-a tion of the

p h ases i n t h e o rigi n a l m ixtu re. T h e methods of separation
usua lly depend o n solubi lity p roperties o r o n d i ffere n ces in
boiling point (or volati lity).
Separati n g a s o lid fro m solution in a l i q u i d c a n be carried
out by eva p o ratio n o r crysta llisati o n . Eva poration gives
o n ly a powd e r, but crysta llisation ca n res u lt in p roper
crystals. Both processes begin by eva po rati ng away
the l i q u i d b u t, when c rysta ls a re needed, eva poration is
stopped when the solution has been concentrated enough.
Figure C2.08 s h ows h ow this ca n be j u d ged a n d done safely.
The concentrated solution is a l lowed to cool s lowly. T h e
c rysta ls fo rmed ca n then be filtered off a n d d ried.
Separati n g a li q u i d fro m a solution is u s u a l ly ca rried out
by d isti llation (Figu re (2.09). The b oi li ng point of the
l i q u i d is u s u a lly very m u c h lower t h a n that of the d issolv •d
solid. The l i q u i d is m o re volati le t h a n the d issolved solid
a n d can easily be eva p o rated off i n a d isti llation flask. It i• ,
condensed by passing it down a water-cooled co n d e n s , ,
a n d t h e n collected as the distillate.
Separati n g the l i q u i d s from a m ixtu re of two (or m o re)
m iscible l i q u i d s is a ga i n based o n the fact that the l i q u id•,
w i l l h ave d i fferent b o i l i n g points. H owever, the boiling
points a re closer togeth er t h a n fo r a solid - i n - l i q u i d solu l i ,
a n d fractiona l d istillation m u st be used (Figure C2. 10). I n
fracti o n a l d isti l latio n the most volatile l i q u i d i n the m ixtu 1
d isti ls ove r fi rst a n d the least volatile l i q u i d boils over I I

-,
ACTIVITY C2.02

• Sepa rating common salt and sand
The aim of this activity is to sepa rate a m ixtu re of salt a n d
sa nd . The method uses the difference i n sol u bility of the
two solids a nd the technique of filtration.
A worksheet, with a self-assessment checklist, is
included on the accompanying CD-ROM.
For exa m ple, eth a n o l boils at 78 °C w hereas water boils I
100 °C. When a m ixtu re of the two is heated, ethanol a n d
water va pou rs enter t h e fractionating colu m n . Glass b . id
i n the colu m n provide a la rge su rface area for condensa l i1 11
Eva poration a n d co n d ensation t a ke place m a ny times a
the va pou rs rise u p the co l u m n . Eth a nol passes t h rough I i i
condenser first a s the te mperatu re of the co l u m n is rais c l
 thermometer
water out
condenser
water 1n
ethanol --
A
I ure (2.10 Sepa rati ng a m ixtu re of ethanol (a lcohol) a n d
w ter b y fractional disti l lation.
il l ve its boiling poi nt. Water condenses in the c o l u m n a n d
l lnws back i nto the flask because the tem peratu re of the
1 1lumn is below its boiling point of 100 °C.
1 1 1 te m perature o n the t h e r m o m eter stays at 78 °C u ntil
ill Lhe eth a n o l has distilled over. O n ly then d o es the
l • 'lnperatu re o n the therm o m eter rise to 100 °C and the
\l, 1Ler distil over. By watc h i n g the tem perature c a refu lly the
tw l i q u id s (fractions) can be co l lected sepa rately.
Fractional d istillation is used to separate a ny solution
c onta i n ing liquids with d ifferent boiling points. The
liquid i n the m ixture with the lowest boiling point (the
most volatile) d istils over first. The final liquid to d istil
< iver is the one with the highest boiling point (the least
volatile). Fractional distillation ca n be adapted as a
< ontinuous p rocess a n d is used industrially to separate:
■ the various fractions from petroleum (Section Cll.01)
■ the d ifferent gases from liquid a i r.
In fractional d istillation, remember that it is the liquid with
TIP
l' he lowest boiling point that d istils over first.
1 1,H ting two or m o re d isso lved solids i n solution ca n be
1 1 11 d out by chromatogra p hy. There a re seve ra l types
, l 1 1 o m atogra p hy, b u t they a l l fo l low the s a m e basic
1 1 11 1 1 les. Paper c h ro m atogra p hy is p ro b a b ly the s i m p lest
1 1 1 1 1 set u p a n d is very u sefu l if we want to a n a lyse the
ACTIVITY C2.03
• Distillation of m ixtures
Skills:
A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use
techniques, apparatus and materials (including
following a sequence of instructions where
appropriate)
A03.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates
I n this experi ment, several mixtures will be sepa rated
using different types of distillation apparatus, including a
microscale distillation apparatus.
A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
su bsta n ces p resent i n a solutio n . For exa m p le, it can
te l l us whether a solution has beco m e conta m i n ated .
Th is c a n be very i m porta nt beca use conta m i n ation of
foo d or d r i n k i n g water, fo r i n stance, may b e d a n ge rous to
o u r h ea lth.
■
A d ro p of concentrated solution is usually p la ce d
on a pencil line n e a r t h e b otto m edge o f a s t r i p of
c h ro matography p a p e r. Th e paper is then d i p ped in the
solvent. The level of the solvent m u st sta rt b e low the
s a m ple. Figu re C2.ll s h ows the p rocess i n action.
Stage 1
• The solution is spotted and allowed to dry.
The original spot is identified as A
• The solvent begins to move u p the paper by
capillary action.
Stage 2
• The solvent moves up the pa per, ta king
different components along at d ifferent
rates.
l
Stage 3
• The separation of the mixture is complete.
• The different com ponents string out
along the paper like ru nners in a race.
Fig u re C2.11 Va rious stages d u ring pa per c h ro matography.
The s a m p le is sepa rated as it moves up the pa per.
 M a ny d i fferent so lve nts a re used i n c h ro m atograp hy.
Water a n d o rga n i c so lvents (ca rbon -conta i n i n g s olvents)
su ch a s ethanol, eth a n oic acid solution a n d p ro p a n o n e
a re com mo n . O rga n i c solvents a re usefu l beca use they
d i sso lve m a ny su bstances that a re i nsolu b le i n water.
When a n o rga n i c so lve nt is used, the p rocess is ca rried out
in a t an k w i t h a lid t o sto p the solvent eva porat i n g.
The su bsta nces sepa rate according to their so lubi lity in the
solvent. As the solvent moves u p the paper, the su bsta nces
are ca rried with it and be�in to sepa rate. The su bsta nce that
is most sol u b le m oves fastest up the paper. f\n insoluble
su bstance wou ld remain at the origiri. The run is stopped just
before the solvent front reaches th� top ot the paper.
T he d ista n ce m oved by a pa rticu l a r spot is measured and
re lated t o the position of the so lvent fro nt. The ratio o f
these d ista n ces is ca l led the R, value, or rete ntion factor.
T h i s value is used to id entify the s u bsta nce:
d ista nce m oved by the - su bsta
- nce
d ista n ce m oved by the so lvent fro n t
Rr = -------- --

O rigi n a lly, paper c h ro m atogra phy w a s used t o sepa rate

ACTIVITY C2.0 4

0 Investigation of food dyes by chromatography solutions of colou red su bsta n ces (dyes a n d pigme nts)
Skills: since they co u l d be seen as they m oved up the paper.
A03. 1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use H owever, the usefu lness of c h rom atogra phy has
tech niques, apparatus and materials (including been greatly i n creased by the use of locating agents
following a sequence of instructions w here (Figure C2. 12). Th ese m e a n that the m ethod c a n a lso be
appropriate} used fo r sepa rati ng su bst a n ces that a re not coloure d .
A03. 2 Plan experiments and investigations The paper is treated wi th locating agent after the
A03.3 Make and record observations, measurements c h ro m atogra phy r u n . Th e a gent reacts with the s a m p les t
and estimates pro d u ce co lo u red spots.
A03.4 I nterpret and evaluate experimental C h ro m atogra phy has p roved very u sefu l in the a n a lysis of
observations and data
bi o logica lly i m portant m o lecu les such as suga rs, a m i no
A03.5 Evaluate methods and suggest possible acids a n d n u cleotide bases. I n fact, m o lecu les such as
196

improvements
This experiment i nvolves testing some food colours with
paper chromatography to find out if they are p ure colours
or mixtures of several dyes. These food colours are used in
ca ke making, for instance, and there is qu ite a wide ra nge
of perm itted colours readily available.
A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
Adaptations of this experiment are given in the Notes
on activities for teachers/technicians.
a m i n o acids can be 's�e n' i f the paper c h romatogra m is
viewed under u ltraviofet light.
The purity a nd identity of su bstances
Paper chro matogra phy is one test that can be used to check
for the p urity of a su bstan ce. If the sam ple is p u re, it should
only give one spot when ru n in severa l d ifferent solvents. Th
identity of the s a m ple can a lso be ch ecked by co m pa ring it
Rr va lue to that of a sample we know to be p u re.

fine tube for level reached by

spotting samples the solvent (the
onto the paper cover paper being drawn solvent front)
chromatography through locating agent thermometer
pape,7
oven

0 0
_ _ _ _ _ _ J --
locating
agent ____. 0 0
pencil line glass

���??'- solvent
G M E A � G M E A
and letters jar '" I1 _.,, � shal low
� dish

1 Preparing the paper 2 Running the 3 Treating with 4 Heating the paper 5 The developed
and spotti ng on the c h ro matogram the locating agent to bring up the ch romatogram

Figu re C2.12 Ch rom atogra phy using a locating agent to d etect the spots on the pa per. Alternatively, the locating agent can
samples colour of the spots

be sp rayed on the paper.

 bly the most generally used tests for purity are
,, , 1 urements of melting point or boiling point. As we saw
, , ii
1 1 1 r, impurities would lower the melting point or raise the
!ling point of the substance. They would also make these
1 1 1 1 eratures less precise. These temperatures have been
11 , 1 ured for a very wide range of substances. The identity
I , 1 1 1 unknown substance can be found by checking against
11 ', measured values for known pure substances.
1 11 process of purification is of crucial importance in
1 my areas of the chemical industry. Medicinal drugs
1 1 !. irmaceuticals) must be of the highest possible purity. Any
111l minating substances, even in very small amounts, may
IV( harmful side effects. Coloured dyes (food colourings) are
Id d to food and drinks to improve their appearance. The
,lnurings added need to be carefully controlled. In Europe
11• permitted colourings are listed as ElOO to El80. Many dyes
1 11 were once added are now banned. Even those which
11 I ermitted may still cause problems for some people.
I 11' yellow colouring tartrazine (E102) is found in many drinks,
I I s, sweets and snacks. To most people it is harmless, but
, me children it appears to cause hyperactivity and allergic
1< tions, for example asthma. Even where there is overall
,v rnment regulation, individuals need to be aware of how
11 l lcular foods affect them.
c loser look at solutions
I h solubility of solids in liquids
1, I ably the most important and common examples of
,11 ures are solutions of solids in liquids.
A solution is made up of two parts:
the solute: the solid that dissolves
the solvent: the liquid in which it dissolves.
/, 1! r is the commonest solvent in use, but other
,q11 lds are also important. Most of these other solvents
11 organic liquids, such as ethanol, propan one and
t i , hloroethane. These organic solvents are important
r c use they will often dissolve substances that do not
11 •,olve in water. If a substance dissolves in a solvent, it is
ltl to be soluble: if it does not dissolve, it is insoluble.
I WP try to dissolve a substance such as copper(11) sulfate
, , , 1 fixed volume of water, the solution becomes more
11 1 entrated as we add more solid. A concentrated
, 1 1 i 1 Lion contains a high proportion of solute; a
•I lute solution contains a small proportion of solute.
The concentration of a solution is the mass of solute
dissolved in a particular volume of solvent, usually 1 dm3 .
If we keep adding more solid, a point is reached when no
more will dissolve at that temperature. This is a saturated
solution. To get more solid to dissolve, the temperature
must be increased. The concentration of solute in a saturated
solution is the solubility of the solute at that temperature.
The solubility of most solids increases with temperature. The
process of crystallisation depends on these observations.
When a saturated solution is cooled, it can hold less solute
at the lower temperature, and some solute crystallises out.
The solubility of gases in liquids
Unlike most solids, gases become less soluble in water
as the temperature rises. The solubility of gases from the
air in water is quite small, but the amount of dissolved
oxygen is enough to support fish and other aq uatic life.
I nterestingly, oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen
1s. So when air is dissolved in water, the proportions of the
two gases become 61% nitrogen and 37% oxygen. This is
an enrichment in life-supporting oxygen compared to air
(78% nitrogen and 2 1% oxygen).
T h e solubility of gases increases with pressure. Sparkling
drinks contain carbon dioxide dissolved under pressure.
T hey 'fizz' when the pressure is released by opening the
container. T hey go 'flat' if the container is left to stand
open, and more quickly if left to stand in a warm place.
Carbon dioxide is more soluble than either nitrogen or
oxygen. This is because it reacts with water to produce
carbonic acid. The world is not chemically static. Substances
are not only mixing with each other but also chemically
reacting. T his produces a world that is continuously
changing. To gain a better understanding of this, we need to
look more deeply into the 'makeup' of chemical substances.
QU ESTI O N S
C2.06 How would you separate the following?
a water from seawater
b ethanol from an ethanol/water mixture
c sugar crystals from a sugar solution
C2.07 What do you understand by the term sublimation?
C2.08 What type of su bstance was chromatography
originally designed to separate?
C2.09 How can we now extend the use of chromatography
to separate colourless substances?
C2.10 Define the term R,value in connection
with chromatography.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

C2.03 Atoms and molecules Chemical reactions aqd physical changes

Substances can mix in a variety of ways, and they can
Elements and compounds also react chemically with each other.)n'a r�action, one
What are 'pure substances'? substance can be transformed (changed) into another.
Copper(11) carbonate is a green solid, but on heating it
is changed into a black powder (Image C2.03). Closer
investigation shows that the gas carbon dioxide is also
There are two types of pure substance - elements and
produced. Th is type of chemical reaction, where a
compounds:

is known as d ecom position .

elements: su bsta nces that can not be chemically broken
compound breaks down to form two or more substances,
d own i nto simpler su bsta nces
compounds: pu re su bstances made from two, or more, Decomposition can also b e brought about by
elements chemically co m b i ned together
electricity. Some substances, although they do not
conduct electricity when solid, do conduct when they are
melted or in solution. In the process of conduction, they
Figure C2.13 summarises what we now know about matter
are broken down into simpler substances. Thus, lead(11)
in simple terms. Elements are the 'building blocks' from
bromide, which is a white powder, can be melted. When
which the Universe is constructed. There are over 100
a current is passed through molten lead(11) bromide, a
known elements, but most of the Universe consists of
silver-grey metal (lead) and a brown vapour (bromine)
just two. Hydrogen (92%) and helium {7%) make up most
are form ed. Neither product can be split into any
of the mass of the Universe, with all the other elements
simpler substances.
contributing only 1% to the total. The concentration, or
'coming togethe r', of certain of these elements to make The opposite type of reaction, where the substance

substances, is known as synthesis. For example, if a

the Earth is of great interest and significance. There are
a total of 94 elements found naturally on Earth but just
eight account for more than 98% of the mass of the Earth's
crust. Two elements, silicon and oxygen, which are bound
together in silicate rocks, make up almost thre e-quarters
of the crust. Only certain elements are able to form the
complex compounds that are found in living things.
For example, the human body contains 65% oxygen,
18% carbon, 10% hydrogen, 3% nitrogen, 2% calcium and
2% of other elements.
is formed by the combination of two or more other
piece of burning magnesium is plunged into a gas jar of
oxygen, the intensity (brightness) of the brilliant white
flame increases. When the reaction has burnt out, a white
ash remains (Image C2.04). The ash has totally different
properties from the original silver-grey metal strip
and colourless gas we started with. A new compound,
magnesium oxide, has been formed from magnesium
and oxygen.

-1 MATTER

'
MIXTURES
PURE SUBSTANCES
More than one substance
Only one substance
present; substances may be in
present; no i m purities
diffe rent physical states (phases

,, •
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS
Can not be divided Made from elements
into sim pler chemically bonded
s u bstances together

Figu re C2.13 Schematic representation of the different

types of matter, including elements a nd com pou nds. I mage C2.03 Heating cop per( ) carbon ate.
 When a m ixtu re forms ... When a compound
I
forms ...
the substances are simply the substances c hemically
mixed together; no reaction react together to form a
takes place new compound
the composition of the the composition of the
mixture can be varied new compound is always
the same
the properties of the the properties of the
substances present remain new compound are very
the same different from those of the
elements in it
the substances in the the compound cannot

l111i 1ge C2.04 Bu rning magnesi u m p rod uces a brillia nt

mixture can be separated easily be separated into

-Nli lte fla me.

by physical methods such its elements
as filtration, distillation or
magnetic attraction

Ta ble C2.04 The d ifferences between m ixtures and

p u re compounds.
II hough many other reactions are not as spectacular as
II •, , the burning of magnesium shows the general features
1 1 c hemical reactions.

In a ch e m ical reaction:
new chemical substance(s) are formed
usually the process is not easily reversed
energy is often given out.
1 1 1 se characteristics of a chemica I reaction contrast
the final product of the reaction). The general differences
between making a mixture of substances and forming a
new compound are shown in Table C2.04.
Atomic theory
Elements and compounds mix and react to produce
the world around us. They produce massive objects
such as the 'gas giants' (the planets Jupiter and Saturn),

II•,solving. In a p hysica l cha n ge the substances involved

llh those of a si mple physical change such as melting or
dt> not chan ge identity. They can be easily returned to their
11 lginal form by some physical process such as cooling or
1 v po ration. Sugar dissolves in water, but we can get the
l llid sugar back by evaporating off the water.
1 1other synthesis reaction takes place between powdered
1 / r n and sulfur. The two solids are finely ground and well
1 1 I lxed . The mixture is heated with a Bunsen burner. The
and tiny highly structured crystals of solid sugar.
How do the elements organise themselves to give this
variety? How can any one element exist in the three
different states of matter simply through a change
in temperature?
Our modern understanding is based on the atomic
theory put forward by John Dalton in 1807. His theory
reintroduced the ideas of Democritus (460-370 ź Eœð̈́ and
other Greek philosophers who suggested that all matter

as atom s. These ideas were not widely accepted at the

1 1 ,Ktion mixture continues to glow after the Bunsen
l 11 1rner is removed. Heat energy is given out. There has
1 11 n a reaction and we are left with a black non-magnetic
r lid, iron(11) sulfide, which cannot easily be changed back
lo iron and sulfur. This example also illustrates some
l I 1 1portant differences between a mixture (in this case the
powders of iron and sulfur) and a compound (in this case
was infinitely divided into very small particles known
time. They were only revived when Dalton developed
them further and experimental observations under
the microscope showed the random motion of dust
particles in suspension in water or smoke particles in air
(Brownian motion).
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Element Latin n a m e I Sym bol

Da lton s u ggested th at:
I
hyd roge n .-
a p u re element is composed of atoms
f

hel i u m He
the atoms of each element a re d ifferent i n
■ ,/

ca rbon C
size a n d mass
■
atoms a re the sma l lest pa rticles that ta ke pa rt i n a ca lci u m Ca
chem i ca l reaction co p per c u p ru m Cu
■
atoms of different elements ca n co mbine to ma ke
c h l o ri ne Cl
molecu les of a com pound.
■
n itroge n N
sod i u m n atri u m Na
Ce rta i n pa rts of th e th eory may h ave ne ed ed to ch a nge
as a res u lt of wh at we h ave d iscove red s i n ce Da lto n's t i m e. phosphorus
K
p
H owever, Da lto n's th eory was o n e of the great lea ps of potassi u m ka l i u m
u n d e rsta n d i n g i n ch e mistry. It m ea nt th at we could ex p la i n i ron fe rru m Fe
m a ny natu ra l p rocesses. Wh e reas Da lto n o n ly had th eo ries
lea d plumbum Pb
fo r th e existe n ce of ato ms, mod e rn tec h n i q u es (su c h as
sca n n i ng tu n n e lling m icrosco py) ca n now d i rectly revea l s i lve r a rge ntu m Ag
th e p rese n ce of i n d ividu a l ato m s . It has eve n be e n poss i b le go ld a u ru m Au
to create a n 'ato mic logo' ( I m age C2.05) by using i n d ivid u a l
atoms, a n d it m ay soo n be poss i b le to 'se e' a rea ctio n Ta ble C2.05 The sym bols of so me chemica l ele ments.
betwe e n i n d iv i d u a l atoms.
use symbo ls, a nd h ow they ca n be co m b i n ed to show th e
A chemical la nguage fo rm u la e of co m p lex ch e m i ca l c o m p o u nds.
Da lto n suggested th at ea ch ele m e nt should h ave its own
Ŕů«̈́ nº º ̈́

symbol - a fo rm of ch e m i ca l s h o rth a n d . H e could th e n

write th e fo r m u la e of co m p o u n d s without w riti ng o u t the
n a m e eve ry t i m e. Ou r mod e rn syste m use·s letters ta ke n
fro m th e na m e of th e e le m e nt. T h i s is a n i nte rn ation a l
cod e. Som e e le m e nts h ave be e n known for a long t i m e
a n d th ei r sy m b o l is ta ke n from th e i r Latin na m e.
Th e sym bol fo r a n elem e nt co nsists of o ne or two lette rs.
Wh e re th e n a m es of seve ra l ele m e nts begin with the
sa m e letter, th e second lette r of t h e n a m e is usu a lly
The kinetic mopel of matter
Th e id ea th at a ll su bsta n ces con sist of ve ry sm a ll p a rticles
begins to ex p la i n the stru cture of the th ree d iffe re n t states
of matte r. Th e k i netic theo ry of m atter describes th ese
states, a n d th e cha nges betwe e n th e m, i n terms of th e
movem e nt of p a rticles.
The main points of the kinetic model

i n c l u d ed i n lowe r case (Ta b le C2.05). As more e le m e nts
we re d iscove red , they we re na m ed after a wid e r ra nge of
■
peo p le, citi es, cou ntries a n d eve n p a rticula r u n ive rsiti es .
We sha l l se e i n Cha pte r C3 how usefu l it is t o be a b le to
■
■
■
I mage C2.05 An 'atomic logo' produced by xenon atom s on
a n ickel surface 'seen' using sca n ning tun nelling microscopy.
All matter is made up of very sm al l particles
(different su bsta nces conta i n d ifferent types of
pa rticles - such as atoms or molecules) .
The pa rticles a re movi ng a ll the tim e (the higher
the tem peratu re, the higher the average energy of
the pa rticles). I n a gas, the faster the pa rticles a re
moving, the higher the tem pe rature.
The freedom of movement a nd the arra ngement
of th e particles is d ifferen t for the three states of
matter (Figu re C2 . 14) .
Th e p ressu re of a gas is p rod uced by the atoms
or molecules of the gas h itti ng the wa l ls of the
conta i n er. The more often the pa rticles co l l ide with
the wa l ls, the greater the p ressu re.
 Gas
The particles in a gas are: TIP
• arranged totally
It's im portant to realise that even in a liqu id, the particles
irregularlY._
• spread Vj;_ry @!" @J1art are still close together, although they can move around
compared to solids and and past each other.
liquids
• able to move Cii.O.Q.Qill.]y.

The way the particles i n the three states a re arra n ged

On heating, the particles move faster and the li_q uid �Rands. also helps to explain the tem p eratu re changes when a
In the liquid, some particles have enough energy to escape su bstan ce is heated or cooled. Figure C2.15 s u m m a rises
from the surface - evaporation takes place. As the
temperature rises, more particles have enough energy to the e nergy changes ta king place at the diffe rent stages of a
escape - evapffltion is faster at higher temperatures. heatin g-cu rve or cooling-cu rve experi ment.
C
0
'.µ
At the boiling point, the particles have enough energy to
break the forces attracting them together - the particles �
0
move very fast and separate from each other - the Uguid boils. a.
ro> Diffusion in fluids
Q)
The idea that fluids a re made up of movi ng particles helps
us to exp la i n processes i nvolvi n g diffusion.
!:!_q uid
The particles in a liquid are:
• closely packed together Dissolving
• in an irregular arrangement
• able to move around A potass i u m manga nate(v11) crysta l is placed at the bottom
past each other. of a dish of water. It is then left to stand. At fi rst the water
a ro u n d the crysta l becomes p u rple as the solid dissolves
(I mage (2.06). Particles move off the su rface of the crystal
i nto the water. Eventua lly the crysta l dissolves com pletely
When the temperature is raised, the particles gain energy and
:he vibrate more strongly; the particles occupy more space - this a n d the whole solution beco m e s pu rple. T h e particles
causes the solid to �P.and.
t>0
from the solid become even ly s p read through the water.
Eventually the particles have enough energy to break the C
·.:,
forces holding the lattice together, and they can move around a:;
E
- the solid melts.
Boiling: the temperature stays
:les constant. The energy put in
1tes Solid
makes the particles move faster
and overcomes the forces
The particles in a solid are:
holding the liquid together.
• packed close together
• in a �gular
arrangement or lattice Melting: the temperature
• not able to move freely, stays constant.
but simply vibrate i n The energy put in is used
e:i to overcome the forces
their fixed positions. 3
holding the lattice together.

I laure C2.14 Applying the ki netic model to changes i n EQ)

f-
physical state.
In regions A, B and C the
I l11ure C2.14 is a sum m a ry of the organisation of the particles temperature rises with heating.
The energy of the particles
111 the three states of matter, a n d h elps to explain their i ncreases and they vibrate or
illf rent overall physical properties. The highly structured, move faster. In region B, the rate
of evaporation increases with
, 1 lered m icroscopic a rrangements (lattices) in solids can
temperature.
1 11 duce the regular crystal structures seen in this state. The
1l1 llity of the particles to move i n the liquid and gas phases Time
1 11 duces their fluid properties. The particles a re very widely Reversing the experiment gives a cooling curve.
' ' I a rated in a gas, but are close together in a liquid or The temperature stays constant d u ri ng condensation
and freezing - energy is given out. Condensation and
1 lid. The space between the pa rticles can be called the
freezing are exothermic processes. Melting, evaporation
l11termolecular space (IMS). I n a gas, the i ntermolecu lar and boiling are endothermic processes.
. -
pr ce is large and can be reduced by i ncreasing the external
1 111'ssure - gases are compressible. I n liquids, this space is Figure C2.15 Energy changes taking place d u ring heating
,
1
1 y much smaller - liquids are not very com p ressible. and cooling.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

''

I m age C2.06 The d iffusion of potassi u m ma nga nate(v11) in

water as it d isso lves.

Whether a solid begins to break up like this in a liquid

depends on the particular solid and liquid involved. But
the spreading of the solute particles throughout the
liquid is an example of diffusion. Diffusion in solution is

I mage C2.07 Bro m i n e va p o u r d iffuses (spreads) t h ro u ghou

also important when the solute is a gas. This is especially

the conta i n e r to fi l l all the s pa ce.

important in breathing! Diffusion contributes to the
movemen t of oxygen from the lungs to the blood, and of
carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs.
the world around us. It is the way smells reach us, wheth r
: 202 they are pleasant or harmful.
The diffusion of gases
Not all gases diffuse at the same rate. This is shown by th
A few drops of liquid bromine are put into a gas jar and
experiment in Figure S2.16. The ammonia and hydrochlor i
the lid is replaced. After a short time the jar becomes full
acid fumes react when they meet, producing a white
of brown gas. Bromine vaporises easily and its gas will
'smoke ring' of ammonium chloride. The fact that the ring
completely fill the container (Image C2.07 ). (Note that
is not formed halfway along the tube shows that ammoni, 1
bromine is useful to illustrate the process of diffusion as
t h e lighter molecule of t h e two, diffuses faster.
its vapour is coloured. However, its use is now prohibited
for student use in U K schools, and examination questions
on its use will not be set.) Gases diffuse to fill all the space
available to them. Diffusion is important for our 'sensing' of

TIP
soaked in
The key idea about diffusion is the idea of particles
ammonia white smok
spreading to fill the space available to the molecules. solution forms here

Figure C2.16 Ammo nia and hyd roc h loric acid fu m es d iffu
at d ifferent rates.

diffusion: the process by which different fluids mix as a resu lt

Three important points derived from kinetic theory

of the ra ndom motions of their particles
Diffusion involves the movement of particles from a
regio n of h igher concentration towards a region of lower are relevant here:
concentration. Eventually the particles are evenly spread -
their concentration is the same throughout. ■ Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter
It d oes not take place i n solids. particles at the same temperature; larger molecules
Diffusion i n liquids is m uch slower than in gases. diffuse more slowly than smaller ones.
 The p ressu re of a gas i s the resu lt of col l isions
of the fast-movi ng pa rticles with the wa l ls of
■
the conta i ner.
The average speed of the particles increases with
an i ncrease in tem peratu re.
■
) Methane, CH
4

ACTIVITY C2.05

• Investigating diffusion - a demonstration

Hydrogen chloride, HC/

kills:
Figu re C2.17 Sim ple co m pounds consisting of m o lecu les
AO3. 1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
made up of atoms of two diffe rent elements.
use techniques, apparatus and materials
(including fol lowing a sequence of
i nstructions where a ppropriate)
QUESTIONS
AO3.3 M ake and record observations, measurements
and estimates C2.11 Define an element.
AO3.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental C2.12 Define a co mpou nd.
Summarise the differences between the t h ree
observations and data
I his is the classic demonstration of the d iffusion of gases in
C2.13
states of matter i n terms of the arra ngement of
which am monia and hydrogen ch loride meet in a long tube.

■
the particles a nd their movement.
I he demonstration shows how the progress of the gases
Which gas diffuses faster, ammonia or hyd rogen
1 r1n be tracked using indicator. Measurements can be made
C2.14
ch loride? Briefly describe an experi ment that
I give an estimate of the rate of diffusion of the two gases.
demonstrates this d ifference.
Which gas will diffuse fastest of all?
Worksheets are i ncluded on the accompanying
C2.15
CD-ROM for both the teacher demonstration and a
microscale version of the experiment which could be
arried out by students.
Details of other demonstrations and experiments C2.04 The structure of the atom
on diffusion are given in the Notes on activities for
Atomic structure
H o w c a n ato m s j o i n toget h e r to m a ke m o lecu les?
teachers/technicians.

W h a t m a kes certa i n ato m s m o re rea d y to d o t h is?

oms and molecules
I i behavi o u r of so m e gas e o u s eleme nts (th e i r d iffu s i o n
1 1cl p ressu re) s h ows t h a t t h ey a re m a d e u p of m o lecu les,
1111 sep a ra te ato m s . T h i s i s t r u e of hyd rogen ( H 2), n itrogen
11 1), oxygen (02) a n d others. B ut, as we d i scussed e a rl i e r
, ! h is sectio n , Da lton h a d o ri g i n a l ly i n t ro d uced t h e
o f m o lecu les t o exp l a i n t h e pa rticles m a k i n g u p
mpou nd s s u c h a s wate r, c a rbon d ioxide a n d m et h a ne.
11
W h y d o hyd roge n ato m s p a i r u p b u t h el i u m ato m s
re m a i n s i n g l e?
To fi n d a nswers to q u esti o ns l i ke th ese, we n eed fi rst
to consider the stru ctu re of atoms in general. D a lto n
t h o u g h t they were solid, i n d ivisible pa rticles. B u t research
since t h e n has s h ow n t h a t atoms a re m a d e u p of va rio us
su b-ato m i c pa rticles. J. J. T h o mson d iscovered t h e
electron ( i n 1897) a n d t h e p roto n . Cru c i a l experi m e nts

lnl cu les of these co m po u n d s consist of ato m s of were t h e n ca rried out in R u t h e rfo rd 's la b orato ry i n
11

1111 ren t elements c h e m i c a l ly bon d ed togeth e r. Water is
1 1, i d e u p of two atoms of hyd roge n b o n d e d to o n e ato m
I xyge n , giving t h e fo r m u l a H 2 0. M et h a n e (CH 4) h a s one
l o rn of ca rbon bonded to fo u r ato m s of hyd rogen , a n d
1yd rogen c h loride ( H C I) h a s o n e ato m of hyd rogen a n d
1 1 ato m of c h lo r i n e b o n d e d togeth e r. M od els of t h ese
1 1 1 s h ow n i n Figu re C2. 17.
M a n c h ester i n 1909 that s h owed that t h e atom i s la rgely
e m pty s p a ce. Rutherfo rd c a lc u lated t h a t a n ato m is m ostly
space occupied by the negatively cha rged electrons,
s u r ro u n d i n g a very s m a ll, positively c h a rged n uc leus.
The n u cleus is at t h e centre of the ato m and contains
a l m ost all the mass of t h e a to m . By 1932, w h e n t h e
neutron w a s d iscove red , it was clea r t h a t ato m s consisted
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
of three sub-atomic pa rticles - p rotons, n eutro n s and
electro n s. These particles are universal - all atoms are
made from them. The atom remains the smallest particle
that shows the characteristics of a particular element.
Measuring the size of atoms
Modern methods such as scanning tunnelling microscopy
have allowed us to 'see' individual atoms in a structure.
However, atoms are amazingly small! A magnification of
100 million times is necessary to show the stacking pattern
of the atoms that make up a gold bar.
A single atom is so small that it cannot be weighed on a
balance. H owever, the mass of one atom can be compared
with that of another using a mass spectrometer. The
element carbon is chosen as the standard. The masses
of atoms of all other elements are compared to the mass
of a carbon atom. This gives a series of values of relative
ato mic m a ss for the elements. Carbon is given a relative
atomic mass of exactly 12, which can be written as
carbon-12. Table C2.06 gives some examples of the values
obtained for other elements. It shows that carbon atoms
are 12 times as heavy as hydrogen atoms, which are the
lightest atoms of all. Calcium atoms are 40 times as heavy
as hydrogen atoms.
Sub-atomic particles
Imagine this size comparison. If the atom were the size of a
football stadium, the nucleus (at the centre-spot) would be
the size of a pea l
Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass.
Electrons have virtually no mass at all ( of the mass
18�0
of a proton) . The other important feature of these particles
is their electric charge. Protons and electrons have equal
and opposite charges, while neutrons are electrically
neutral (have no charge). The characteristics of these three
sub-atomic particles are listed in Table C2.07.
Ato mic symbol
Element
I mRelative atomic
I ass
carbon C 12
0
hydrogen H 1
oxygen 16
calcium Ca 40
copper Cu 64
gold Au 197
T bl C2.06 The relative ato m ic m asses of som e elements.
ACTIVITY C2.06
Discovering the structure of the a�om
Skills:
Research skills ICT skills
The discovery of the nature of the sub-atomic particles
that make up all atoms took p lace in a relatively short
space of time around the beginning of the 20th century.
Investigate this key period in the history of science using
library and internet sources. Devise a PowerPoint or
poster presentation on the significant discoveries and the
scientists involved. Key scientists to research are
J. J . Thomson, Ernest Rutherford and James Chadwick.
Questions
Al What was remarkable about the structure of the atom
suggested by the Geiger-Marsden experiments?
A2 What is it about the nature of the neutron that made it
the last of the particles to be discovered?
A single atom is electrically neutral (it has no overall
electric charge). This means that in any atom there must
be equal numbers of protons and electrons. In this way tl i
total positive charge on the nucleus (due to the protons)
is balanced by the total negative charge of the orbiting
electrons. The simplest atom of all has one proton in its
nucleus. This is the hydrogen atom. It is the only atom
that has no neutrons; it has one proton and one electron,
Atoms of different elements are increasingly complex.
The next simplest atom is that of helium. This has two
protons and two neutrons in the nucleus, and two orbitin
electrons (Figure C2.18).
The next, lithium, has three protons, four neutrons and
three electrons. The arrangements in the following
atoms get more complicated with the addition of more
protons and electrons. The number of neutrons required
to hold the nucleus together increases as the atomic siz<•
increases. Thus, an atom of gold consists of 79 protons (p
1 18 neutrons (n°) and 79 electrons (e-).
-Sub-atomic Relative Relative Location 1 ,
pa rticle I
m ass I c h arge I atom
neutron 1 0 in nucleu• ,
electron 1 -1 outside
(negligible)
1840 nucleus
Ta ble C2.07 Properties of the su b-atomic particles.
 of protons e
I I ucleus made
electron For proton number and nucleon number we have:
,1r1d neutrons •/ This has one negative electrical charge (-1).
/ It has hard ly a ny mass.
■ proton (atomic) number (Z)
The proton e has one positive charge = number of protons in the nucleus
(+ 1) and a mass of one u n it.
■ nucleon (mass) number (A)
= number of protons + n u mber of neutrons

"'"'T
The neutron e has no electrical c h a rge
and a m ass of one u n it.
This is the mass number, This is the symbol

aod <oge<hec.
the n u m ber of protons for helium.

l 111llum atom has these charged particles in it:

) protons charge + 2 these charges
} • 4
) lectrons charge -2 cancel out
This is the atomic
y the charges balance. The atom has no overa l l electrical ch arge. n u m ber (proton n um ber). --e 2

l I1 1 llum atom has:

These two relationships are useful:
, protons mass 2 u n its
) neutrons mass 2 u n its
■ number of electrons = number of protons
= atomic (proton) n u mber
}. electrons with hard ly any mass

■
1 ,1 helium atom has a total mass of:
2 + 2 = 4 u n its number of neutrons
l l e C2.18 The stru ctu re of a helium atom .
= nucleon nu mber - proton number

I , ton (atomic) nu mber and
1 1 1 1 leon nu mber
1, ily hydrogen atoms have one proto n in their nuclei.
1 ily heliu m atoms have two protons. Indeed, only
ild toms have 79 protons. T his shows that the number
I I u otons in the nucleus of an atom decides which
11 I l l nt it is. T his very important n u mber is known as the
1 re on num ber (or atomic number, given the symbol Z)
I 1 1 1 atom.
■
=A-Z
'
Table C2.08 shows the n u mbers of protons, neutrons and
electrons in some different atoms. Note that the rules
apply even to the largest, most complicated atom found
naturally in substantial amou nts.
TIP
Remember that you can use the Periodic Table you have in
the exam for information on these n um bers for any atom .

n il ns alone do not m ake up all the mass of an atom .

Magnesium i s the twelfth atom i n the table, so it must

neutrons i n t h e nucleus also contribute to t h e total

have 12 protons and 12 electrons in its atom s.
1 11
, 1•, 1 The mass of the electrons can be regarded as so
, 1 1 , i \l that it can be ignored. Because a proton and a
,.

Isotopes
1 1I ron have the same m ass, the mass of a particu lar M easurements of the atomic masses of som e elements
1 11 1 1 depends on the total number of proto ns and using the mass spectrometer were puzzling. Pure samples
, 1 Il I ons present. This number is called the n ucleon of elements such as carbon, chlorine and many others were
111onber (or mass n u m ber, given the symbol A) of found to contain atoms with different masses even though
· t ,l( Om. they contained the same numbers of protons and electrons.
I , , . itomic n umber Z and mass n u mber A of an atom of
T he different masses were caused by different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei. Such atoms are called isotopes.
1 1 • •I ment can be written alongside the symbol for that
1 1 1 nt, i n the gen eral way as JX. So the symbol for an
1 1 1 1 1 1 of lithium is ;Li. T h e symbols for carbon, oxygen and
TIP
, 1 1 1lum atoms are 1ic, 1tO and 2 ��U.
1 l 11 1 two important numbers for any ato m
Remember that it is j ust the number of neutrons in the
1 atoms that is the difference between isotopes. They have
, , I 1 1own , then its sub -atomic composition can be the same number of protons and electrons.
11 I d out.
 he.lium He 4 2 2
lithium Li 3 7 3 4 3
beryllium Be 4 9 4 5 4
carbon C 6 12 6 6 6
oxygen 0 8 16 8 8 8
sodium Na 11 23 11 12 11
calcium Cl 20 40 20 20 20
gold Au 79 197 79 118 79
uranium u 92 238 92 146 92

Ta ble C2.08 The su b-atomic com p osition a n d structure of certai n atoms.

l1 H 21 H 3l H
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutrons 1 neutrons 2 neutrons
1 electron 1 electron 1 electron
Carbon carbon-12 (98.9%) carbon-13 (1.1 %) carbon-14!aJ (trace)
1 2c 13c i:c
6 6

6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

6 protons 7 protons 8 neutrons
6 neutrons 6 electrons 6 electrons
Neon neon-20 (90.5%) neon-21 (0.3%) neon-21 (0.3%)
��Ne ��Ne ��Ne
10 protons 10 protons 10 protons
10 neutrons 11 neutrons 12 neutrons
10 electrons 10 electrons 10 electrons
Chlorine chlorine-35 ( 75%) chlorine-37 (25%)
35CI
17 37CI
17

17 protons 17 protons
18 neutrons 20 neutrons
17 electrons 17 electrons
10!Tritium and carbon-14 atoms are radioactive isotopes because their nuclei are unstable.
Ta ble C2.09 Several elements that exist as m ixtu res of isotopes.

isotopes: atoms of the same element which have the same proton n u m be r but a d ifferent n ucleon n u m ber
The atoms have the same n u m ber of protons and electrons, but different n u m bers of neutrons in their n u clei.
Isotopes of a n element have the same chemical properties because they have the same electron structu re.
Some isotopes have u nsta ble nu clei; they a re radioisotopes and emit various forms of radiation.
 111 isotopes of an element have the same chemical The fact that there is more of the lighter isotope moves
"' ' I erties because they contain the same number of the value lower than 36. The actual value is 35.5. The
11 trons. It is the number of electrons in an atom that relative atomic mass of chlorine can be calculated by
Ii < ides the way in which it forms bonds and reacts with finding the total mass of 100 atoms:
ii 1 1 r atoms. However, some physica I properties of the
mass of 100 atoms = (35 x 75) + (37 x 25)
1 1l opes are different. The masses of the atoms differ and
l 11 1 r fore other properties, such as density and rate of = 3550
lll l i tsion, also vary. The modern mass spectrometer shows Then,
1 1 1, 1 1 most elements have several different isotopes that
, ,ur naturally. Others, such as tritium - an isotope of 3550
average mass of one atom = = 35.5
1vdrogen (Table (2.09) - can be made artificially. 100

t l l l um and carbon-14 illustrate another difference in Thus, for chlorine:

l Iy ical properties that can occur between isotopes,
I hey are radioactive. The imbalance of neutrons and
1 1 ons in their nuclei causes them to be unstable so
111 nuclei break up spontaneously (that is, without any
I rnal energy being supplied), emitting certain types of
1 l lation. They are known as radioisotopes.
I lative atomic masses
QUESTIONS
C2.16 H ow m a ny rotons, neutrons and electrons a re
there in a n atom of hos horus, which has a
roton n u m ber of 15 and a n u cleon n u m ber of 31?
C2.17
What are the relative masses of a proton, neutron
and electron, given that a proton has a mass of l?

h t elements exist natural ly as a mixture of isotopes.
1 1 11 refore, the value we use for the atomic mass of an
I, rnent is an average mass. This takes into account the
1 1 )portions (abundance) of all the naturally occurring
, l opes. If a particular isotope is present in high
11 1 portion, it will make a large contribution to the average.
Iii average value for the mass of an atom of an element is
tH wn as the relative atomic mass (AJ
relative atomic mass (A,): the average m ass of naturally
l)Ccu rri ng atoms of an element on a scale where the carbon -12
, Ilom has a mass of exactly 12 u nits
■
C2.18
What is the difference in terms of sub-atomic
a rticles between a n atom of chlorine-35 and a n
atom o f chlorine-37?
Cl.OS Electron arrangements
in atoms
The aurora borealis (I mage C2.08) is a spectacular
display seen in the sky in the far north (a similar
phenomenon - the aurora australis - occurs in the
far south). It is caused by radiation from the Sun moving
the electrons in atoms of the gases of the atmosphere.

1 cause there are several isotopes of carbon, the standard

1 i 1 lnst which all atomic masses are measured has to be
Ii l i ned precisely. The isotope carbon-12 is used as the
l . indard. One atom of carbon-12 is given the mass of
precisely. From this we get that 1 atomic mass unit
1
1n.u.) = x mass of one atom of carbon-12.
12
1 l ifl xistence of isotopes also explains why most relative
It mic masses are not whole numbers. But, to make
1 1 ulations easier, in this book they are rounded to the
1 , Irest whole number. There is one exception, chlorine,
Ii re this would be misleading. Chlorine contains two
1 1l opes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37, in a ratio of 3 : 1
1 /5% : 25%). If the mixture were 50% : 50%, then the I mage C2.08 The a u rora borealis, o r n o rthern lights, as
, li 1 live atomic mass of chlorine would be 36. seen fro m F i n l a n d .
Similar colour effects can be created in a simpler way in the
laboratory by heating the compounds of some metals in a
Bunsen flame (see Section (8.01). These colours are also
seen in fireworks. The colours produced are due to electrons
in the atom moving between two different e nergy levels.
In 1913, Niels Bohr, working with Rutherford in Manchester,
developed a theory to explain how electrons were
arranged in atoms. This theory helps to explain how the
colours referred to above com e about.
A simplified version of Bohr's theory of the arrangem ent
of electrons in an atom can be summarised as follows (see
also Figure C2.19):
• Electrons are in orbit around the central nucleus
of the atom.
• The electron orbits are called shells (or energy levels)
and have different energies.
• Shells w h ich are further from the nucleus have
higher energies.
• The shells are filled starting with the o n e with
lowest energy (closest to the nucleus) .
• The first shell can hold only t wo electrons.
• The second and subsequent shells can hold eight
electrons to give a stable (noble gas) arrange m ent
of electrons.
. C2.20
Other evidence was found that supported these ideas of
how the electrons are arranged in atoms. The number and
arrangement of the electrons in the atoms of the first 20
ele m ents in the Periodic Table are shown in Table (2.10.
When the two essential numbers describing a particular
atom are known, the numbers of protons and neutrons,
First or lowest energy Second energy level.
level. O n ly two electrons Eight electrons can
can fit i nto this level. fit into this level.
T h i rd energy level.
Eight electrons can
fit into this level to
n ucleus made of give a sta ble
protons and neutrons
ure C2.19 Bohr's theory of the arrangement of electrons
a rrangement.
In n atom.
I
I
I
I
·- I
;
nucleus contains
6 protons a n d ;
,,
6 neutrons
Figure C2.20 Possi b ly the most versatile atom in the
Universe - the carbo n-12 ato m .
a sub-atomic picture can be drawn. Figure C2.20 shows
such a picture for perhaps the most versatile atom in the
Universe, an atom of carbon-12. Studying the organisation
of the electrons of an atom is valuable. It begins to explain
the patterns in properties of the elements that are the
basis of the Periodic Table. This will be discussed in
Chapter C3.
QU EST I O N S
C2.19 What are the maximum nu m bers of electrons
that can fill the first and the second shells (energy
I
levels) of an atom?
What is the electron arrangement of a calcium
atom, which has an atomic number of 20?
C2.21 How many electrons are there in the outer shells
of the atoms of the noble gases, argon and neon?
C2.22 Carbon-12 and carbon-14 are different isotopes o
carbon. How many electrons are there in an atom
of each isotope?
TIP
Make sure that you remember how to work out the
electron arrangements of the first 20 elements and
can d raw them in rings (shells) as in Figure C2.21. Also
remember that you can give the electron arrangement or
electronic structure simply in terms of n u m bers: 2,8,4 for
silicon, for exam ple.
You can see from these elements that the number of
outer electrons in an atom is the same as the number
of the group in the Periodic Table that the element is in.
The number of shells of electrons in a n atom tells you the
period (row) of the element in the table. We will look at
this further in the next chapter.
 Symbol Ato mi c First shell Second shell Th i rd shell Fou rth shell Elec� ron
I • .
n u m ber, Z conf1gurat1on
, l1•I 11c nts

•
••
I I I

i l , ogen H
I I

1 1

•• •
1 1 1 1 111 He 2 2

•• ••
II l 1 l 1 1m Li

....
3 2,1

•••
I rt 1 yllium Be 4 2,2

••••
n B

..••
ilt 5 2,3
1b n
II I t c gen
C
N
6
7 .....
••••••
2,4
2,5

•• •••••••
YI\ n 0 8 2,6

•• ••••••••
Ii t ine F 9 2,7

•• ........ •
Ne

..
l it ,n 10 2,8

•• ........
, 1 t l lum Na

...
11 2,8,1

•• ........
· I I r 1gnesium Mg 12 2,8,2

•• •••••••• ••••
1 rn inium Al

.....
13 2,8,3

•• ........
ii !t on Si

..•• ......
14 2,8,4
I I1

I \ llur
sphorus p
s
15
16 ........
........ .......
2,8,5
2,8,6

•• ........ ........
I i I rine Cl 17 2,8,7

•• •••••••• •••••••• •
II 1 10 n Ar 18 2,8,8

•• •••••••• •••••••• ••
I " 1 assi um K 19 2,8,8,1
, , J lcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2

I 1 1 l C2.10 The electron a rrangements of the first 20 elements.

potassium 19 K

sodium 11 Na
____

lith i u m 3 Li

We ca n write this: We can write th is: We can write th is:

2,1] 2,8,1] [2,8,8,l]

I 11ure C2.21 Different ways of showing electron structure.

You should know:
that there are th ree different physical states in which a
su bstance can exist
■
about the different changes i n state that can take
place, including sublimation, where the liquid
■ ■
phase is bypassed
■ how these changes of state can be produced by
changing conditions of tem perature and/or pressure
■
how the kinetic model describes the idea that the
particles of a substance a re in constant motion
■
and that the nature and amount of motion of these
■
particles d iffer in a solid, liquid or gas
how changing physical state involves energy
■
being a bsorbed or given out, the tem peratu re of
■
the substance staying constant while the change
ta kes place
how pure su bstances have precise melting and boiling
■
points - thei r sha rpness can be taken as an indication
■
of the degree of pu rity of the su bstance
■
■ that different separation methods - such as filtration,
distillation and chromatography - can be used to
purify a substance from a mixture
■
how pure chemical su bstances can be either elements
or com �u�s
■
that elements a re the basic buHding units of the
■
■
material world - they cannot be chemically broken
down into anything simpler
how com�u nds are made from two or more
■
elements chemically com bined together, and that
■
their properties a re very different from those of th
elements they a re made from
how each element is made from atoms and that
can join together to make the molecules either of
element or of a com pound
how the atoms of the elements a re made up of
different com binations of the su b-atomic particl
protons, neutrons and electrons
the electrical charges and relative masses of the
sub-atomic particles
how, in any atom, the protons and neutrons a re
bound together in a central nucleus, a nd the
electrons 'orbit' tlie nucleus in d ifferent energy le
(or shells)
that the n u m ber of protons in an atom is defined
the p roton (atomic) number (Z) of the element
that the nucleon ( mass) numbe r (A) is defi ned
as the tota l n u m ber of protons and neutrons in
any atom
how isotopes of the same element can exist
which differ only in the number of neutrons in
their nuclei
how the electrons i n atoms a re a rranged in diffe
energy levels that a re at different distances from
n ucleus ,pf the atom
how each energy level has a maxi m u m number of
electrons that it can contain, and that the el
the shells closest to the nucleus first.

End-of-chapter questions
1 a Su bsta nces ca n be catego rised i n two ways: as a n element, mixture o r compou nd o r as a solid,
liquid o r gas. Which of these m eth ods is of most use to a che m ist?

b Th e word pa rticle ca n be used to descri be a speck of d ust, a mo lecu le, a n ato m o r a n electro n .
H ow ca n w e avoid confusio n in usi n g the wo rd pa rticle?

2 Sa n d a nd sa lt (sod i u m ch lo ri d e) a re both so lids.

a i Describe the a rra ngem e nt a n d movement of th e particles i n a so li d . [2]

ii Describe h ow you co u ld se pa rate the sa n d fro m a mixtu re of sand a n d sa lt. Give fu ll deta i ls
of h ow this is carried o u t. [3)
 b The diagram below sh ows the a p p a ratus used to sepa rate etha n o l an d water from a m ixture
of ethanol a n d water.

/j
water in

ethanol
and water

heat

Write out an d com p lete the fol lowin g sentences a bout this sepa ration using words from
the list be low.

condenser crystallisation distillation flask heavy

higher lower solid volatile vapour

Fractional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is used to sepa rate a mixture of water an d ethanol. The tem perature
at the top of the fractionating column is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . than the temperatu re at the bottom.
The more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liquid evaporates and moves further up the colu m n. It eventua lly
reaches the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . where the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . changes to a liquid. [5]
[Cambridge /GCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 21 Q3 c, d November 2012}

3 The d iagram below s hows a n iceberg floating i n the sea.

air water vapour i n air

seawater

a Wh ich of the materi a ls na med in the diagram best fits the fo llow i n g statement d escri b i n g the orga n isation
of the pa rticles p resent? [1]
'The pa rticles a re a b le to move, a re ra n d o m ly a rranged a n d a re closely packed.'
b Name the processes by which water molecu les in the sea become:
■ water molecu les i n the ai r
■ water molecu les i n the ice. [2]
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

4 Ste a ric acid is a solid at roo m tem peratu re.

The d i agra m below shows the a pparatus used for fi nding the melti n g point of stearic acid.
The a p pa ratus was heated at a steady rate and the temperature recorded every m i n ute.
A

stirrer

water
stearic acid

heat

a State the na mes of the pieces of apparatus la belled A, B. [2]

b Suggest why the water needs to be kept sti rred d u ri n g this experi ment. [l]
c A graph of tem peratu re of stea ric acid against time of h eati ng is shown below.
100 I
-+ H-I-H-1-+-+++++++ I - l-+-1-H- H-+f- --t-H-+l++++ ++ H- YI

80 4+ I
I
'
I '
212
--1--,+
I
\,' 60 t---+-
+ t-
- + -t-+

v f- -+ -
7+ 1-1- - - - --+ +-
40
v�
. -L
.J.__

1-1-- ,l- -+- +--

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2 4 6 8 10 12
Time / minutes

What was the tem perature of the stea ric acid after 3 m i n utes h eati ng? [l]
i i U s e t h e inform ation on t h e graph t o d eterm i n e t h e melting point o f stearic acid. [1]
d Descri be the a rrangement a n d motion of the particles i n liquid stearic acid. [2]
e A sam ple of stearic acid conta i n ed 1% of a n other co m pound with a h igher relative m o lecular mass.
Which one of the fol lowi ng state ments a bout this sam ple of stearic acid is correct?
Its de nsity is exactly the same as that of p u re stearic acid.
Its boiling point is the same as that of p u re stearic acid.
Its melting point is d ifferent from p u re stearic acid.
Its melting point is the same as that of p u re stearic acid. [1]
ii Describe one a rea of everyday life w h e re the pu rity of su bsta n ces is i m portant. [1]

[Cambridge !GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 21 Ql a, b(i), c-e June 2012)

 Heli u m a nd a rgon a re noble gases.

a State one use of helium. [1]

b The atomic structures of helium a n d a rgon a re shown below.

helium argon

State the n a m e of the centra l p a rt of the ato m, labelled X. [1]

ii Which o n e of these statements a bout helium and a rgon is co rrect?
Argon has a n i n co m plete i n n e r shell of electrons.
An atom of a rgon has 16 electro ns.
Helium h a s a com plete o uter shell of e lectrons.
[1]
iii
Helium h a s an inco m p lete outer shell of e lectrons.
[1]
iv The sym b o l for a particular isotope of heli u m is written as �He.
How m a ny p rotons a re there in an atom of a rgon?

Write a s i m i l a r sym bol for the isotope of a rgon which has 16 neutrons. [1]
c Argon is a liquid at a tem peratu re of -188 °C.
Complete the diagram below to s h ow h ow the atoms of a rgon a re a rranged at -188 °C.

Q represents one atom of argon

0
[2]
[Cambridge /GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 21 Q3 November 2010]

..
11 The table below s h ows the n u m bers of p rotons, neutrons a n d electrons i n fou r ato m s, P, Q, R a n d S.

• Atom I Proton s I Neutrons I Electrons

p 2 2 2
Q 3 4 3
R 1 0 1
s 4 5 4

a [1]
b Explain which o n e of the ato ms, P, Q, R a n d S, has a nucleon n u m ber (mass n u m ber) of fou r.
Which pa rticles n a med in the table a re n ot classed as nucleons?
[1]
c Expl ain why a l l atoms a re e lectrically neutral, having no ove ra l l electric al cha rge. [2]
d [1]
e
Which of these ato ms is an atom of hyd rogen?
What would be the a rrangement of e lectrons in a n atom of S? [1]