THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

• HUMAN ANATOMY

• COVERING EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Dr. Mukape Mukape:
Dr. Mukape Mukape
- UNZA (BSc.HB, MBChB, MSc in Progress)
- ZIDIS (Diplomatic Practice and Public
Relations)
- Senior Resident Medical Officer (SRMO) at
Ministry of Health, Zambia
- Staff Development Fellow (SDF), SOM, UNZA.

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 Introduction
• Despite its complexity, the human body is
composed of only four basic types of tissue:
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscular
4. Nervous

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• These tissues are formed by cells and
molecules of the extracellular matrix (ECM)
• Exist not as isolated units but rather in
association with one another and in variable
proportions
• Form different organs and systems of the body

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• Connective tissue is characterized by the abundance
of extracellular material produced by its cells
• Muscle tissue is composed of elongated cells that
have the specialized function of contraction
• Nerve tissue is composed of cells with elongated
processes that receive, generate, and transmit nerve
impulses
• Most organs can be divided into two components:
 Parenchyma: composed of the cells responsible for
the main functions typical of the organ
 Stroma: supporting tissue
Except in the brain and spinal cord (CNS), the stroma is
made of connective tissue

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• Epithelial tissues are composed of closely
aggregated polyhedral cells with very little
extracellular substance
• These cells have strong adhesion due to
adhesion molecules, membrane interdigitations,
and intercellular junctions
• These features allow the cells to form cellular
sheets that:
- Cover the surface of the body
- Line its cavities or
- Are arranged as three-dimensional secretory
units of glands
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 Principle functions of epithelial tissue
1. Covering and lining of surfaces (eg, skin,
intestines)
2. Absorption (eg, intestines)
3. Secretion (eg, glands)
4. Sensation (eg, gustative and olfactory
neuroepithelium), and
5. Contractility (eg, myoepithelial cells)
Because epithelial cells line all external and internal
surfaces of the body, everything that enters or
leaves the body must cross an epithelial sheet

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Form and characteristics of epithelial cells
• The forms and dimensions of epithelial cells are:
- Columnar
- Cuboidal
- Squamous
• Epithelial cells rest on a connective tissue
• In epithelia that line the cavity of internal organs
(especially the digestive, respiratory, and urinary
systems), this layer of connective tissue is often
called lamina propria

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• Lamina propria not only serves to support the
epithelium but also provides nutrition and binds
it to neighbouring structures
• The area of contact between epithelium and
lamina propria is increased by irregularities in
the connective tissue surface in the form of small
evaginations called papillae (singular, papilla)

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• Papillae occur most frequently in epithelial
tissues subject to stress, such as the skin and the
tongue
• The portion of the epithelial cells that faces the
connective tissue is called the basal pole,
whereas the opposite side, usually facing a space,
is called the apical pole

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 Main characteristics of epithelia
1. Most epithelial cells renew continuously by
mitosis
2. Epithelia lack a direct blood and lymphatic supply
- Nutrients are delivered by diffusion
3. Epithelial cells have almost no free intercellular
substances (unlike connective tissue)
4. The cohesive nature of an epithelium is
maintained by both cell adhesion molecules and
junctional complexes
5. Epithelia are anchored to a basal lamina
- The basal lamina and connective tissue components
cooperate to form the basement membrane
6. Epithelia have structural and functional polarity
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Basal Lamina and Basement Membrane
• Epithelial cells are separated from the connective
tissue by a sheet of extracellular material called
the basal lamina
• Basal lamina is visible only with an electron
microscope
• Has the following parts:
1. Lamina densa
2. Lamina rara
3. Lamina lucida

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 Basal lamina

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• Basal laminae are found not only in epithelial
tissues but also where other cell types come into
contact with connective tissue such as around
muscle, adipose, and Schwann cells of nervous
tissue
• The main components of basal laminae are type
IV collagen, the glycoproteins laminin and
entactin, and proteoglycans (eg, the heparan
sulfate)

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• Basal laminae have many functions:
- Support of the cells
- Provides a barrier that limits or regulates the
exchange of macromolecules between
connective tissue and cells of other tissues
- Influences cell polarity
- Regulates cell proliferation and differentiation by
binding with growth factors
- Influences cell metabolism
- Serves as pathways for cell migration

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 Basement membrane
• Basement membrane is used to denote the layer
visible with the light microscope, present beneath
some epithelia
• The basement membrane is usually formed by the
association of either two basal laminae or a basal
lamina and a reticular lamina and is therefore thicker
• Basement membrane and basal lamina are two
terms often used indiscriminately causing
confusion
• "Basement membrane" is used to denote the thicker
structure seen with the light microscope
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 Basement membrane

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 Intercellular Adhesion & Intercellular Junctions
• Several membrane-associated structures
contribute to cohesion and communication
between cells
• They are present in most tissues but are
prominent in epithelia
• Epithelial cells are extremely cohesive, and
relatively strong mechanical forces are necessary
to separate them
• Intercellular adhesion is especially marked in
epithelial tissues that are subjected to traction
and pressure (eg, the skin)
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• The lateral membranes of many epithelial cells
often exhibit several types of membrane
modifications, the intercellular junctions
• One type of junction provides a mechanism for
communication between adjacent cells
• Other junctions serve as sites of adhesion and
as seals to prevent the flow of material through
the space between epithelial cells
• In several epithelia the various junctions are
present in a definite order from the apex toward
the base of the cell

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 Junctional Complexes
See the figure:
• Zonulae Occludens (ZO) or tight junctions
• Zonulae Adherens (ZA)
• Gap Junctions or Communicating Junctions
• Desmosomes (D) or Macula Adherens

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 Zonulae Occludens (Tight Junctions)
• Singular = zonula
occludens
• Are the most apical of the
junctions
• The Latin terminology gives
important information
about the geometry of the
junction
• "Zonula" refers to the fact
that the junction forms a
band completely encircling
the cell and "occludens"
refers to the membrane
fusions that close off the
intercellular space

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 Zonulae Occludens (Tight Junctions)
• They perform vital functions:
1. They hold cells together
2. Barrier function, which can be further subdivided
into protective barriers and functional barriers
serving purposes such as material transport and
maintenance of osmotic balance
- Tight Junctions help to maintain the polarity of
cells by preventing the lateral diffusion of integral
membrane proteins between
the apical and lateral/basal surfaces
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 Zonulae Occludens (Tight Junctions)
- This allows the specialized functions of each surface
(for example receptor-mediated endocytosis at the
apical surface and exocytosis at the basolateral
surface) to be preserved
- This aims to preserve the transcellular transport
- Tight Junctions prevent the passage of molecules
and ions through the space between plasma
membranes of adjacent cells, so materials must
actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active
transport) in order to pass through the tissue

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 Zonulae Adherens
• Are protein complexes that occur at cell–cell junctions
in epithelial and endothelial tissues, usually more
basal than tight junctions
• Cytoplasmic face is linked to the actin cytoskeleton
• This junction encircles the cell and provides for the
adhesion of one cell to its neighbour
• A similar cell junction in non-epithelial, non-
endothelial cells is the fascia adherens
• It is structurally the same, but appears in ribbonlike
patterns that do not completely encircle the cells
• One example is in cardiomyocytes (cardiac muscle
cells)

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 Gap or Communicating Junctions
• Also called nexus or macula
communicans
• Gap junctions are a specialized
intercellular connection between
a multitude of animal cell-types
• Can occur almost anywhere along
the lateral membranes of
epithelial cells
• Actually, gap junctions occur in
virtually all mammalian tissues,
with the exception of adult fully
developed skeletal muscle and
mobile cell types such as sperm
or erythrocytes
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 Gap or Communicating Junctions
• When found in nerves it may
also be called an electrical
synapse
• They directly connect
the cytoplasm of two cells,
which allows
various molecules, ions and
electrical impulses to directly
pass through a regulated gate
between cells

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 Desmosomes (Macula Adherens)
• Is a complex disk-shaped structure at the surface of
one cell that is matched with an identical structure
at the surface of the adjacent cell
• Is specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion
• They are localized spot-like adhesions randomly
arranged on the lateral sides of plasma membranes
• Desmosomes help to resist shearing forces and are
found in epithelial and muscle tissues

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 Hemidesmosomes
• In the contact zone between certain epithelial cells
and the basal lamina, hemidesmosomes can often
be observed
• These structures take the form of half a desmosome
and bind the epithelial cell to the subjacent basal
lamina
• However, in desmosomes the attachment plaques
contain mainly cadherins, whereas in
hemidesmosomes the plaques are made of integrins
• Integrins are a family of transmembrane proteins
that is a receptor site for the extracellular
macromolecules laminin and type IV collagen
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 Specialization of the cell surface
• The free or apical surface of many types of epithelial
cells contain specialized structures that increase the
cell surface area or move substances or particles
stuck to the epithelium
Microvilli
• Are fingerlike extensions
• Found mainly on the free cell surface
• Found in absorptive cells, such as the lining
epithelium of the small intestine and the cells of the
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of the kidneys
• Their core is made of actin filaments instead of
microtubules

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• In these absorptive cells,
the glycocalyx is thicker
than it is in most other
cells
• The complex of microvilli
and glycocalyx may be
seen with the light
microscope and is called
the brush, or striated,
border

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Stereocilia
• Also called stereovilli
• Stereocilia are long, nonmotile extensions of
cells of the epididymis and ductus deferens that
are actually long and branched microvilli and
should not be confused with true cilia
• Just like microvilli, their core is made of actin
filaments instead of microtubules
• Stereocilia increase the cell surface area,
facilitating the movement of molecules into and
out of the cell
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Cilia
• Cilia are cylindrical, motile structures on the
surface of some epithelial cells
• Are surrounded by the cell membrane and contain
a central pair (2) of isolated microtubules
surrounded by nine pairs of microtubules (9+2
pattern)
• This arrangement forms the cytoskeletal core inside
cilia and flagella and is called an axoneme
• Cilia are inserted into basal bodies, which are small
cylindrical structures at the apical pole just below
the cell membrane

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 Cilia

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Flagella
• Flagella, present in the human body only in
spermatozoa, are similar in structure to cilia but
are much longer and are limited to one
flagellum per cell
• Just like cilia, they their core is made of an
axoneme (9+2 pattern of microtubules)

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 Types of Epithelia
• Epithelia are divided into two main groups
according to their structure and function:
Covering epithelia
Glandular epithelia
• This is an arbitrary division, for there are
covering epithelia in which all cells secrete (eg,
the surface epithelium of the stomach) or in
which glandular cells are intermingled with
covering cells (eg, mucous goblet cells in the
small intestine or trachea)
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 Covering Epithelia
• In covering epithelia the cells are organized in
layers that cover the external surface or line the
cavities of the body
• Classified according to:
1. Number of cell layers
2. Morphological features of the cells in the
surface layer
• Simple epithelium contains only one layer of
cells
• Stratified epithelium contains more than one
layer
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 Stratified Epithelium
• Stratified epithelium is classified according to
the cell shape of its superficial layer:
- Squamous (keratinized or non-keratinized)
- Cuboidal
- Columnar
- Transitional (uroepithelium)

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 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Found primarily in places subject to attrition (skin, mouth,
oesophagus, vagina)
• Its cells form many layers
• Cells closer to the underlying connective tissue are usually
cuboidal or columnar
• As they move progressively closer to the surface the cells
become irregular in shape and flatten, becoming very thin
and squamous
• Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium covers dry
surfaces such as the skin
• As opposed to nonkeratinized epithelium, which covers
wet surfaces, the most superficial cells of keratinized
epithelia involute and are transformed into dead scales of
protein without discernible nuclei

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 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Is rare

• Present in the human body only in small

areas, such as the ocular conjunctiva and the
large ducts of salivary glands

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 Transitional Epithelium
• Lines the urinary bladder, the ureter, and the
upper part of the urethra
• Is characterized by a surface layer of domelike
cells that is neither squamous nor columnar
• The form of these cells changes according to
the degree of distension of the bladder

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 Stratified Transitional Epithelium

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 Pseudostratified Epithelium
• So called because the nuclei appear to lie in
various layers
• All cells are attached to the basal lamina,
although some do not reach the surface
• The best-known example of this tissue is the
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
in the respiratory passages

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 Ciliated Pseudostratified Epithelium

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• Two other types of epithelium warrant brief mention
Neuroepithelial cells
- Are cells of epithelial origin with specialized sensory
functions (eg, cells of taste buds and of the olfactory
mucosa)
Myoepithelial cells
- Are branched cells that contain myosin and a large
number of actin filaments
- Are specialized for contraction
- Mainly found in glandular epithelium in association with
secretory units of the mammary, sweat, and salivary
glands
- They are found usually between the glandular epithelial
cells and the basement membrane
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 Metaplasia
• Under certain abnormal conditions, one type of
epithelial tissue may undergo a physiological
transformation into another type
• This reversible process is called metaplasia (Gr.
metaplasis, transformation)
• The following examples illustrate this process
• In heavy cigarette smokers, the ciliated
pseudostratified epithelium lining the bronchi can
be transformed into stratified squamous epithelium
• Metaplasia is not restricted to epithelial tissue; it
also occurs in connective tissue
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 The End!

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