FACULTY OF MEDICINE

Human Physiology
BMS & BPH

PL 1
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this session the student would be able to:

 Describe the basic organization of the body

 Describe the components of a cell

 List the various mechanisms of transport across the plasma

membrane 

 Define homeostasis and explain its basis 

 

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 What is Physiology?

The word ‘physio’ is derived from the Greek word ‘physis’,

which means ‘nature’,

The word ‘logy’ is derived from the word ‘logos’,

which means - ‘study of’

A study of how the body works is known as ‘PHYSIOLOGY’

It describes the vital functions of living organisms and their

organs, cells, and molecules.
 BASIC ORGANIZATION
 A CELL (Latin: Cella = a store room)
 a single Basic Unit of Life

 A TISSUE (Latin: Tissu= woven material)

 made of similar cells
 from the same origin
 carry out specific function

 An ORGAN (Latin: Organum = to work)

 formed by multiple types of tissues arranged
together to form a specific function

 An ORGAN SYSTEM
 Consists of organs arranged together to
perform specific function/s

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 Basic Organization : Tissues
Type of tissue Characteristics
Epithelial tissue - Covers the body surface and forms the lining for most internal
cavities 
- Function: protection, secretion, absorption, filtration.
- Example: epidermis, the lining of intestines, respiratory tract,
sweat glands
Connective Composed of cells fibres and ground materials.
tissue - Functions: provide support and protection. 
- Example: Loose connective tissue, fat tissue, dense fibrous
tissue, cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph

Muscle tissue 3 types: skeletal, cardiac & smooth muscle

- Functions: locomotion, movements of internal organs,
production of tension. 

Nervous tissue Composed of neurons

- Function: conduction of impulses
- Example: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

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 Organs Are Made of Tissues

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 Organs Systems

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 HOMEOSTASIS
 HOMEOSTASIS: A term used to describe the maintenance of nearly
constant internal environment.

 Internal environment is made of the fluid in which the cells are

immersed (interstitial fluid) & the circulating fluid in the blood (plasma)
that is in constantly equilibrium with it.
 Together they form the extra cellular fluid (ECF)
 Internal environment = ECF = Interstitial fluid + plasma

 Advantage of internal environment over external environment: can be

controlled at optimum level by fast and slow control systems

 Examples: Maintaining constant pH, Temperature and Glucose level

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 Homeostasis: Feedback control
In a feedback system an output signal has an effect, negative or
positive, on the input signal
2 Types of feedback:
Positive feedback control (uncommon) – accelerates a process
Negative feedback control (most common) – helps in the
maintenance of homeostasis

In negative feedback control the output signal has an

inhibitory control over input signal

Negative feedback control prevents deviations from a set goal

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Principle of Negative Feedback Loops
▪ Mechanism:
Deviations from a given normal set point are detected by a
sensor
Signals from the sensor trigger
o Compensatory changes that continue until the set point
is again reached
▪ Examples:
Blood pressure regulation
Body temperature regulation
Blood glucose regulation
Maintenance of ECF volume
Maintenance of Sodium ion in ECF

13
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 Positive Feedback Control
▪ In positive feedback system the output signal reinforces the
deviation

▪ The change is gradually increased

▪ Examples:
Clotting cascade
Labor (childbirth)
Generation of Action Potential
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 Failure of Homeostasis: Disease
 Failure of homeostasis results in a condition called disease
 A state of disturbed body function

 Examples
 Diabetes - failure of glucose homeostasis
 Fever - Failure of temperature homeostasis
 Acidosis or alkalosis - failure of acid-base homeostasis
 Other examples: Renal failure, respiratory failure, heart
failure, liver failure
 1
8

COMPONENTS OF
CELL

• CELL MEMBRANE

• CYTOPLASM:
• Matrix
• Organelle
• Inclusions

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 Cytoplasm
a. MATRIX - cytosol or intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytoplasmic
matrix liquid found inside cells
 Defined as substances within this membrane, excluding the
genetic material

b. ORGANELLE (little organs of cell):

MEMBRANE BOUND NON-MEMBRANE BOUND
Nucleus Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum Cytoskeleton
Mitochondria Centrosome
Golgi Apparatus Cilia
Lysosomes Flagellum
Peroxisomes Microvilli
Secretory vesicles

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 c. INCLUSIONS
• Non-living components
of the cell that do not
possess metabolic
activity
• Serve as storage vessels
• Most common
inclusions are
• Glycogen granules
• Lipid droplets
• Crystals
• Pigments granules

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 Nucleus & Its Functions
 Nuclear membrane  Chromosomes in the form of
• Surrounds nucleus
chromatin
• Composed of two layers • Contains genetic information
• Numerous openings for • Composed of DNA
nuclear traffic • Thicken for cellular division
• Set number per species (i.e.
23 pairs for human)

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Network of membranes in the form of branching and anastomosing
tubules
 2 types:
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
 Functions of RER:
• Synthesis of phospholipids
• Processing and storing of the proteins
synthesized by ribosomes
 Functions of SER
• similar to RER involved in the
synthesis of phospholipids.
• Synthesizes fat and steroid hormones eg. Oestrogen and
testosterone.
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 Golgi Apparatus
• Consists of flattened
membranous sacs—cisternae

• Shipping and receiving centre

for cell products

• Many transport vesicles from

the ER travel to the Golgi
apparatus for modification of
their contents

• Is a centre of manufacturing,
warehousing, sorting, and
shipping
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 Mitochondria
 Double layered membrane, with
folded inner layer forming cristae

 Power house of the cell; energy is

stored in high energy phosphate
bonds of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate)

 Cells with high metabolic activity

(e.g. heart muscle) have very well
develop mitochondria

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 PLASMA MEMBRANE

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 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Also called cell membrane
 It forms the boundary of the cell
 Acts as a barrier between the cytoplasm and
surrounding environment of the cell

 Structure of cell membrane:

• Thickness = 8 to 10 nm.
• Made of phospholipid molecules in 2
different layers.
• It also contains cholesterol.
• It also contains several types of proteins in
the form of globular masses.
 These proteins are present
• across the thickness of cell membrane or
• project through its outer or inner surfaces

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 Functions Of Membrane Proteins
INTEGRAL PROTEINS PERIPHERAL PROTEINS
 Channels:  Attached to the integral proteins or
water & water-soluble  Penetrate the peripheral regions of
substances (ions) diffuse lipid bilayer
 Function as:
between ECF and ICF
• Enzymes
 Pumps:
• Transport of substances
actively transporting ions through the cell membrane
across the membrane • Receptors for protein
• Carrier proteins hormones
• Enzymes • Connection between two cells

• Receptors

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 Functions of Cell Membrane
 Regulate the passage of substances into and out of cells and
between cell organelles and cytosol

 Detect chemical messengers arriving at the cell surface

 Link adjacent cells together by membrane junctions

 Anchor cells to the extracellular matrix

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 Passive Transport
• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
MECHANISMS
Active Transport
OF
• Primary Active Transport
TRANSPORT • Secondary Active Transport

Transport of Macromolecules
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 This is due to the random
movement of molecules
across the membrane.

 Though there is a two way

exchange of the molecules
between the compartments,
the movement is greater from
higher concentration to the
lower concentration till the
concentrations become equal
 Factors Affecting Simple Diffusion
 Concentration gradient of the molecule across the membrane
 Membrane characteristics:
• Cross sectional area of the membrane: Directly
proportional
• Thickness of the membrane: Inversely proportional
• Permeability of membrane
o Lipid solubility of the molecule
o Size of the molecule
o Charge of the molecule
o Selective transport / permeability
 Temperature : directly proportional
 Diffusion Through Lipid Membrane
 The membrane is a lipid bilayer barrier which does not allow
the diffusion of water-soluble substances.

 Small & lipid soluble molecules like alcohols, steroids, O2, N2

CO2 etc. along with H2O are highly permeable.
 CARRIER MEDIATED DIFFUSION: FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 

Facilitated diffusion occurs to carry large water soluble and charged

molecules across the membrane.

They use a specific carrier protein located at the membrane – specific

The transport is towards the concentration gradient and do not need

expenditure of energy

The transport process has a maximum rate – can reach saturation point.

Competition : When 2 molecules are carried by the same transporter,

presence of one molecule will reduce the rate of transport of the other.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIMPLE
DIFFUSION & FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 
 Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion 
 Particle size small   large

 Rate  proportionate to  proportionate to

concentration difference concentration difference up
without limits to a limit

 Specificity of carrier  no  yes

protein
Saturation  no  yes

 Competition  no  yes

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 SELECTIVE TRANSPORT

 Transport of water soluble substances needs highly specific

transport proteins (carrier) and transmembrane proteins
(channels)

 Water can be transported by diffusion or by aquaporins.

 Diffusion Through Protein Channels and “Gated” Channels

 
 Gated Channels
 The channels in the membrane can be opened or closed by
conformational change of a protein guarding the opening of
the channel.
 The triggers which can
make these opening or
closing of the gates (and
thereby the channels)
can be of 3 types

 Gated channels:
o Voltage gated
o Ligand gated
o Mechanically gated
 Gated Channels
Voltage gated channels:
 A change in the electrical potential across the cell
membrane would open certain channels

 Again they can be closed at a certain critical electrical

potential of the membrane

Example: voltage gated Na+ channels, voltage gated K+

channels
 Gated Channels
Ligand gated:
A conformational change of the protein at the membrane is
triggered by a substance external to the cell
 Example: acetylcholine binds with its receptor at the surface
of membrane to open cation channels at Neuro-Muscular
Junction.

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 Gated Channels
Mechanically gated: mechanical stress can open ionic
channels in sensory organs to open ion channels to arouse
sensations

 Example: channels that respond touch, pressure,

hearing.
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Two types : Primary and Secondary active transport

Primary active transport:-

 It is transport of ions and molecules against
the concentration gradient – from lower to
higher gradient.
 Energy is required for active transport.
 Transport proteins are involved in the
transport.
 ATP obtained from cell metabolism is
converted to ADP by the action of the enzyme
ATPase and the energy so released is used for
transport.
 If energy supply is blocked active transport
would stop.
 Example of active transport: Na-K Pump
 Na+ - K+ pump is present in all cells

 Na+ - K+ Pump is a protein which spans across the membrane.

 It has sites for attachment of 3 Na+ at the intracellular side and

sites for attachment of 2 K+ at the extracellular side

 It has ATPase activity. It hydrolyses ATP and the energy liberated

is used to drive the Na+ and K+ against their concentration
gradients

 It pumps out 3 Na+ and simultaneously pumps in 2 K+

Na leaks in through
Leak Channels

Na+ – K+ ATPase

Pumps out 3 Na+

Pumps in 2 K+

K leaks out through

Leak Channels
 Secondary active transport:-
 The electrochemical gradient set up by the primary active
transport store energy.
 Secondary active transport uses the energy stored in this
gradient to move other substances against its own gradient.
 Example: Na-Glucose cotransport
• The movement of Na ions down the gradient is coupled to
the uphill transport of glucose shared by cotransporter
(carrier protein)
• The carrier protein uses the energy of the Na gradient to
drive the transport of glucose molecules.
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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PASSIVE & ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
   Passive transport Active transport 

Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion

Concentration/ In favour of against 
electrical gradient

Energy expenditure   nil is required

Specificity nil yes yes

Carrier protein  nil is required  is required

Saturation  no yes  yes

 Competition  no yes  yes

 TRANSPORT OF MACROMOLECULES

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 ▪ Phagocytosis (cell eating) : when the material taken are
particulate substances. Example: neutrophils engulfing bacteria

▪ Pinocytosis (cell drinking): when the material ingested is liquid

and the vesicle sizes are smaller.

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 Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
▪ Specific areas of membrane has coated pits where it is
concentrated with specific receptors

▪ Dense materials are present on the inner surface that contain

contractile elements

▪ When there are Interaction of specific molecules of ECF with

these receptors, it will make the membrane to invaginate,
fuse and pinch off to form vesicles.

▪ This includes clathrin-mediated transport

 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this session the student would be able to:

 Describe the basic organization of the body

 Describe the components of a cell

 List the various mechanisms of transport across the plasma

membrane 

 Define homeostasis and explain its basis 

 

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 MAIN REFERENCE

1. Medical Physiology, RK Marya, 4th ed.

2. Text Book of Medical Physiology, Guyton and Hall, 13th ed.
3. Review of Medical Physiology, William Ganong, 25th ed.
4. Human Physiology, L Sherwood, 9th ed.
5. Netter’s Essential Physiology, 2nd ed.

02/11/2022