Ankara University

Engineering Faculty
Department of Engineering Physics Chapter 1
PEN207
Electric Circuts and Circuit Elements
Circuit Design and Analysis

Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Sarı

Chapter-1: Electric Circuit and Circuit Elements

Chapter-1: Part One
• Electric Charge
• Current • Electric Charge
• Potential Difference • Current
• Electrical Energy, Work and Power • Potential Difference
• Power Sources and Circuits Elements • Electrical Energy, Work and Power
• Resistance: Ohm’s Law • Power Sources and Circuits Elements
• Inductance • Resistance: Ohm’s Law
• Capacitance • Inductance
• Fundamental Circuit Laws: Kirchhoff’s Laws • Capacitance
• Fundamental Circuit Laws: Kirchhoff’s Laws

3 4

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 1

 Conductor and Insulators Definition: Current and Voltage
e e Current and Potential Difference (or Potential or Voltage)
e e a R1 b
c
e e I
+ +
E V V R2
Dielectrics(Insulators) Metal (Conductors) -
-
Free carrier density (n): 0 cm-3 Free carrier density (n): 1023 cm-3
q=0, I=0 q=0, I≠0
d
No net charge, no free carriers! No net charge, but free carriers I: Current (unit Ampere)
E: Electromotor Force (Power Supply) - (unit Volt)
Glass Aluminium V: Potentil Difference (Measured btw two points in circuit) - (unit Volt)
Ceramics Copper
Plastic Gold Color Code used in this class :
Current (I)
Potential Difference (E,V)
Conductivity: σ = nqµ n: Free carrier density
q: electron’s charge Uppercase letters: For constant current (I) and Potential (E, V)
1 1 µ: mobility Lowercase letters: For current (i(t)) and potential (e(t), v(t)) changing in time
Resistivity: ρ = = 5 6
σ nq µ

Definitions Electric Charge

l Resistivity:
A 11
ρ ρ= =
Resistivity is resistance of I σ nq µ
a specific material (specific
electrical resistance, or
l= Length
volume resistivity)
R A=Cross Sectional Area
Current is the movement of electric charges so we have to define charge first
1C=6.3x1018 e
Unit of charge (symbol Q) is Coulomb (C)
Q
Charge of an electron= -1.6x10-19 C
In order to have 1 Coulomb charge we have to bring 6.3x1018 electrons together

Physics Circuit Force between charges (F)

Q1 Q2
Q1 .Q2 F F
Coulomb’s Law F =k
ρ)
l  d2
Resistivity (ρ R = ρ  Resistance (R)
 A In physics forces can be expressed in terms
of field:
 Q 
F =  k 12  .Q2 = E.Q2
Electric Field (E) V=El Potential (V)  d  Q1 Q2
E F
Q1
Electric Field (E) E=k
Current Density (J) I=JA Current (I) d2
7 8

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 2

 Current Current
In engineering we interest in charges in motion because only moving charges Unit of electric current in SI unit system is ampere (symbol A)
transmit energy.
[one ampere is the flow of electric charge at the rate of one coulomb per
second ]
Current, is the flow of charges [coulomb ] 1C
[ amper ] = 1A =
[ s] 1s
Let’s consider charge (Q) passing through a wire with a constant rate; Homework-1.1:
I Capital letter I used for If the current passing through a wire is 1 µA how many electrons are flowing in 4 sec?
current from the
Q French word intensitie We have to also define the direction of current as well as its magnitude.
Current can be defined: I=
t
The direction of positive charges is assumed the direction of current.
If the number of charges chances with time then we can define instantaneous
current i(t): In fact in metals (or conductors) moving charges are negatively charged
dq electrons, so current direction is the opposite direction of free carriers.
Instantaneous current: i(t ) = dt
Notation I
I, Q (Constant rate) e
i, q (changing with time) i(t), q(t) Number of charges: q = ∫ i (t )dt 9 - - - - 10

Measurement of Current Different Forms of Current

Current through a branch of a circuit does not change. Measuring instrument called Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current (AC)
Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit. Current, i(t)
Current, I
Ammeters are connected in series with the circuit. The resistance of an
Ammeter is zero (ideally).
I t (time)
b c
I t (time)
+
E Iab= Ibc = Icd = Ida = I
- Period
I
a d Direct current, flow of charges Alternating Current , current that direction
are in one direction number of and value is changing periodically
Ammeter charges does not change
b c
A period=1/frequency
I Unit:
+
E Measurement of current periyod [time]=second
- frequency [1/time]=1 /second= hertz (Hz)
I Battery and accumulator In Turkey mains voltage (grid power voltage) is
a d 11 are example of DC current 220V and frequency is 50 Hz 12

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 3

 Definition of Potential Difference or Voltage Potential Energy and Potential Difference (Mech)
Potential Difference (or Potential or Voltage)

a R1 b High potential U=mgh (Potential Energy)

c
I
+ +
E V V R2 g h Work => W=Fdışh=mgh=U
- -
d
Low potential U=0 (Potential Energy-referans)
E: Electromotor Force (Power Supply) - (unit V)
V: Potentil Difference (Measured btw two points in circuit) - (unit V)
Potential Energy (U): U=mgh

Color Code used in this class : Potential (V): V=U/m => V=U/m=mgh/m=gh
Potential Difference (E,V) (Potential energy
per unit mass)
Uppercase letters: For constant Potential (E, V)
Lowercase letters: For potential (e(t), v(t)) changing in time V=gh Potential is proportional with
height.

13 Relation btw Potential Energy 14

& Potential difference U=mV

Potential Energy and Potential Difference Potential Energy & Potential Difference (Elec)
U=mgh V=U/m Force acting on a charge Q in an electric field E
h2 c V(c)
b V(b) V(b) Coulomb Law: F = k Q1.Q2 E m
d2 F Q
h3 Q1
Electric Field: E = k
g h1 h d2 g h
U(b)=mV F = E .Q
a=0 d
V(a)
Work: W = U = F .d =  k 1 2  .d = ( E.Q ) .d = ( E.d ) Q


Q .Q W = U = mg .h
2
Potential Energy (U): U=mgh Potential difference is a (Potential  d 
Energy)
measure of the potential U
energy independent of mass U V= = gh
Potential (V): V=U/m => Potential: V≡ = Ed m
(Potential energy U(h)=mV(h) Q
per unit mass)
V=U/m=mgh/m=gh U = mV
Relation between Potential Energy
U = QV
and Potential Difference:
15 16

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 4

 Potential Difference Measurement of Voltage
In a circuit, work done to move a unit positive charge between two points is called
Potential difference in a circuit is measured with a measurement
Potential Difference or Voltage. In other words Potential difference or Volt is the
instrument called Voltmeter
work (energy) done per unit charge. b c
I
[If work done on a 1 Coulomb charge to bring charge from point A to point B is 1 +
E Vab=?
Joule then the potential difference between these wto points is one volt (symbol V)] -
I Vcd=?
[ joule] 1J
[ volt ] = 1V = a d
[ coulomb] 1C
EMF
Voltmeters are connected in paralel with the circuit. So the resistance
If the potential diffenence is the difference of power supply or battery it is
Battery of an voltmeter is infinity.
commonly called elektromotor force or shortly EMF and potential diffenence
is shown by symbol E. b c
b c

+ I I
+ Voltmeter Potential Difference
E Decreasing Potential E
Increasing potential - (voltage drop) Vab Vcd Measurement
Lamba -
(voltage jump)
I I Vbc=Vda=0
Ebc= - 2,5 V
a d a d Vab= Vcd
Eab=+120 V Ecd= - 115 V
Eda= - 2,5 V
17 18
The sign of voltage sign shows increase (+) or decrease (-).

Energy, Work and Power Work, Energy and Power in Circuits

Work=(Force).(Displacement) W=F.d Force acting on a charge (Q) in electric field (E),
F d
E
In Mechanics
Unit of work is (in SI unit system) Joule (J) Q
F m
[joule]=[newton].[meter] F
F = E.Q
In circular motion force (F)
and displacement (d) is Energy is the ability to do work d
always perpendicular to each


other so no work is done d W = F .d
Power = Work / Time P=W/t Work:


W = F .d = ( E.Q ) .d = ( E.d ) Q = V .Q = U ( Potentialenergy )
Measured in Watt (W) (in SI)
[watt]=[joule] / [second]
U  Q Q
Power is the rate at which work is done We define V≡ ≡ E.d =  k 2  .d = k
potential: Q  d  d
Since there is close relation between power and energy
sometime energy unit is given in terms of power unit:
W V .Q Q P = F .v
For example energy (joule), can be given as watt-sec or Power: P= = = V   = V .I
kilowatt-hour (1000x3600=3.6x106 watt-sec) 19 t t t  20

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 5

 Electrical Energy and Power
How can we express energy and power in terms of electrical quantitie Example 1.1: Electrical energy is stored at a constant speed by transmitting it to
current and voltage? a battery and converting it to 400W chemical energy. During the
Electrical energy can be given below in terms of , Voltage (V) and charge process, 20% of the power transmitted to the battery is lost in
(Q) heat. If the cost of kW-hour of electricity is 1.25TL, find the
energy value and cost spent to charge the battery for 10 hours.
Electric Energy: W = ( E.d ).Q = V .Q Solution:
İş, sabit bir hızda yapılırsa ve toplam Q yükü, t saniyede E voltluk
bir gerilim altında hareket ederse, güç: If the total power transmitted to the battery is Pb then:
W V .Q 400W+0.2Pb=Pb => Pb=500W
Electric Power: P= =
t t
Uygulamada, yükten ziyade akım ile ilgilendiğimizden güç ifadesi: Total energy in 10 hours Wb=(500W)x(10 hours)=5000W-hour=5 kW-hour

P = V .I Power Cost of consumed energy= (5kW-hour)x(1.25TL / (kW-hour))=6.25TL

Bu güç, uçlarındaki gerilim (V), üstünden geçen akım I olan devre
elemanının birim zamanda soğurduğu veya dışarıya verdiği enerjidir. Efficiency %80 (loss %20)

If both current and voltage are changing with time p(t);

p (t ) = v(t ).i (t ) Instantenous Power 21 22

Energy, Work and Power
Example-1.2: In the circuit below there is voltage supply of 115V. The current
flowing in the curcuit is 2.61A. (a) What is the power dissipated
on the light bulp if the cost of kW-hour energy is 1.25TL. (b)
How much we should pay if we use the bulp 10 hours?
Definition of Closed, Open and Short Circuits
CLOSED circuit is a circuit where power source and other circuit
elements (such as resistor) are connected by wires so there will be
flow of current and voltage.

+ I=2.61 A
+ I
E=115V
- Battery
Light -
bulp
bulp I
Solution:
(a) P=E.I=(115 V).(2.61 A)= 300W CLOSED CIRCUIT
(b) W=E.I.t=(300 W).(10 hour)=3000 W-hour=3.0 kW-hour In Closed Circuit
R≠∞
Cost=(3.0 kW-hour).(1.25 TL/kW-hour)=3.75 TL (Considerable resistance)
≠0
Current ≠ 0 (no high current)
23 Voltage ≠ 0 24

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 6

 Open Circuit Short Circuit
In a circuit if wires are cut off so there will be no current flow, In Short circuit the poles of battery or power supply is connected directly
but there is voltage. Then, we have an open circuit.
b c

+ I=0
+ I=0
Battery
Battery -
- Bulp
Bulb
a d

OPEN CIRCUIT SHORT CIRCUIT

In Short Circuit
In Open Circuit R=0
R=∞ Current=Max (too high to damage the circuit)
Current=0 Voltage=0 V (forced (by shorting) to be zero)
Voltage≠0
25 26

Battery Table-Electrical Quantities and Mechanical

Consider a circuit below: Equivalences
b c

+ I Mechanical
Battery E Electric Symbol Unit (SI) Equation
- Equivalence
Light
I Bulb
Charge q, Q Coulomb (C) - Displacement
a d

In order to keep current flowing through circuit an external electric energy Curent i, I Amper (A) i=dq/dt Velocity
must be supplied. The energy is suplied by the poer sourcees. Battery is an
example of voltage sources. Potantial e, E
Difference or Volt (V) e=dw/dq Force
or Voltage v, V
Power p=vi
p, P Watt (W) w = ∫ vdq
Power
Battery gives necessary + Energy
Battery E w, W Joule (J) w = ∫ vidt
Energy (Work)
energy to electrons to flow - (Work)
in circuit.
27 28
Symbol

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 7

 Some Metric Prefixes Used in Physics
Chapter-1: Part Two

Large quantities Small quantities • Electric Charge

Kilo (k) 103 Mili (m) 10-3 • Current
• Potential Difference
Mega (M) 106 Micro (µ) 10-6 • Electrical Energy, Work and Power
Giga (G) 109 Nano (n) 10-9 • Power Sources and Circuits Elements
• Resistance: Ohm’s Law
Tera (T) 1012 Pico (p) 10-12
• Inductance
• Capacitance
• Fundamental Circuit Laws: Kirchhoff’s Laws

29 30

Power Sources & Circuit Elements Definition of Load

Electric Circuit is consist of electrical power sources (voltage and current) and
other circuit elements (Receivers) that absorb or store energy.

I
+
E R Load
R e(t)
-
Sources Receivers or Absorbers
• Current L • Resistor (R)
i(t)
• Voltage • Inductor (L) Load can be resistors or any other combination of mix circuit elements
• Capacitor (C)

Before we start to analyse circuits we have to know each

individual circuit elements’ voltage-current behaviour.
31 32

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 8

 Ideal Power Sources-Independent Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Sources Ideal Current Source
Ideal sources supply constant voltage (Voltage Source) or constant current (Current A A
+ I=∞ I=6
Source) ; the current and voltage values at the source terminal does not changes with VAB=0V
E=6V R=0Ω I=6A R=0Ω
the load (external resistor) it will always stay the same. Also ideal sources have no - In real world this
B is not possible! B
internal resistor.
+ A A
e(t), E + I=6 I=6
i(t), I I=6A
- E=6V R=1Ω VAB=6V R=1Ω
-
B B
Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Current Source A A
Voltage value of an ideal voltage source does Current value of an ideal current source
+ I=3 I=6
not change with the load (external resistor) does not change with the load (external E=6V R=2Ω I=6A VAB=12V R=2Ω
-
Voltage at the terminal is always constant! (But resistor) Current is always constant! (But B B
the drawn current can be changed) the voltage at the terminal can be changed) In real world thisA
A
+ I=0 is not possible! I=6
In reality no source is ideal and we will look at real sources in Chapter-2
E=6V R=∞Ω I=6A R=∞Ω
Notation: - VAB=∞V
Uppercase letters: For constant current (I) and Potential (E) sources B B
Lowercase letters: For current (i(t)) and potential (e(t), v(t)) sources changing Voltage value of an ideal voltage source does not Current value of an ideal current source does not
33 change with the load (external resistor) it is always change with the load (external resistor) it is always
in time 34
constant! (But drawn current can be changed. constant! (But drawn current can be changed.

Ideal Voltage Source Dependent (Controlled) Source Types

A
In Dependent Sources the voltage or current at the terminals of the sources
220V Io=0 R= ∞ Ω VAB=220V depends on the current or voltage value of any specific points at the circuit.
Examples of such sources are transistors.
B
Outlets in our homes are example of an ideal
A voltage source. The potential difference (220V) There are four possible case for the dependent sources
I1>Io Washer does not change with the addition of appliance
220V (load) (Note: current of an ideal voltage source
Machine
is not defined) + + +
B e2=A1e1 e1 i2=B1e1 e1
- - -
A
I2>I1
Washer Refriger Voltage dependent voltage source
220V Voltage dependent current source
Machine ator

B
A + +
I3>I2 e2=A2i1 i2=B2i1
i1 i1
220V Washer Refriger Dish - -
Machine ator Machine
B
35 36
Current dependent voltage source Current dependent current source

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 9

 Power Sources & Circuit Elements Circuit Elements
Receivers or absorbers in a circuit called circuit elements. These elements
Electric Circuit is consist of electrical power sources (voltage and current) and dissipate (absorb) or store energy.
other circuit elements (Receivers) that absorb or store energy. Depending on the relation between voltage and current we can define three
different type of circuit elements as follows:
Type-1: In this type of circuit elements the voltage is linearly depends on the
e(t) current passing through it. These type of circuit elements are called
R resistor. Energy is dissipated as a heat energy and it is irreversible.
Sources √ Receivers or Absorbers
• Resistor (R)
v = R.i
• Current L
i(t)
• Voltage • Inductor (L) Type-2: In this type of circuit elements the voltage is depends on the variation of
current in time (derivatives) passing through it. Proportional constant is
• Capacitor (C)
called inductance. Energy is conserved and stores as magnetic field.
C di
v=L
dt
Type-3: In this type of circuit elements the current is depends on the variation of
Before we start to analyse circuits we have to know each voltage in time (derivatives) accros it. Proportional constant is called
individual circuit elements’ voltage-current behaviour. capacitance. Energy is conserved and stores as electric field.
. dv
37 i=C 38
dt

Ohm’s Law: Resistance Ohm’s Law: Resistance

If the current (i) passing through a circuit element is proportional with the potential
difference (v) across is called resistor. i R Voltage(V ) = Re sistor ( R) × Current ( I )
v = R.i + v -
V = R.I
Resistance is the proportionality constant between current and voltage. The
symbol R is used for resistance. Its unit in SI system is ohm (symbol Ω).
In general, linear relation between current and voltage is known as Ohm’s Law
Symbol: R When a current passes through a resistor there
Unit= Ohm (Ω) (1 Ω=1V/1A) is voltage drop in the direction of current
R=e/i => [ohm]=[volt] / [amper] i R
Circuit Symbol:
High + v - Low
The mechanical equivalent of potential potantial
the resistance is the frictional
Power (p) loss on a resistor (R):
force. Resistance resists
movement of electrical
p = v.i = ( R.i ) .i = Ri 2 In ters of current
charges and the energy to
v v
2
overcome this resistance is
p = v.i = v   = In terms of voltage 39 40
lost as heat. R R

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 10

 Conductance, G
Sometime defining inverse of resistance can be practical to use. Example-1.0: The following circuit is excited by an ideal current source. The current
curve as a function of time is given in the following figure. Draw the
DC Current-
waveforms of the voltage v, the instantaneous power p on the resistor as
Voltage
Ohm’s Law in terms of Resistance (R): v = R.i a function of time.

Ohm’s Law in terms of Conductance (G): i = G.v V = IR

+
I = G.V i(t) v 10Ω
Here G, is the inverse of resistance and known as conductance -
1
G≡ Conductance
R
Unit of conductance is mho (1 mho=1/ohm)
i(t)(amper)
Power (p) loss on a resistor in terms of conductance (G):
2
 i 
2
The unit of conductivity (G) is i In ters of current
p = v.i =  .i  .i = t (second)
mho and has no special meaning.
G  G
Since conductivity is the inverse
p = v.i = v. ( G.v ) = Gv 2 In terms of voltage 0 1 2 3 4
of resistance, the unit of G is also
written in reverse order of the
41 42
unit of resistance, ohm.

Solution:
Inductance-1
The circuit element on which the voltage is directly proportional to the rate of
i(t)(A) change of the current passing through it is called inductor (Coil).
+ i(t ) = 2t i (t ) = 2 i(t ) = 2(4 − t )
i L
i(t) v 10Ω
2 di
v=L
- t dt + v -
Inductance is the proportionality constant between change in current and
v(t) (V) voltage and it has symbol. Its unit is henry (Symbol H).
Voltage: v = R.i 20
v(t ) = (10Ω).i (t ) Inductance is a measure of resisting changes in current.
t

If we know voltage across an inductor the current passing through it is:

Power: p = v.i = ( R.i ) .i = Ri 2 t =t
1 1
L∫ L t =∫0
The effect of inductance is similar to the
p = (10Ω)i 2 = (40Ω)t 2 p(t) (W) i= v.dt i= v.dt + i (0)
relationship between force and velocity (mass) in
40 mechanics. Since F=dp/dt=m(dv/dt), in mechanical
p1 (t ) = (10Ω)(2t )2 = (40Ω )t 2
systems, mass is a measure of resistance to i(0): Value of current before
2 movement (making it difficult to accelerate of the it changes
p1 (t ) = 40t 2 p 2 (t ) = 4 0 p3 (t ) = 40 ( 4 − t ) t
stationary object and to stop the fast body). The
0 1 2 3 4
43 inductance value L of the coil is likewise a 44
measure of resisting the change in current.

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 11

 Inductance-2 Inductance-3
di (t )
Inductance resists to increasing current and helps decreasing current. v(t ) = L L=1 H
dt
di(t ) i(t) v(t)
v(t ) = L i(t)=0→10A i(t) 10
dt

+
i (t ) = t L=1H 5 1V
- t(s) t(s)
 di  di 0 5 10 0 5 10
Power in inductance: p = v.i =  L  .i = iL
 dt  dt
i(t)
di 1 i(t)=10→0A i(t) 10
Energy: w = ∫ pdt = ∫ Li dt = ∫ Lidi = Li 2 -
v(t)
dt 2 L=1 H 5
i (t ) = 10 − t
+ t(s) t(s)
Inductive energy is conserved and reversible (energy in the resistor, however 0 5 10 0 5 10
45 46
is non-conservative and lost as heat).
-1 V

Important Note! Example-1.3: An ideal current source suppleis energy ton the circuit below. The
If the current is not an alternative or time varying, the voltage current curve as a function of time is given in the following
figure. Plot the waveforms of voltage, instantaneous power and
on the inductor is zero and the inductor acts as a short circuit. stored energy as a function of time.

+ + +
i(t) L
i(t) v(t) 10H
v(t) I v=0 -
- -

i(t)(amper)
di di di
v=L i = sabit ⇒ =0 v =L =0 2
dt dt dt
t (sec)

0 1 2 3 4

47 48

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 12

 i(t)(A) Solution Capacitance
2  i (t ) = 2t 0 < t < 1 Circuit element that is he current passing through it is proportional to the voltage

i (t ) =  i (t ) = 2 1< t < 3
i (t ) = 8 − 2t 3 < t < 4 change between its ends is called Capacitor.
 i(t) C
v(t) (V) dv(t )
20 di (t ) 
 f ′(t ) = 2 0 < t < 1 i (t ) = C + -
f ′(t ) = =  f ′(t ) = 0 1 < t < 3 dt
dt  f ′(t ) = −2 3 < t < 4 v(t)
 Capacitance is the proportionality coefficient between the change in voltage and
 v(t ) = 20 0 < t < 1 the current, indicated by C. The unit of capacitance is Farad (symbol F).
di (t ) 
v(t ) = L = Lf ′(t ) =  v(t ) = 0 1< t < 3
i(t) C
-20 dt v(t ) = −20 3 < t < 4
 Symbol: C
p(t) (W)
40 Unit= Farad (F) + -
 p(t ) = 40t 0 < t < 1 [Farad]= [Ampere] / [Volt/s] High v(t) Low
di (t ) 
p(t ) = v(t ).i (t ) = Li =  p (t ) = 0 1< t < 3 Circuit symbol: potantial potential
dt  p(t ) = −40t 3 < t < 4

-40 1
C∫
Voltage on capacitor if we know the current: v(t ) = i (t )dt

1
t (s)
49
In terms of charge: v(t ) =
C
( ∫ i(t )dt ) = Cq q = Cv
50
0 1 2 3 4 q ≡ ∫ i (t )dt

Capacitance-2 Capacitance-3
dv(t )
i (t ) = C
dt
Power on capacitor: v(t) i(t)
 dv  dv 10 V
p = v.i = v  C  = Cv watt v(t)=0→10V i(t)
 dt  dt

+
5V 1A
C=1F
- t(s) t(s)
Stored Energy: v(t ) = t 0 5 10 0 5 10
dv 1
w = ∫ pdt = ∫ Cv dt = ∫ Cvdv = Cv 2 joule
dt 2 v(t)
10 V
The energy on capacitor is similiar to the energy stored in spring. The value of
v(t)=10→0V i(t)
+ i(t)
this energy depends only on the magnitude of the voltage; it is independent of 5V
C=1F
how it reaches this value. - t(s) t(s)
v(t ) = 10 − t 0 5 10 0 5 10
51
52 -1 A

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 13

 İmportant Note! Example-1.4: In the circuit below, a capacitor of 0.1F is excited by an ideal
If the voltage is not an alternative or time varying, the current current source. The current curve as a function of time is given in
the following figure. Plot the waveforms of the voltage v, charge
on the capacitor is zero and the capacitor acts as a open circuit. q, power p and the stored energy w as a function of time.

i(t) + + +
v(t) e C v(t) i(t)=0 i(t) v 0,1 F
- - -

i(t)(A)
dv dv dv
i=C v = cons tan t ⇒ = 0 i =C =0 2.0
dt dt dt t (sec)

0 0.5 1.0

53 54

i(t)(A) Solution
2.0  i (t ) = 2 0 < t < 0.5
i (t ) =  L and C are ineffective in DC circuits
i (t ) = 0 0.5 < t < 1.0
(by making L short and C open)
 f (t ) = 2t + c 0 < t < 0.5
v(t)(V) f (t ) = ∫ i (t )dt = 
10.0  f (t ) = c 0.5 < t < 1.0

1 1  v(t ) = 20t 0 < t < 0.5

C∫
v(t ) = i (t )dt = f (t ) = 
C  v(t ) = 10 0.5 < t < 1.0
q(t)(C)
+ R - R
1.0
 q(t ) = 2t 0 < t < 0.5
q(t ) = Ce(t ) =  + i(t) + i(t) 1
L∫
 q(t ) = 10 0.5 < t < 1.0 E L
e(t) L i(t ) = e(t ).dt
p(t)(W) - -
20.0
 dv(t )   p (t ) = 40t 0 < t < 0.5
p (t ) = v(t )i(t ) = v(t )  C = C
 dt   p(t ) = 0 0.5 < t < 1.0
w(t)(J) de ( t )
i (t ) = C
5.0 dt
 w(t ) = 40t 2 0 < t < 0.5
t (s) w(t ) = ∫ p(t )dt = 
 w(t ) = 5 0.5 < t < 1.0 55 56
0 0.5 1.0

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 14

 Circuit Analysis Fundamental Circuit Laws: Kirchhof’s Law
The basic laws of electrical circuits are derived from the properties of electrical
Consider the circuit below circuit elements. These basic laws allow for the systematic examination and analysis
of complex electrical circuits. These laws are known as Kirchhoff's Laws and
• What is the voltage difference (or current) between R2 ? consist of two basic laws:
• How much source is needed to circulate the current (to do work)?
1- Kirchhoff‘s Current Law (KCL) (Conservation of charge)
R1 R3 e(t)
- + 2- Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law (KVL) (Conservation of Energy)

i(t) L1

R2
C1

C2 R4 i(t)

57 58

Kirchhoff‘s Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of all currents directed towards a junction (node) is zero Example 1.5: In the following circuits currents and voltages are known: i2=10e-
2t A, i =4sin(t) A and v =2e-2t V. What is v potential?
4 3 1

A junction (or a node) is a point where three or more

connections (branch) are met i1
Junction (node) + 3H
v1=?
-
Not a junction point! i4
i2=10e-2t A i2 i4=4sin(t) A
- i3
i1 i2
At a junction point: v3 2F
• Entering currents are (+) positive i3 +
• Leaving currents are (-) negative v3=2e-2t V
i5
i4

+i1 − i2 − i3 + i4 − i5 = 0 59 60

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 15

 Solution: Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law (KVL)
Since the algebraic sum of the currents at the point A must be zero (from KCL) The algebraic sum of the potentials around a closed loop (or closed path) is zero.
vR
+i1 + i2 + i3 − i4 = 0 + -
i1 + R -
i2 and i4 currents are known, i3 can be find.
Closed loop (or path) refers to a
way to leave a point and get back e1 L vL
+ 3H to it without leaving the network. -
v1
dv d
i3 = C 3 = 2 (2e −2t ) = 4(−2)e −2t = −8e −2 t A
+
- dt dt
Closed loop (path)
i2=10e-2t A i1 current:
A
i1 = i4 − i2 − i3 vR
i3 b + - c
- i1 = 4sin t − 10e −2 t + 8e−2t = 4sin t − 2e −2 t
v3=2e-2t V 2F + R -
Along a closed loop (or path) in a determined
+ e1
v1 potential: direction (CW or CCW): L vL
• Potential rises are (from - to +) positive; - +
di1 d • Potential drops are (from + to -) negative
v1 = L = 3 (4sin t − 2e−2t ) d
dt dt a
= 12cos t + 12e −2 t V is found.
61
+e1 − v R + v L = 0 62

Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law (KVL) -2 Choosing a Loop-1

Similarly, the algebraic sum of the voltages is also zero if the point at which it
is started is reached when traveling outside the loop.

vR
+ -
Closed loop (or path); refers
+ R vR
- to a way to leave a point + -
e1 vA A (starting point -a) and get R
+ back to it without leaving + +
- e1
+
the network. vC L vL
a - - -
Closed loop Starting from point a and
back to point a, the algebraic
a
+ e1 − v R + v A = 0
sum of the voltages is zero,
Closed (outer) loop
Why (when) the outer loop?
If sometimes it gives us
additional information, we +e1 − v R − v L = 0
In the direction of rotation, the voltage increase is taken as (+) and the may want to write the voltages
decrease is taken as (-) 63 along the closed (outer) loop. 64

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 16

 Choosing a Loop-2 Choosing a Loop-3
KVL is also for closed outer loops: The algebraic sum of the voltages is zero
even when traveling outside a loop.

Outer loop
Vab=Vcd v2
+ -
vR It doesn't matter how R2
+ - a c + + +
many loop there are.
R
e1 R3 v3 R4 v4
+ vC vR3 + - - -
e1 I II
L vL
- Closed (inner) vR2 -
loop Inner loops
b d
Inner Loops Outer loop
Closed (outer) loop
I. loop +e1 − v 2 − v3 = 0
+ e1 − v 2 − v 4 = 0
Closed (inner) loop=Closed (outer) loop
II. loop + v3 − v 4 = 0
+ e1 − v R − v L = 0 65 + e1 − v 2 − (v 4 ) = 0 66

Choosing a Loop-4
Example 1.6: The following circuit shows a section of an electrical circuit. At this
A loop of two inner loops can also be taken as a single loop and the KVL
section; If v1=4 V, e2=3cos(2t) V and i3=2e-t/5 A find i4 current.
can be written.

v2 Wide inner loop

+ -
R2 v1 -
+ + + +
e1 R3 v3 R4 v4 +
- - - +
I II e2 10F v4
- 5H
-
i3 i4=?
Inner Loops
Inner loops + v3 -
I. loop +e1 − v 2 − v3 = 0
II. loop + v3 − v 4 = 0 Wide inner loop
+ e1 − v 2 − v 4 = 0
+e1 − v 2 − (v 4 ) = 0

+ e1 − v 2 − (v 4 ) = 0 67 68

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 17

 Solution: What is Next?..
The algebraic sum of the voltages throughout a closed loop is zero (KVL )

+ v3 + e2 − v1 − v 4 = 0
• Basic circuit elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor) and
v1 If we know v1 and e2 potentials, we can find v3 their I-V (voltage-current relationship) characteristics were
+ - learned.
di3 d
+ v3 = L = 5 (2e−t 5 ) = −2e −t 5 V
+ dt dt
e2 10F v4 • The analysis of a circuit can be obtained from Kirchhoff's
- 5H
- v4 potential current and voltage laws.
i3 i4
v 4 = v3 + e2 − v1
+ v3 -
v 4 = −2e−t 5 + 3cos( 2t ) − 4 V • Circuit Theory, which is the application of these rules and
Current i4 thus facilitates the solution of specific problems, will be
dv 4 d
examined in detail in the next section.
i4 = C = 10 (−2e −t 5 + 3cos(2t ) − 4)
dt dt
= 4e −t 5 − 60sin(2t ) A found
69 70

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 18