Ankara University

Engineering Faculty
Department of Engineering Physics Chapter 1
PEN207
Electric Circuits and Circuit Elements
Circuit Design and Analysis

Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Sarı

Chapter-1: Electric Circuit and Circuit Elements

Chapter-1: Part One
• Electric Charge
• Current • Electric Charge
• Potential Difference • Current
• Electrical Energy, Work and Power • Potential Difference
• Power Sources and Circuits Elements • Electrical Energy, Work and Power
• Resistance: Ohm’s Law • Power Sources and Circuits Elements
• Inductance • Resistance: Ohm’s Law
• Capacitance • Inductance
• Fundamental Circuit Laws: Kirchhoff’s Laws • Capacitance
• Fundamental Circuit Laws: Kirchhoff’s Laws

3 4

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 1

 Conductor and Insulators Definition: Current and Voltage
e e Current and Potential Difference (or Potential or Voltage)
e e a R1 b
c
e e I
+ +
E V V R2
Dielectrics (Insulators) Metal (Conductors) -
-
Free carrier density (n): 0 cm-3 Free carrier density (n): 1023 cm-3
q=0, I=0 q=0, I≠0
d
No net charge, no free carriers! No net charge, but free carriers I: Current (unit isAmpere)
E: Electromotor Force (Power Supply) - (unit is Volt)
Glass Aluminium V: Potentil Difference (Measured btw two points in circuit) - (unit is Volt)
Ceramics Copper
Plastic Gold Color Code used in this class :
Current (I)
Potential Difference (E,V)
Conductivity: σ = nqµ n: Free carrier density
q: electron’s charge Uppercase letters: For constant current (I) and Potential (E, V)
1 1 µ: mobility Lowercase letters: For current (i(t)) and potential (e(t), v(t)) changing in time
Resistivity: ρ = = 5 6
σ nq µ

Definitions Electric Charge

l Resistivity: Current is the movement of electric charges so we have to define charge first
1 1
ρ ρ= = 1C=6.3x1018 e
Resistivity is resistance of
A I σ nq µ Unit of charge (symbol Q) is Coulomb (C)
a specific material (specific Q
electrical resistance, or Charge of an electron= -1.6x10-19 C
l= Length
volume resistivity)
R A=Cross Sectional Area In order to have 1 Coulomb charge we have to bring 6.3x1018 electrons together

Physics Relation Between Circuit Force between charges (F)

Q1 Q2
Q1.Q2 F F
Coulomb’s Law F = k
l  Resistance (R)
d2
Resistivity (ρ
ρ) R = ρ 
 A In physics forces can be expressed in terms
of field:
 Q 
F =  k 12  .Q2 = E.Q2 Q1 Q2
Electric Field (E) V=El Potential (V)  d  E F
Q1
Electric Field (E) E = k
d2
Current Density (J) I=JA Current (I) 7 8
F = E.Q

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 2

 Current Current
In engineering we interest in charges in motion because only moving charges Unit of electric current in SI unit system is ampere (symbol A)
transmit energy.
[one ampere is the flow of electric charges at the rate of one coulomb per
second]
Current, is the flow of charges [ coulomb ] 1C
[ amper ] = 1A =
[s] 1s
Let’s consider charge (Q) passing through a wire with a constant rate; Homework-1.1:
I Capital letter I used for If the current passing through a wire is 1 µA how many electrons are flowing in 4 sec?
current from the
Q French word intensitie We have to also define the direction of current as well as its magnitude.
Current can be defined: I=
t
The direction of positive charges is assumed the direction of current.
If the number of charges chances with time then we can define instantaneous
current i(t): In fact in metals (or conductors) moving charges are negatively charged
dq electrons, so current direction is the opposite direction of free carriers.
Instantaneous current: i (t ) = dt
Notation I
I, Q (Constant rate) e
i, q (changing with time) i(t), q(t) Number of charges: q = ∫ i (t )dt 9 - - - - 10

Measurement of Current Different Forms of Current

Current through a branch of a circuit does not change. The instrument called Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current (AC)
Ammeter is used to measure the current in a circuit. Current, i(t)
Current, I
Ammeters are connected in series with the circuit. The resistance of an ideal
Ammeter is zero.
I t (time)
b c
I Current through a branch of a
t (time)
+ circuit does not change.
E- Iab= Ibc = Icd = Ida = I Period
I
a d Direct current, flow of charges Alternating Current , current that direction
are in one direction number of and value is changing periodically
Ammeter charges does not change
b c
A period=1/frequency
I Unit:
+
periyod [time]=second
E- Measurement of current
frequency [1/time]=1 /second= hertz (Hz)
I Battery and accumulator In Turkey mains voltage (grid power voltage) is
a d 11 are example of DC current 220V and frequency is 50 Hz 12

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 3

 Definition of Potential Difference or Voltage Potential Energy and Potential Difference (Mech)
Potential Difference (or Potential or Voltage)

a R1 b High potential U=mgh (Potential Energy)

c
I
+ +
E V V R2 g h Work => W=Fdışh=mgh=U
- -
d
Low potential U=0 (Potential Energy-referans)
E: Electromotor Force (Power Supply) - (unit is V)
V: Potentil Difference (Measured btw two points in circuit) - (unit is V)
Potential Energy (U): U=mgh

Color Code used in this class : Potential (V): V=U/m => V=U/m=mgh/m=gh
Potential Difference (E,V) (Potential energy
per unit mass)
Uppercase letters: For constant Potential (E, V)
Lowercase letters: For potential (e(t), v(t)) changing in time V=gh Potential is proportional with
height.

13 Relation btw Potential Energy 14

(U) & Potential difference (V) U=mV

Potential Energy & Potential Difference (Elec) Potential Difference

Force acting on a charge Q in an electric field E What is the potential energy of the mass m?
m If the mass has a velocity
Coulomb Law: F = k Q1.Q2 E m we can define its kinetic
d2 F Q energy
Q1 This is not a proper question!
Electric Field: E = k g h
d2 Potential is always measured with respect to a reference point.
F = E.Q
d Potential energy of above mass can be any value! For example:


 Q .Q  d
Work: W = U = F .d =  k 1 2 2  .d = ( E.Q ) .d = ( E.d ) Q W = U = mg.h U=mgh
(Potential  d  h3
Energy) h2 c
U U b
Potential: V ≡ = Ed V = = gh
Q m
h1
U = mV
Relation between Potential Energy
U = QV a
and Potential Difference:
Therefore when we say potential we mean potential difference with respect
15 to a reference point and it is a difference rather than absoulute value 16

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 4

 Potential Energy and Potential Difference Potential Difference
V=U/m In a circuit, work done to move a unit positive charge between two points is called
U=mgh
Potential Difference or Voltage. In other words Potential difference or Volt is the
c V(c)
h2 work (energy) done per unit charge.
b V(b) V(b)
[If work done on a 1 Coulomb charge to bring charge from point A to point B is 1
h3 Joule then the potential difference between these two points is one volt (symbol V)]
g h1 h
U(b)=mV [ joule]
a=0 1J
[ volt ] = 1V =
[coulomb] 1C
V(a) EMF
If the potential diffenence is the difference of power supply or battery it is
Battery
commonly called elektromotor force or shortly EMF and potential diffenence
Potential Energy (U): U=mgh Potential difference is a is shown by symbol E. b c
measure of the potential
energy independent of mass I
Potential (V): V=U/m => +
Decreasing Potential
(Potential energy U(h)=mV(h) Increasing potential
E-
per unit mass) (voltage drop)
(voltage jump) Lamp
V=U/m=mgh/m=gh I
Ebc= 0 V
a d
Eab=+120 V Ecd= - 120 V
Eda= 0V
17 The sign of voltage sign shows increase (+) or decrease (-). 18

Measurement of Voltage Voltage Source

Potential difference in a circuit is measured with a measurement Voltage source can have different symbols in circuits
instrument called Voltmeter
b c
I a is higher potential
+ a a
+ E Vab=? than b
E- -
+ +
I Vcd=? E
E
d - -
a
Voltmeters are connected in paralel with the circuit. So the resistance
b b
of an voltmeter is infinity.

b c
I Voltage source creates potential difference (voltage difference) between
+ Voltmeter Potential Difference
E Vab Measurement two points in a circuit (it is called electromotor force)
- Vcd
I Vbc=Vda=0
a d Vab= Vcd

19 20

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 5

 Energy, Work and Power Work, Energy and Power in Circuits
Work=(Force).(Displacement) W=F.d Force acting on a charge (Q) in electric field (E),
F d
E
In Mechanics
Unit of work is (in SI unit system) Joule (J) Q
F m
[joule]=[newton].[meter] F
F = E.Q
In circular motion force (F)
and displacement (d) is Energy is the ability to do work d
always perpendicular to each


other so no work is done Work: d W = F .d
Power = Work / Time P=W/t


Measured in Watt (W) (in SI) W = F .d = ( E.Q ) .d = ( E.d ) Q = V .Q = U ( Potentialenergy )
[watt]=[joule] / [second]
U  Q Q
Power is the rate at which work is done We define V≡ ≡ E.d =  k 2  .d = k
potential: Q  d  d
Since there is close relation between power and energy
sometime energy unit is given in terms of power unit:

Power:
W V .Q Q P = F .v
For example energy (joule), can be given as watt-sec or P= = = V   = V .I
kilowatt-hour (1000x3600=3.6x106 watt-sec) 21 t t t  22

Electrical Energy and Power Power: Electric vs Mecanical

How can we express energy and power in terms of electrical quantitie
current and voltage? Power (P) in Mechanical Systems: Power (P) in Electrical Systems:
Electrical energy can be given below in terms of , Voltage (V) and charge v
(Q) Vab
F
a b
Electric Energy (W): W = ( E.d ).Q = V .Q d I R
If the work done with a constant velocity and total charge Q is
displaced under the potential V in time t, then the power: P = F .v Power (P): P = V .I
W V .Q
Electric Power (P): P= = Vab
t t
In practice, measuring current is more handy than the measuring a b
charge power can be expressed as: I
P = V .I Electric Power
Electric power shows the energy absorbed or dissapited by a circuit element,
Energy (W): W = F .d Energy (W): W = V .q
W = F .d = ( E.q )d = V .q
if there a potential difference (V) between its terminals and a current ( I ) V = E.d
passing through it. W F .d d W V .q q
P= = = F   = F .v P= = = V   = V .I
If the current and potentials are changing with time p(t); 23 t t t t t t
p (t ) = v(t ).i(t ) Instantenous Power

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 6

 Energy, Work and Power
Example 1.1: Electrical energy is stored at a constant speed by transmitting it
to a battery and converting it to 400W chemical energy. During the Example-1.2: In the circuit below there is voltage supply of 115V. The current
process, 20% of the power transmitted to the battery is lost in heat. If flowing in the curcuit is 2.61A. (a) What is the power dissipated
the cost of kW-hour of electricity is 1.25TL, find the energy value on the light bulp if the cost of kW-hour energy is 1.25TL. (b) How
and cost spent to charge the battery for 10 hours. much we should pay if we use the light bulp 10 hours?
Solution:
+ I=2.61 A
If the total power transmitted to the battery is Pb then: E=115V
-
Light
400W+0.2Pb=Pb => Pb=500W bulp
Solution:
Total energy in 10 hours Wb=(500W)x(10 hours)=5000W-hour=5 kW-hour
(a) P=E.I=(115 V).(2.61 A)= 300W
Cost of consumed energy= (5kW-hour)x(1.25TL / (kW-hour))=6.25TL
(b) W=E.I.t=(300 W).(10 hours)=3000 W-hour=3.0 kW-hour
Efficiency %80 (loss %20)
Cost=(3.0 kW-hour).(1.25 TL/kW-hour)=3.75 TL

25 26

Definition of Closed, Open and Short Circuits Open Circuit

CLOSED circuit is a circuit where power source and other circuit In a circuit if wires are cut off so there will be no current flow,
elements (such as resistor) are connected by wires so there will be but there is voltage. Then, we have an open circuit.
flow of current and voltage.

+ I=0
+ I
Battery
Battery -
- Light
Light
I bulb
bulp

OPEN CIRCUIT
CLOSED CIRCUIT
In Closed Circuit In Open Circuit
R≠∞ R=∞
(Considerable resistance)
≠0 Current=0
Current ≠ 0 (no high current) Voltage≠0
Voltage ≠ 0 27 28

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 7

 Short Circuit Battery
Consider a circuit below:
In Short circuit the poles of battery or power supply is connected directly b c

+ I
b c
Battery E
-
Light
+ I=0 I
Bulb
Battery
- a d
Light
bulp In order to keep current flowing through circuit an external electric energy
a d must be supplied. The energy is suplied by the power sources. Battery is an
SHORT CIRCUIT example of voltage sources.

In Short Circuit
R=0
Current=Max (too high to damage the circuit) + +
Voltage=0 V (forced (by shorting) to be zero) Battery gives necessary Battery E E
energy to electrons to flow - -
in circuit.
29 30
Symbol

Table-Electrical Quantities and Mechanical Some Metric Prefixes Used in Physics

Equivalences
Large quantities Small quantities
Mechanical
Electric Symbol Unit (SI) Equation
Equivalence Kilo (k) 103 Mili (m) 10-3

Charge q, Q Coulomb (C) - Displacement Mega (M) 106 Micro (µ) 10-6
Giga (G) 109 Nano (n) 10-9
Curent i, I Amper (A) i=dq/dt Velocity
Tera (T) 1012 Pico (p) 10-12
Potantial e, E
Difference or Volt (V) e=dw/dq Force
or Voltage v, V
Power p=vi
p, P Watt (W) w = ∫ vdq
Power
Energy
w, W Joule (J) w = ∫ vidt
Energy (Work)
(Work)

31 32

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 8

 Power Sources & Circuit Elements Definition of Load
Electric Circuit is consist of electrical power sources (voltage and current) and
other circuit elements (Receivers) that absorb or store energy.

I
+
E R Load
R e(t)
-
Sources Receivers or Absorbers
• Current L • Resistor (R)
i(t)
• Voltage • Inductor (L) Load can be resistors or any other combination of mix circuit elements
• Capacitor (C)

Before we start to analyse circuits we have to know each

individual circuit elements’ voltage-current behaviour.
33 34

Ideal Power Sources-Independent Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Sources Ideal Current Source
Ideal sources supply constant voltage (Voltage Source) or constant current (Current A A
+ I=∞ I=6
Source) ; the current and voltage values at the source terminal does not changes with VAB=0V
E=6V R=0Ω I=6A R=0Ω
the load (external resistor) it will always stay the same. Also ideal sources have no - In real world this
B is not possible! B
internal resistor.
+ A A
e(t), E + I=6 I=6
i(t), I I=6A
- E=6V R=1Ω VAB=6V R=1Ω
-
B B
Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Current Source A A
Voltage value of an ideal voltage source does Current value of an ideal current source
+ I=3 I=6
not change with the load (external resistor) does not change with the load (external E=6V R=2Ω I=6A VAB=12V R=2Ω
-
Voltage at the terminal is always constant! (But resistor) Current is always constant! (But B B
the drawn current can be changed) the voltage at the terminal can be changed) In real world thisA
A
+ I=0 is not possible! I=6
In reality no source is ideal and we will look at real sources in Chapter-2
E=6V R=∞Ω I=6A R=∞Ω
Notation: - VAB=∞V
Uppercase letters: For constant current (I) and Potential (E) sources B B
Lowercase letters: For current (i(t)) and potential (e(t), v(t)) sources changing Voltage value of an ideal voltage source does not Current value of an ideal current source does not
35 change with the load (external resistor) it is always change with the load (external resistor) it is always
in time 36
constant! (But drawn current can be changed. constant! (But drawn current can be changed.

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 9

 Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Power Sources
A
A 6A 2A
220V Io=0 R= ∞ Ω VAB=220V
+ +
B 6V 8V
Outlets in our homes are example of an ideal R I R
A voltage source. The potential difference (220V)
- -
I1>Io Washer does not change with the addition of appliance
220V (load) (Note: current of an ideal voltage source B
Machine

B
is not defined)
VAB=? I=?

A This configuration does not apply This configuration is not valid because
I2>I1 because the voltage between A and B the current through a branch should be
Washer Refriger
220V will be single value and same! constant!
Machine ator

B 6V 8V
- +- +
A
I3>I2 I 6A 2A R
220V Washer Refriger Dish R
Machine ator Machine
B
37 VAB=14V I=8A 38

Dependent (Controlled) Source Types Power Sources & Circuit Elements

In Dependent Sources the voltage or current at the terminals of the sources
Electric Circuit is consist of electrical power sources (voltage and current) and
depends on the current or voltage value of any specific points at the circuit.
other circuit elements (Receivers) that absorb or store energy.
Examples of such sources are transistors.
There are four possible case for the dependent sources

R e(t)
+ + +
e2=A1e1 e1 i2=B1e1 e1 Sources √ Receivers or Absorbers
- - - • Current L • Resistor (R)
i(t)
• Voltage • Inductor (L)
Voltage dependent voltage source Voltage dependent current source • Capacitor (C)

C
+ +
e2=A2i1 i2=B2i1
i1 i1 Before we start to analyse circuits we have to know each
- -
individual circuit elements’ voltage-current behaviour.
39 40
Current dependent voltage source Current dependent current source

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 10

 Circuit Elements
Receivers or absorbers in a circuit called circuit elements. These elements
dissipate (absorb) or store energy.
Depending on the relation between voltage and current we can define three
different type of circuit elements as follows:
Type-1: In this type of circuit elements the voltage is linearly depends on the
current passing through it. These type of circuit elements are called
resistor. Energy is dissipated as a heat energy and it is irreversible.

v = R.i
Type-2: In this type of circuit elements the voltage is depends on the variation of
current in time (derivatives) passing through it. Proportional constant is
called inductance. Energy is conserved and stores as magnetic field.
di
v=L
dt
Type-3: In this type of circuit elements the current is depends on the variation of
voltage in time (derivatives) accros it. Proportional constant is called
capacitance. Energy is conserved and stores as electric field.
. dv
i =C 41
dt

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-1 11