Mass

Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. ( Mass is a measure of inertia.)

Weight

The attracting force of the earth acting on a body is defined as the weight of the body.

W = mg

W = weight ( newton = N )

m = mass ( kg )

g = acceleration due to gravity ( 10 m/s2 ) Or g = gravitational field strength ( 10 N/kg )

Density

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

m
r =
V

m = mass
V = volume
r = density

Velocity

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. ( Velocity is a vector quantity. )

Speed

Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance. ( Speed is a scalar quantity. )

d
v = ( v = speed, d = distance, t = time taken )
t
Acceleration

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

v - u
a =
t

a = acceleration

u = initial velocity

v = final velocity

t = time taken

For a body moving with constant velocity, acceleration = 0.

Slope of the distance - time graph = speed

Slope of the displacement - time graph = velocity

Slope of the speed - time graph = acceleration

Slope of the velocity - time graph = acceleration

Area under the speed - time graph = distance

Slope of the velocity - time graph = displacement

Equations for motion with constant acceleration

1. s = vt u = initial velocity
v + u v = final velocity
2. v =
2
t = time taken
3. v = u + at
a = acceleration
4. s = ut +½ at 2
s = displacement

5. v 2 = u 2 + 2 a s v = average velocity
FORCE

A force is a push or pull exerted by one object on another.

A force can change the state of motion of an object or shape of the object.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

First law ( Law of inertia )

When no net external force acts upon it, a particle at rest will remain at rest and a particle in motion at

a constant velocity will continue to move with the same constant velocity.

{ Fnet = 0  v = 0
v = constant }

Second law ( Law of force and acceleration )

𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. ( 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 )

Third law ( Law of action and reaction )

Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.

Centre of mass

The centre of mass is the point at which the whole mass of a body may be considered to be concentrated.

Centre of gravity

The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which all of its weight may be considered to act.

Hooke’s law

The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force if the proportional limit is not exceeded.
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

F = force applied to the spring

k = spring constant
x = extension.

Elastic limit

The maximum load for which the material returns to its original shape when the load is removed is
called the elastic limit.
Momentum

Momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass of the body and its velocity.

p = mv

p = momentum of a body m = mass v = velocity

Law of conservation of momentum

If there is no net external force acting on a system consisting of two bodies, the sum of the momentum

of the two bodies will remain constant.

initial total momentum = final total momentum

Impulse

Impulse = force x time ( impulse = F x t )

Impulse = change in momentum

Ft = mv - mu ( or ) F t = Dmv

Moment of a force ( Torque )

The moment of a force is the product of the magnitude of that force and the perpendicular distance

of its line of action from the fulcrum.

( The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect. )

Principle of moment

total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment

Conditions for equilibrium

1. Net external force = 0

2. Resultant moment = 0 ( total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment )

Work

Work = force x distance moved in the direction of force

W = F s
Gravitational Potential energy Kinetic energy

GPE = m g h KE = ½ m v 2

Law of conservation of energy

The total energy of an isolated system remains constant. ( OR ) Energy cannot be created or

destroyed. Energy can be changed from one form to another.

Renewable energy

Renewable energy is the energy that can be replaced.

TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

•Wind energy: the energy obtained from the wind

•Solar energy: the energy obtained from the sun

•Hydraulic or hydroelectric energy: energy obtained from rivers and other freshwater currents

•Biomass and biogas: energy extracted from organic material

•Geothermal energy: heat energy from inside the Earth

•Tidal energy: energy obtained from the tides

•Wave energy: energy obtained from ocean waves

Work kinetic energy theorem

Work = change in KE

Power

Power is the rate of doing work. (or) Power is the rate of transfer of energy.

W
P = ( P = power, W = work done, t = time taken )
t

P = mgh
t

Efficiency

output work
efficiency = x 100 %
input work

output power
efficiency = x 100 %
input power
Pressure

The normal force per unit area is defined as the pressure. ( Pressure is a scalar quantity. )

F
P = ( P = pressure, F = force, A = area)
A

Pressure due to a column of liquid

P = rg h

r = density of liquid, h = height of the liquid column

g = acceleration due to gravity, P = pressure due to the column of liquid

The true pressure at the depth h in the liquid will be

P = Patm + r g h

Patm = atmospheric pressure

Barometer

Instrument which measures atmospheric pressure is called a barometer.

Solids
Solid molecules are very closed to each other.
Solid molecules are in fixed positions.
Solid molecules have regular arrangement.
Solid molecules can vibrate about their fixed positions.
Intermolecular attractive force is very strong.

Liquids
Liquid molecules are slightly further apart than solid molecules.
Liquid molecules are not in fixed positions.
Liquid molecules have random arrangement.
Liquid molecules move about at random.
Intermolecular attractive force is strong.

Gases
Gas molecules are very far apart.
Gas molecules move randomly.
Gas molecules travel at high speed and may also spin.
Gas molecules collide with each other and walls of the container.
Intermolecular force is negligible. ( very weak )
Pressure and Temperature

When temperature of gas increases gas molecules move faster.

Molecules collide with the wall with greater force.
Rate of collision between molecules and wall is greater.
So, pressure increases with increasing temperature.

Boyle’s law

Boyle's Law states that the pressure (P) of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume (V).
This law is valid as long as the temperature and the amount of gas are constant.

P 1 V 1 = P2 V 2

Thermal capacity

The ratio of the amount of energy transferred to the temperature change is called thermal capacity.

DQ
C = ( C = thermal capacity, DQ = heat, DT = temperature change)
DT

c = specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity ( c )

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat needed to change the temperature of a unit

mass of that substance by one degree.

DQ = m c DT

C = mc

Law of heat exchange

When heat is transferred from one object to another object the total heat lost by one object is

equal to the total heat gained by the other object.

Latent heat

The energy absorbed or liberated in a phase change is called the latent heat.

Specific latent heat of fusion

Heat required to melt 1kg of a solid at its melting point is called the specific latent heat of fusion.

DQ = m Lf

DQ = amount of heat, Lf = specific latent heat of fusion, m = mass

Specific latent heat of vaporization

Heat required to vaporize 1kg of a liquid at its boiling point is called the specific latent heat of

vaporization.

DQ = m Lv

DQ = amount of heat, Lv = specific latent heat of vaporization, m = mass

TK = TC + 273 ( TK = Kelvin temperature, TC = Celsius temperature )

Transfer of heat

— Conduction in solids

Heat conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a substance without the substance
itself moving.

- Molecules in a solid are arranged very close to each other.

- When one end of an iron rod is heated, the molecules at this end vibrate faster due to the
increased kinetic energy.
- These molecules collide with the neighbouring molecules and cause them to vibrate faster.
- This process is repeated until the molecules of the rod at the other end vibrate faster.
- Thus heat has been transferred from one end of the rod to the other end.

Metals are usually good conductors. The electrons can leave the atoms and move freely
among positively charged ions. As the metal is heated, the ions and electrons vibrate more.
The free electrons collide with ions throughout the metal and transfer heat energy from hot
parts to cooler parts.
— Convection

Heat convection is the process in which heat is transferred by the movement of gas or liquid.
- Convection can only occur in liquids and gases, not solids.
- Convection is due to the density change of liquids or gases.

— Radiation

Heat radiation is the transfer of energy by infrared waves.

- Radiation can take place through a vacuum.
- Radiation does not require any medium.
- Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves. ( Infrared rays )
- Black surfaces are good emitters, good absorbers of heat.
White and shiny surfaces are poor emitters, poor absorbers of heat.
i.e. A good emitter is a good absorber.

- How does air move near the coast on a sunny day?

Land is warm due to heat energy from the sun.

Air over the land is heated.
This warm air expands and density decreases.
So, warm air rises and cool air from the sea moves to the warm land.
This warm air moves towards the sea and becomes cool.
Then cool air falls to the sea surface and moves to the warm land.

Transverse wave
A wave in which the direction of the wave is perpendicular to the direction of vibration is
called a transverse wave. ( e.g. the wave in a vibrating string, electromagnetic wave,
secondary seismic wave. )

Longitudinal wave
A wave in which the direction of the wave is parallel to the direction of vibration is called
a longitudinal wave. ( e.g. sound wave, primary seismic wave. )

- The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two successive

compressions ( or rarefactions ).
- The frequency of a longitudinal wave is the number of compressions ( or rarefactions )
passing a fixed point in one second.
 Frequency ( f )
The frequency is the number of waves passing a point per second. ( unit of frequency = hertz = Hz )

Period ( T )
The period is the time taken by the wave to travel the distance between any two consecutive wave
crests.

Speed ( v )
The speed of a wave is the distance moved by any point on the wave in one second.

Wavelength ( l )
The wavelength of a periodic wave is the distance between any two consecutive wave crests.

Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum value of the displacement.

1 l
v = f l, f = , v =
T T

Wavefront

A wavefront is a line on which the disturbance has the same phase at all points.

Sound waves
- Sound is produced by the vibration of a body.
- Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
- The approximate range of frequencies of sound that a normal person can hear is 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
- Sound waves with frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic waves.
- The loudness of a note increases with its amplitude.
- The pitch of a note increases with its frequency.
( low frequency  low pitch, high frequency  high pitch )
- When sound waves hit a hard surface, most of the waves are reflected. Reflected sound is called an
echo.
- Transmission of sound waves requires a medium.
- Factors which affect the speed of sound in air are the direction of the wind and the temperature of the air.

- v ( in air ) < v ( in water ) < v ( in solid )

2d
for echo, v =
t
Compression

Compression is a region where the particles are closest together.

Compression is the region of high density and pressure.

Rarefaction

Rarefaction is a region where the particles are furthest apart.

Rarefaction is the region of low density and pressure.

Law of reflection
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Properties of an image in a plane mirror

1. The image is of the same size as the object.
2. The image is virtual.
3. The image is erect.
4. The image is laterally inverted.
5. The image is situated on the line passing through the object and perpendicular to the plane mirror.
6. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

Refraction of light
When light passes through two media of different optical densities, the direction of light changes in
passing from the first to the second medium. This phenomenon is called refraction of light.

( The speed of a wave changes when it enters a new medium.

If the wave enters a more optically dense medium, its speed decreases and it bends towards
the normal.

If the wave enters a less optically dense medium, its speed increases and it bends away from
the normal.

In all cases, the frequency stays the same but the wavelength changes. )

Law of refraction

The value of sin i / sin r is constant for light passing from one given medium into another.
( This law is known as Snell’s law. )

n = refractive index
sin i c n = refractive index
n = i = angle of incidence n =
sin r v c = velocity of light in air ( 3 x 108 ms-1 )
r = angle of refraction
v = velocity of light in a medium
 Refraction of wave

Critical angle

The angle of incidence corresponding to the angle of refraction 90o is called the critical angle.

1 n = refractive index
n =
sin ic ic = critical angle

Total internal reflection

To occur total internal reflection

1.The ray of light must travel from more optically dense medium to less optically dense medium.

2.The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

Dispersion of light

Splitting of white light into different colour-bands is called dispersion of light.

Diffraction

Diffraction is defined as the bending of waves when it passes an obstacle or barrier.

 visible light

Electric current
The amount of charge passing through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in one second is called
an electric current.

Q
I = ( I = current, Q = charge, t = time taken )
t

Q = ne ( n = number of electrons, e = charge of an electron )

{ In metals, current is due to a flow of electrons. Because electrons are negatively charged,
conventional current (which is the rate of flow of positive charge) is in the opposite direction to the
flow of electrons. }

Ohm’s law
If a conductor is kept at a constant temperature, the current flowing through it is directly
proportional to the potential difference between its ends.

V = IR

R = resistance ( ohm = W ) V = potential difference ( V ) I = current ( A )

Resistance of a conductor
At a given temperature the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and
inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.

l
R = r
A

R = resistance r = resistivity l = length A = cross-sectional area

 Resistors in series ( Same current flows through each resistor. )

Resistors in parallel ( All resistors have the same potential difference. )

A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the temperature increases.

A light dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases.

Diode is a device that allows an electric current in one direction only.

{ Diode can be used as a rectifier (i.e. convert AC into DC). } anode ( A ) cathode ( K )
Symbol of diode
 Ammeter
An ammeter is a device which is used to measure the currrent.
( An ammeter must be connected in series in the electric circuit. The resistance of the ammeter is very low. )

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a device which is used to measure the potential difference.
( A voltmeter must be connected in parallel in the electric circuit. The resistance of the voltmeter is very
high. )

Electromotive Force

The electromotive is the energy provided by a source per coulomb of charge passing through it.
( It is equal to the potential difference across the terminals of the cell when no current is flowing. )
Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device which is used to lower or raise the voltage of an alternating current.
It has primary and secondary coils wound on a complete soft iron core

iron core

primary
secondary
coil
coil

Vp = primary voltage

Vs = secondary voltage

Np = primary number of turns

Ns = secondary number of turns

Ip = primary current

Is = secondary current

If the secondary has more turns than the primary, the voltage obtained from the secondary is greater than
the voltage applied to the primary. Such a transformer is called a step-up transformer.

If the secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the voltage obtained from the secondary is smaller than
the voltage applied to the primary. Such a transformer is called a step-down transformer.
Isotopes

Nuclides with the same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes.

Radioactivity

Emission of one or more of a-rays, b-rays and g-rays from the nucleus of an atom is called

radioactivity.

a-rays are helium nuclei. b-rays are electrons or positrons. g-rays are high energy photons.

Half-life

The half-life is the time for half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay.

Background radiation

Background radiation is partly due to radioactive substances in rocks and partly due to the

cosmic rays from space.

Fission

Fission is the splitting of a heavy, unstable nucleus into two lighter nuclei.

Fission makes lighter new elements.

Fission occurs in a nuclear reactor.

Fission occurs at normal pressure and temperature.

Fusion

Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms into a larger one.

Fusion makes heavier new elements.

Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun.
Fusion occurs at high pressure and temperature.

Fusion produces more energy than fission.