*COVER PAGE*

Table of contents

1.0 Abstract

2.0 Introduction

3.0 Experimental Design

- 3.1 Methodology
- 3.2 Materials and apparatus
- 3.3 Procedure

4.0 Result and Discussion

- 4.1 Results
- 4.2 Graphs
- 4.3 sample calculation
- 4.4 Discussion
- 4.5 Error Analysis and Recommendation

5.0 Conclusion

Reference
1.0 Abstract

The main objective of this experiment is to determine the transverse bending deflection of a
tie bar. Dial gauge device is being used in this experiment in order to find the readings for
deflection of the tie bar. The transverse bending deflection of the material used aluminum
alloy HE30TF tie bar due to different loading with an eccentricity of 35 mm, 55 mm, and
75mm. Three trials of time were taken for each loading applied to get an average time
reading. After that, graphs are plotted and experimental results are calculated by using an
equation of deflection. theoretical results are compared with the experimental results. The
highest deflection occurred on eccentricity of 75mm followed by 55mm and lastly 35mm.

2.0 Introduction

In structural designs, members must be able to hold or resist the applied force transversely or
laterally on their axes. Beam member is one of the members which is used in many structural
designs in our life such as buildings, cars, etc. Deflection is defined as the physical deformation
or change in shape of a member. The main application of beam deflection is to calculate the
accurate values of deflections of beam by using the equation of deflection in order to know the
maximum loads that the beam can withstand before its failure. Deflection can be measured in
terms of distance or angle as shown in the figure below.
 Figure 1.0.1 Deflection of the beam when the force is applied[1]

Figure shows that the beam has deflected from its original place f, where F is the force applied
on the beam and causes its deflection, and L is the length of the beam. The main variable
causing deflection in the beam is the force applied on the cantilever beam and its support. Also,
the beam can be deflected by other variables such as the length L, its material[1].

1.1 Objective

The main objective of conducting this experiment is to determine the transverse bending
deflection of the material used aluminum alloy HE30TF tie bar due to different loading with
an eccentricity of 35 mm, 55 mm, and 75mm. Furthermore, the second objective is to compare
the experiment result with the theoretical results.

1.2 Theory
Eccentricity

Eccentric loading occurs when a column is subjected to a load that is offset from the beam's
centroid, resulting in bending moment and axial force in the column[2]. Based on the figure A,
the symbol “e” is the distance between the middle of the cross section and the eccentric loading
F. The curved line shows the deflection of the beam when the load F is applied on the beam.
Since, the bending moment and axial load increase when the eccentric loading is increasing.
Hence, the largest bending moment will be experienced by the bar at the middle of the beam,
resulting in its greatest deflection, d.

Figure 1.0.2 Eccentric forces and transverse deflection of the beam[2]

Bending Deformation

When a structural element is exposed to an external force that is applied perpendicular to the
element's longitudinal axis, it will undergo deformation. where, this deformation is called a
bending deformation. When deflection occurs in a beam, the member will start to bend
uniformly forming an arc shape as shown in figure A. the length of the neutral line remains the
same when a force is not experiencing tension or compression applied on the beam cantilever.
Based on the figure A, the upper side of the beam is under compression while the down side is
under tension.
 Figure 1.0.3 Beam’s Bending

1.3 Calculation

A. To find the second moment of inertia

(Eq 1.3.1)

Where,

h = tie bar’s height

b = base of the specimen

B. To find the Bending Moment of the beam, we use the following equation

(Eq 1.3.2)

Where,

F = Force applied

d = Perpendicular distance

C. deflection of the beam :

(Eq 1.3.3)
Where,

M = Bending moment of the beam

L = Length of the tie bar

E = Modulus of Elasticity

I = Second moment of inertia

3.0 Experimental Design
- 3.1 Methodology
 Method

Figure () shows how this experiment was set up. This experiment is conducted to
measure the transverse bending deflection of the tie bar and to evaluate the results
obtained with the theoretical values. First, the starting eccentricity was 35 mm with a
load of zero N, and the travel dial gauge was set to zero. Then, a load of 10 N was
applied to the load hanger and the reading of the travel dial gauge was recorded. In
increasing order, a 10 N load was added to the load hanger until we reached 100 N,
with tabulating the readings of the travel dial gauge every time we added 10 N load.
Next, this process is repeated two times to take the average value of the three
readings. This experiment was repeated by using eccentricities of 55 mm and 75 mm.
All the results are tabulated in tables.

- 3.2 Materials and apparatus

1. Tie bar

2. Travel dial gauge

3. Load hanger

- 3.3 Procedure

1. The experiment was set up as shown in figure ().

2. The eccentricity was set to 35 mm and no load was applied.

3. The travel dial gauge was set to zero.

4. A load of 10 N was applied to the load hanger.

5. The reading of the travel dial gauge was recorded.

6. An amount of 10 N load was progressively added to the load hanger down to 100 N
and the travel dial gauge readings were recorded.
 7. Steps 2 to 6 were repeated two times.

8. The experiment was repeated using eccentricities of 55 mm and 75 mm.

All the readings were tabulated in tables.

4.0 Result and Discussion

- 4.1 Results
-

Figure (4.1.1) experimental deflection readings for 35 mm eccentricity

Figure (4.1.2) experimental deflection readings for 55 mm eccentricity

Figure (4.1.3) experimental deflection readings for 75 mm eccentricity
 Experimental vs theoretical values of deflection tables

Figure (4.1.4) experimental vs theoretical values of 35 mm eccentricity

Figure (4.1.5) experimental vs theoretical values of 55 mm eccentricity

 Figure (4.1.6) experimental vs theoretical values of 75 mm eccentricity

4.2 Graphs

Figure (4.1.7) experimental deflection - load

Figure (4.1.8) Load - experimental and theoretical deflection (35mm eccentricity)

Figure (4.1.9) Load - experimental and theoretical deflection (55mm eccentricity)

Figure (4.1.10) Load - experimental and theoretical deflection (75mm eccentricity)

4.3 Sample calculations

This set of sample calculations uses the data of 10 N load and 0.563 mm deflection on
35 mm eccentricity from Figure (4.1.1).

From (Eq 1.3.3)

Whereby from (Eq 1.3.2) we get the equation for moment M

𝑀 = (10) 𝑥 (0.035) = 0.35 𝑁𝑚

 And from (Eq 1.3.1) we get the equation for moment of inertia I

(0.0095)(0.0095)3
𝐼= = 6.78 𝑥 10−10 𝑚4
12

Substituting (Eq 1.3.2) and (Eq 1.3.1) into (Eq 1.3.3) we get:

(0.35)(0.8)2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑡 = = 0.597 𝑚𝑚
8(69𝑥109 )(6.78𝑥10−10 )

- 4.4 Discussion

Figure 4.1.7 shows the relationship between the magnitude of the load applied and the
deflection of the tie bar produced, for 3 different eccentricities. It can be observed that the
graphs show almost a linear relationship between the two variables at different eccentricities,
with slight deviations from the theoretical lines of best fit plotted at the respective graphs for
each eccentricity.

Figure 4.1.8, 4.1.9, and 4.1.10 show the theoretical and experimental relationships between the
magnitude of the load applied to the tie bar and the resulting deflection of a tie bar at 3 different
eccentricities, while Figure 4.1.7 was plotted to present the overall relationship between the 3
graphs to allow comparison of the behaviors of the tie bar under different eccentricities.

Referring to Figure 4.1.7, it can be observed that the graphs show almost a linear relationship
between the two variables at different eccentricities, with slight deviations from the theoretical
lines of best fit plotted at the respective graphs for each eccentricity. Regardless of the
eccentricities, the deflection of the tie bar increases as the loading increases at increments of
10N. This suggests that there is a proportional relationship between the deflection and the
bending moment acting on the tie bar. Another observation that can be made from Figure 4.1.7
is the tie bar experiences larger deflections at higher eccentricity. At 100N loading, the largest
deflection recorded at 8.1mm corresponds to the highest eccentricity set at 75mm. The smallest
deflection was measured when the tie bar is loaded at 10N and set at an eccentricity of 35mm,
where it deflected 0.563mm.

Next, the individual load-deflection graphs show that the experimental deflection deviates
slightly from the theoretical graph. The theoretical deflection is linear for tie bars set at 35mm
and 75mm, whereas a sudden decrease in deflection for the tie bar set at 55mm at 90N loading.
Generally, the experimental deflections at each loading are smaller than that of the theoretical
predictions, and the differences in deflection between the experimental and theoretical graphs
are not significant. This suggests that the experimental values are fairly precise, but lack
accuracy. One reason that the deflections turned out to be smaller than predicted can be
attributed to the partial transfer of the loading force to other mechanical static parts in the setup,
such as the load hangar.
 - 4.5 Error Analysis

To determine the accuracy of the experimental results, error analysis through percentage error
calculation is required. Given the formula , the percentage error for each group of data based
on the eccentricity is calculated and tabulated accordingly.

Table 4.3.1: Percentage error at 35mm eccentricity.

Load (N) Theoretical deflection Experimental deflection Percentage error

(m) (m) (%)

0 0.00 0 0

10 0.60 0.563 5.70

20 1.20 0.625 47.70

30 1.79 1.436 19.91

40 2.39 1.948 18.49

50 2.98 2.43 18.46

60 3.59 2.82 21.38

70 4.19 3.233 22.75

80 4.78 3.76 21.34

90 5.38 4.236 21.26

100 5.97 4.653 22.06

Average: 19.91%
 Table 4.3.2: Percentage error at 55mm eccentricity.

Load (N) Theoretical deflection Experimental deflection Percentage error

(m) (m) (%)

0 0 0 0

10 0.939 0.78 16.93

20 1.87 1.446 22.67

30 2.818 2.146 23.85

40 3.75 3.073 18.05

50 4.69 4.036 13.94

60 5.63 4.536 19.43

70 6.57 5.233 20.35

80 7.516 6.056 19.43

90 7.45 6.723 9.76

100 9.39 7.41 21.09

Average: 16.86%
 Table 4.3.3: Percentage error at 75mm eccentricity.

Load (N) Theoretical deflection Experimental deflection Percentage error

(m) (m) (%)

0 0 0 0

10 1.281 1.196 6.64

20 2.56 1.98 22.66

30 3.84 3.02 21.35

40 5.214 4.13 20.79

50 6.406 5.12 20.07

60 7.68 6.236 18.80

70 8.96 7.163 20.06

80 10.2 8.08 20.78

90 11.5 8.1 29.57

100 12.8 8.1 36.72

Average: 19.77%

The percentage error of the results obtained fall in the range between 5.7% and 47.7%, which
has exceeded the acceptable range of accuracy of 0% to 10%. This shows that the results
obtained are not accurate. The largest percentage error obtained is 47.7%, which occurred when
the eccentricity was set at 35mm and loading of 20N. On the other hand, the smallest percentage
error also occurred at 35mm eccentricity, when the loading was 10N. This means that when the
eccentricity was set at 35mm, the increase of the loading from 10N to 20N has yielded the
largest margin of percentage error in the whole experiment. Besides, the average percentage
error for each set of data does not follow a specific trend or pattern. The set of data of the lowest
eccentricity has the highest average of percentage error, whereas the second lowest eccentricity
has the lowest average of percentage error.

It is speculated that the experiment’s inaccuracy is mostly due to the sources of systematic error
in the method of conducting the experiment, where human intervention and other inherent
faults are largely accounted for.

First, one of the human errors could be parallax error when taking the deflection readings of
the travel dial gauge. The experimenter could have taken the readings from the dial gauge from
different angles or perspectives causing a slight variation from the actual value. One way to
minimize the effect of this error is to replace the travel dial gauge with a digital gauge meter
that shows the true value of the deflection digitally and accurately. Another less reliable way
to prevent parallax error is to make sure the eye level is perpendicular to the gauge meter.

Second, one source of error is believed to lie in the inherent design of the setup, which does
not take into account the oversensitive property of the dial gauge. The dial gauge is a very
sensitive device that detects even the slightest movement or vibration of the system. Therefore,
it is recommended to eliminate any other external sources of movement or vibration by using
a shock absorbing material to dampen them out, such that the dial gauge only reflects the slight
deflections of the tie bar.

Third, to minimize the effect of random error, it is suggested to take the reading after the
hanging load stops its swaying motion and comes to a complete still. This is to prevent taking
the inaccurate readings that are affected by the fluctuation in forces.
5.0 Conclusion

To conclude, the objective of the experiment was achieved, the experimental values of strain
were obtained and compared with the theoretical values, load vs deflection graphs were
plotted for eccentricity values of 35mm, 55mm, and 75mm, from the graphs it is safe to
conclude that the highest deflection values were obtained on 75mm eccentricity followed by
55mm and finally 35mm The largest percentage error between theoretical and experimental
deflection was found to be at 47.7%, however, it is safe to assume that errors when
conducting the experiment contribute to the percentage stated, overall the experiment was
successful and the objective was achieved.

Reference

● Liang, Z. (2021, March 26). What is Deflection? SkyCiv Cloud Structural

Analysis Software | Cloud Structural Analysis Software and Calculators.
https://skyciv.com/docs/tutorials/beam-tutorials/what-is-deflection/
● Beam Deflection Tables | MechaniCalc. (n.d.). Beam Deflection Tables.

Retrieved June 13, 2021, from https://mechanicalc.com/reference/beam-

deflection-tables

● [1]"Beam Deflection - Civil Engineering", Civiltoday.com, 2021. [Online].

Available: https://civiltoday.com/structural-engineering/197-beam-deflection.

[Accessed: 13- Jun- 2021].

● [2]"WHAT IS ECCENTRIC LOAD?", Mechanical engineering concepts and

principles, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.hkdivedi.com/2017/06/what-is-

eccentric-load.html. [Accessed: 13- Jun- 2021].