PM GANESAN

ROLL NO. 020233

A STUDY ON WELDING
PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMY
FOR SMAW & FCAW PROCESSES

A dissertation paper submitted as part -D (AME-26) for the

Partial fulfillment of the requirement of AMIIW examination of
I.I.W. Kolkata.

Prepared & Submitted

By

P M GANESAN
Enrolment No. 020233

Under The Guidance of

Prof. S K AGRAWAL
Metallurgical Engineering Department, M.S. University of Baroda
Vadodara, Gujarat

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WELDING

KOLKATA – 700 017
2005

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Certificate

This is to certificate that the dissertation paper entitled A

STUDY ON WELDING PRODUCTIVITY & ECONOMY is

a bonafide record of work done by Mr. P M Ganesan, student of

AM-IIW under my guidance in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of degree in “ Associate Membership

Examination” offered by the Indian Institute of Welding ,

Kolkata.

Dissertation Guide

(Prof.S K Agrawal)

Metallurgical Engineering Department,

M.S University of Baroda

Date: 3 January 2024

Place: Jamnagar

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Acknowledgement

I humbly acknowledge my profound gratitude to my dissertation guide

Prof. S K Agrawal , Metallurgical Engg.Dept, M.S.University of
Baroda for his valuable guidance extended to me in accomplishing this
dissertation paper.

I am deeply obliged to Sh. A J Vyas – Vice President – Quality

Management Department - Reliance Industries Limited -
Jamnagar& Sh. K Ravi – Dept. General Manager – Fabrication
Division – Reliance Industries Limited- Jamanagar for their timely
guidance during my tenure of my course.

I am also thankful to Sh. Hashmuk D Patel – Senior Vice President

– Construction - Reliance Industries Limited & Sh. Yogesh R Patel
– General Manager - Reliance Industries Limited, for their best
support and motivation during this course.

(PM Ganesan)
Date: 28-Jun-05 Roll No 020233
Place : Jamnagar

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Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Concept of productivity, economy and decision making
Technical efficiency and economic efficiency
Decision making and forward planning
Objective of this experiment
a. Background for conducting this Experiment

b. Summary of observations after completion of the first stage

fabrication scope
c. Decision making and forward planning for executing the second
stage fabrication scope
d. Summary of observations after completion of the second stage
fabrication scope
e. Experiment summary
2. Overview of Welding
a. Factors affecting the Productivity of welding
b. The weld
c. Type of weld joints
3. Basis for selecting the Welding Process
a. Step 1 Analysis of Joint Requirements.
i. Fast Fill
ii. Fast Freeze
iii. Fast Follow
iv. Penetration
b. Step 2 Matching Joint Requirements With Processes
c. Step 3 The Checklist
i. Volume of Production
ii. Weld Specifications
iii. Operator Skill.
iv. Auxiliary Equipment.
v. Accessory Equipment.
vi. Base Metal Conditions

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vii. Fixturing Requirements.

viii. Production Bottlenecks.
d. Step 4
i. Systemizing the Systematic Approach.
4. Steps for Reducing the Welding Costs
a. Analyzing the delivery of consumables and accessories to the
welding points
b. Effective material handling i
c. Ways to correct over welding
d. Enhancing the current welding processes and procedures
e. Optimizing the joint preparation
f. Eliminating the extra welds from the design
g. Looking for items that can be welded rather than cast
h. Ways to eliminate costly record keeping
i. Adding robotics or hard automation to the operation
j. Examine safety concerns
5. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OVERVIEW
a. Definition and general description
b. Principles of operation
c. Covered Electrodes
d. Arc Shielding
e. Process capabilities and limitations
6. FLUX CORED ARC WELDING OVERVIEW
a. Principal features
b. Principal applications
c. Semiautomatic equipment
d. Shielding gases
e. Carbon Dioxide
f. Gas Mixtures
g. Base metals welded
h. Electrodes
i. EXXT1.
j. Protection from Moisture
k. Process control
l. Welding current

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m. Arc voltage
n. Travel speed
o. Shielding gas flow
p. Deposition rate and efficiency
q. Advantages of FCAW
r. Limitations of FCAW
7. Comparison of SMAW and FCAW processes
8. Experimental Work
a. Test data for SMAW:
b. Test data for FCAW:
c. Test Data OF SMAW Process with E6010 + E7018
d. Test data for FCAW Process E6010 + E71 T1 with 75%
Argon+25% Co2
e. Weld metal recovery data taken from actual tests
f. Final data and case study report based on summary of all tests
conducted
9. Conclusion of Case study
10.References

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1.0Abstract:

Every welding process possess its own advantages and limitations and selected
after careful analysis and study of variables related to the process /product
form and application criteria. Factors governing the selection of welding
process includes the type of the product to be welded, material, joint
geometry, field and service conditions, productivity expectations, capital cost,
availability of resources, quality requirements, net cost savings etc.

Currently in India, shielded metal arc welding is the major welding process
dominates the welding industry and plays a key role compared to other
welding processes. To achieve the higher productivity and cost savings, it is
necessary to adopt suitable welding process, which can be superior to SMAW
and can be justified fully in terms of productivity, quality and cost.
Comparative production studies were conducted to establish the facts and to
arrive conclusion.

This concept will be applicable for pipe spools welding in a fabrication shop for
welding groove and fillet weld joints in out of position. Process will be applied
for large bore spools welding i.e. for Pipe diameter equivalent or greater than
168 mm OD and wall thickness of 7.11 mm and above. For study purpose only
two welding processes were taken into account i.e. SMAW and FCAW. Since
carbon steel pipe spools fabrication is 85% of the total scope, selection of the
high productive and cost economic welding process plays a vital role.

2.0Introduction:

This experiment was conducted to find the facts of productivity and cost
economy of two welding processes viz. SMAW and FCAW when compared to
each other. Other welding processes were not taken into account in this study
after careful evaluation and analysis of their advantages and disadvantages
with respect to specific application i.e. welding of large bore pipe spools of
medium to heavy wall thick in out of position.

The organization has given directive to increase the productivity and quality by
using FCAW with the same input that costs for SMAW or even decrease the
input costs proportionately for achieving higher technical and economical
efficiencies. These experiments were conducted for decision making and
forward planning.

3.0Concept of Productivity, Economy and Decision making

Productivity is a measure relating a quantity or quality of output to the inputs

required to produce it. Often means labor productivity, which can be measured
by the quantity of output per time spent or numbers employed. Could be
measured in, for example, Rupees per hour or per kg of weld metal deposited.

Economy is consisting those aspects of economics and its tools of analysis that
are relevant to an engineer’s decision making and forward planning process. It

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largely uses the profit economic theory and considers only that particular
environment of decision-making.

Issues in economics that are related to decision making and forward planning
are what to produce, how to produce and problems of efficiency and continual
improvement.

Forward planning is deciding the future course of action of the company which
includes formulating future plans/policies with respect to production, pricing,
profit and so on.

3.1Technical efficiency and economic efficiency

 The definition of efficiency varies according to the nature of the

situation. Efficiency of a process is the ability to adequately meet the
demand made on it, that is, doing a job at the cheapest cost.
 Therefore technical efficiency = output /input
 Technical efficiency can be improved by

Increase in output keeping same input

Decrease in input keeping same output
Increase in output proportionately more than increase in input
Decrease in input proportionately more than decrease in output
 Careful planning and practice of new ideas can achieve technical
efficiency. By selecting a suitable welding process the productivity will
be considerably increased.
 For economic efficiency, we must have efficient planning and
regulation of operations, willingness to accept a change and exploit
technical improvements and innovations, smooth flow of work, proper
working conditions, a fair wage etc. thus the technical efficiency and
economic efficiency are interrelated.

3.2Decision making and forward planning

 Decision-making is the process of selecting the best alternative.

 A decision maker must weight both technical efficiency and economic
efficiency properly before taking a decision.
 It should be noted that technical decisions and economic decisions are
interrelated. Technical decisions regarding the size of the shop, welding
process selection, manpower requirement etc is based on the economic
considerations such as what to produce, how much to produce and
when to produce.
 Technical decisions are governed by time factor. An improvement in
technology may outdate an existing technology and may affect the
entire economic values.
 Hence it requires knowledge of all economic factors/values along with
knowledge of technology to take a wise techno-economic decision.
 Forward planning is deciding the future course of action of the firm
which includes formulating future plans/policies with respect to
production, pricing, profit and so on.

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4.0Objective of this experiment

The prime objective of conducting this experiment was to select the most
productive, qualitative and cost competitive welding process for the said
application.

Before we select the above two welding processes for comparison in this
paper, it is necessary to describe the back ground for not taking the other
welding processes into account.
5.0Background for conducting this Experiment
Earlier the fabrication shop has selected and applied the following welding
processes for executing the first stage pipe spools fabrication scope:
 Gas Tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process for Pipe diameter of 2” and
below, and for root pass welding
 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process was applied to a limited
extent for large bore pipe spools fabrication
 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process was applied for welding pipe
diameters from 3” and above and for pipe wall thickness of 7.11 mm
and above.
 Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) process was applied to weld the O” lets
(Branches) of heavy wall thickness and normally in flat position
welding.
 Submerged arc welding (SAW) process for welding pipe wall thickness
above 12.7 mm and for pipe diameter of 8” and above in flat position.
 Machine welding of GMAW and SAW for welding butt joints of pipe
spools where the job can be rotated.
 Shielding gas selected for GTAW is pure Argon and 75%
Argon+25%Co2 gas mixture for GMAW and FCAW.
5.1Summary of observations after completion of the first stage
fabrication scope
 In large bore diameter pipe spools, highest weld repair % was
observed in welds made by using GMAW process due to wind blow.
 Porosity was the major defect observed in welds.
 Highest productivity was achieved respectively in SAW, FCAW and
GMAW processes and excellent quality were achieved in weld joints,
made by using machine-welding processes.
 However lot of material handling work was involved and man-hours
were spent in facilitating the machine welding due to its
disadvantage of welding in flat position only. Also this was leading
to complete the pipe spool assembly at two stages i.e. preliminary
fit up stage to facilitate the job rotation for machine welding and
final fit up stage for completing the whole assembly for
semiautomatic welding.
 40 Ton inventory of E71T-1 FCAW wire was available due to scope
reduction in work and less application than planned.
 Difficulties in training welders in GMAW and SAW processes and
maintaining them.
 Difficulties of welding pipe spool joints at remote locations where
the shielding gas outlet was not provided and rolling of the shop

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welders to field for using in SMAW process for welding joints at

elevated locations.

5.2Decision making and forward planning for executing the second

stage fabrication scope

 To eliminate the root welding defects faced in GMAW and to

increase the weld deposition rate it was decided to use the
SMAW+FCAW process for the current revamping/expansion jobs.
This will eliminate the existing inventory of 40 Ton (E71T-1).
 Dual gas shielded FCAW process will be useful to reduce the weld
defects and will provide good bead appearance with glossy finish
and shallow bead. Procedure was established to apply the FCAW
process for welding pipe spools in out of position.
 E6010 electrode will be used for the root pass welding of pipes to
eliminate the root weld defects faced in GMAW process.
 This will facilitate the FCAW welder to do only fill up welding in a
very fast manner.
 FCAW is a user friendly welding process compared to GMAW and
can be useful in training welders within a short period.
 75% Argon+25%Co2 shielding gas mixture and 100% Co2 gas are
commercially available in the market stored in cylinders and are
portable to handle. This has facilitated to apply the welding process
anywhere in the shop.
 Considering the less scope of work, it was decided to complete the
pipe spool fit up in single operation and welding will be done by
using SMAW and FCAW process in all position.
 SMAW will also be used for pipe spools welding to utilize the huge
welders available in Indian market and avoid training of welders in
FCAW. For field welding applications it is difficult to use the dual
shielded FCAW process for pipe spools welding at higher elevations
and hence rolling of the same shop SMAW welders at field was an
advantage.

5.3 Summary of observations after completion of the second stage

fabrication scope

 40T inventory of FCAW electrode was used successfully for welding

carbon steel pipe spools in out of position.
 Existing machines, accessories, spares and consumables were used
for this execution and hence no expenses were made for the
implementation.
 Weld repair was within the set benchmark i.e. 2%.
 Due to shallow bead, glossy appearance and excellent slag peel off
qualities of the process, minimal inter pass cleaning and less
grinding works were involved.
 75% Argon+25%Co2 was used as shielding gas.
 Before giving approval for fresh procurement, the fabrication shop
management wanted to have the documented data for ensuring the
productivity and economy of FCAW process compared to SMAW
process. Thus this experiment was made to conclude the same.

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6.0Experiment summary

For carbon steel (A 106 GR.B OR Equivalent) Pipe spools welding, E6010 is
used for root pass application and rest passes by E7018 for conditions where
back chipping is not possible. We want to use E71T-1 and E7018 in our Studies
for comparison. Gas shielded FCAW will be used for the studies due to its
various advantages over self shielded. Since the pipe spool joints will be
welded normally in out of position, studies were conducted to simulate the
same i.e. in 5G positions. Considering the various pipe diameters and
thickness involved in welding, it is decided to use the common minimum pipe
diameter and thickness aiming the minimum deposition rates that can be
achieved by using these welding processes. Shielding gas selection for FCAW
will be either Co2 or 75%Argon+ 25% Co2 mixture. We have conducted trials
by using both for calculating the cost difference.

7.0Overview of Welding

What is Welding?
Welding is a joining process in which metals are heated, melted and mixed to
produce a joint with properties similar to those of the materials being joined.

7.1Factors affecting the Productivity of welding

 Scope of work, shape or complexity of the job and joint geometry

 Volume of weld metal to be deposited
 Material of construction and additional requirements like pre heating
maintenance, backing gas, trailing gas flow maintenance, post heating
requirements etc
 Weldabilty and welding techniques
 Welding process
 Type of joint i.e. groove or fillet and with or without backing
 Welding position
 Welding process efficiency and arc energy
 Welding power source output current and duty cycle
 Type of welding power source and its characteristics
 Weld deposition rate and wire/electrode diameter
 Wire feed rate and travel speed
 Electrode change over or down time
 Electrode length and stub loss
 Duration of arc time
 Mode of metal transfer in case of GMAW
 Operator factor
 Welder or welding operator ability
 Welding automation and fixturing
 Material and consumables handling
 Joint accessibility
 Process efficiency and deposition

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The Weld

Parent Metal Weld Pool

Weld Reinforcement

Heat Affected Zone Penetration Depth

(HAZ)
Weld Root

Type of weld joints

‘T’ Joint Lap Joint Edge Joint

Butt Joint Corner Joint

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7.2Basis for selecting the Welding Processes

We were to select a process, which will meet the requirements of productivity,

quality and cost competitiveness. Given below are the various factors
considered before selecting the welding processes:

1.) The joint to be welded was analyzed in terms of its

requirements.

2.) The joint requirements were matched with the capabilities of

available processes. One or more of the processes were selected
for further examination.

3.) A list of variables was used to determine the ability of the

selected processes(s) to meet the particular application.

4.) Finally, the proposed process or processes deemed most

efficient are reviewed for verification of suitability

Step 1 - Analysis of Joint Requirements.

The first thing to look is whether the

Figure – 1, Welding joints in out of
position
weld joint is large or small, whether
the joint is out-of-position or not,
and whether the base metal is thick
or thin. In welding, the needs of any
joint are expressed in four terms:
Fast-Fill (high deposition rate),
Fast-Freeze (the joint is out-of-
position - overhead or vertical),
Fast-Follow (high arc speed and
very small welds), and Penetration
(the depth the weld penetrates the
base metal). Depends upon the
characteristic requirements of weld
joints, the needs may be either
single or combined i.e either fast
freeze and penetrating or fast follow
and penetrating etc.

Fast-Fill is required when a large amount of weld metal is needed to fill the
joint especially in flat position. A heavy weld bead can only be laid down in
minimum arc time with a high deposition rate. However, Fast-Fill becomes a
minor consideration when the volume of weld metal to be deposited is less.

Fast-Freeze implies that a joint is out-of-position, and therefore requires

quick solidification of the molten crater. Not all semiautomatic processes can
be used on fast-freeze joints.

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Fast-Follow suggests that the molten metal follows the arc at rapid travel
speed, giving continuous, well-shaped beads, without "skips" or islands. This
trait is especially desirable on relatively small single-pass welds, such as those
used in joining sheet metal. Depends upon the joint, a welding process may
fall under two or more categories.

Penetration varies with the joint. With some joints, penetration must be deep
to provide adequate mixing of the weld and base metal and with others it must
be limited to prevent burn through or cracking.

Figure – 2
Any joint may need predominantly any
one of the above requirements, but Fast fill
other requirements shall also be
fulfilled in terms of the previously
mentioned four factors. To determine
the appropriate welding process,
efforts focused on the requirements of
the weld joint. A joint that requires, or
can be welded by, just one arc welding
process is rare. In fact, the majority of
joints usually are characterized
by a combination of these
requirements to varying degrees.

Step 2 - Matching Joint Requirements With Processes

Equipment manufacturers' literature usually will give information on the ability

of various equipments/processes to fulfill the needs of the joint. A wrong
answer is virtually impossible at this point, since the deposition rate and arc-
speed characteristics of each process can be clearly defined.

Step 3 - The Checklist

Figure – 3, welding the complex Considerations other than the joint

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itself have a bearing on selection

decisions. Many of these are
specific to job or welding shop.
However, they can be of great
importance - and a key factor in
eliminating alternate processes.
These factors should be organized
into a checklist and should be
considered one by one. These are
listed as follows:

shape in position due to difficulty in

material handling

Volume of Production: The volume of production should justify the cost of

welding equipment by the amount of work, or productivity, required. Or, if the
work volume for one application is not great enough, another application may
be found to help offset the costs or existing equipment may be adopted for
use. Considering the large volume of scope, we have taken the SMAW and
FCAW processes for welding the large bore pipe spools in out of position.

Weld Specifications. Consider the welding process, which should provide and
meet the weld properties specified by the code governing the work. In our
case ASME B31.3 is the design and construction code applicable.

Operator Skill. Operators may develop skill with one process more rapidly
than another. Training the welders/welding operators in a new process is an
additional cost factor and maintaining them in the employment roll, till the
completion of job especially when more demands are there for welders in the
market. The welding process should be user friendly for training the welders,
i.e. FCAW in our case.

Auxiliary Equipment. Every process has a recommended power source and

other items of auxiliary equipment. If a process makes use of existing auxiliary
equipment, the initial cost in changing to that process could be substantially
reduced. For GMAW and FCAW, same power source and auxiliary equipments
can be used; hence changeover was not a problem.

Accessory Equipment. Availability and cost of necessary accessory

equipment - chipping hammers, slag removing tools, flux lay-down and pickup
equipment, exhaust systems, etc - should be taken into account.

Base-Metal Conditions. Rust, oil, fit-up of the joint, weld ability of the steel,
and other conditions must be considered. These factors could limit the usefulness
of a particular process.

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Arc Visibility.

Open-arc processes are

advantageous. On the other hand, if
there's no difficulty in correct
placement of the weld bead, there
are "operator-comfort" benefits with
the submerged-arc process; no
head-shield required and heat from
the arc is reduced.

Figure – 4, Open–arc welding process

Fixturing Requirements. A change to a semiautomatic process requires

some fixturing if productivity is to be realized. Using cross rail weaver systems
and manipulators for oscillating the welding head, we can mechanize
semiautomatic welding process by rotating the job where it is possible.

Production Bottlenecks. If the process reduces unit fabrication cost, but

creates a production bottleneck, its value is lost. Highly complicated equipment
that requires frequent servicing by skilled technicians may slow up your actual
production thereby diminishing its value. Hence while selecting the machine,
capacity of the machine in terms of output welding current, duty cycle, spares
availability in market, spares interchangeability etc should be considered to
avoid breakdown delays.

The completed checklist should contain every factor known to affect the
economics of the operation. Some may be specific to the weld job or weld
shop. Other items might include:

 Personnel Protection and safety Requirements

 Range of Weld Sizes
 Application Flexibility
 Seam Length
 Setup Time Requirements
 Initial Equipment Cost
 Cleanliness Requirements

We need to evaluate these items realistically recognizing the peculiarities of

the application as well as those of the process, and the equipment.

Human prejudice should not enter the selection process; otherwise objectivity
is lost - when all other things are equal, the guiding criterion should be overall
cost.

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Figure-5,
Personnel Step 4 - Review of the Application
Protection by Manufacturer. This may seem
redundant, but the talents of
experts should be utilized. Thus,
the checklist to be used is tailored
by the user to suit individual
situation.

After considering all the above

Figure-6, factors together, We should be
Training able to confirm or modify the
Welders checklist for selecting the suitable
welding process.

Systemizing the Systematic Approach.

A system is of no value unless it is used. We need to create a chart and follow

these steps to determine the process. By taking the time to analyze each new
weld joint, our operation will become more productive and our welding
experience will be more fulfilling.

7.3Steps for Reducing the Welding Costs

Normally we strive to get the best possible price on welding equipment and
consumables, considering the minimum features required for carrying out the
welding process. Although this is an admirable goal, we may be overlooking
the big picture which says that rather than aim for a savings based on a one-
time purchase price, look for ways to get productivity savings. By reducing
overall welding costs, the productivity savings that are realized multiply year
after year. Productivity savings will allow a company to keep saving even when
the price of equipment, consumables or welding accessories goes up.

Outlined below are the steps to reduce welding costs and realize productivity
savings in the cost of doing business:

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7.3.1 Analyzing the delivery of consumables and accessories to the

welding points

In many shops, the operator has to go to a tool room or supply area for a new
contact tip, coil of wire or other welding accessory. This takes valuable time
away from the welding cell and slows down overall productivity. To improve
the operating efficiency and minimize wasted time, companies should stock at
least a limited supply of all necessary items near the welding station - this
includes shielding gas, flux, wire and other welding accessories. Another
helpful productivity enhancing tip is to switch to larger spools of wire such as
from 25 lb. spools to 44 or 60 lb. spools to even larger packages of 1,000 lb.
reels or 1,000 lb. drums. A simple switch like this means less changeover time,
which adds up over the weeks, months and years.

Wastages of shielding gas should be avoided. A simple device called a surge

turbine can be placed at the end of the gun to provide a digital readout of the
gas surge and flow rate. If the surge rate is high, investing in a surge guard
can reduce the pressure, eliminating gas surges and waste.

Leaks in the gas delivery system can also create a potential loss of money. By
looking at the amount of consumables purchased each year and then examining the
total gas purchased, a company can determine if there is a significant loss. If there
is a loss suspected, one of the easiest ways to check for leaks is to shut off the gas
delivery system over the weekend. Check the level before end of the shift and then
again on to determine before starting if gas was used while the system was in shut
down mode.

2. Effective material handling

Fig - 1
Using Delivery of parts to the welding station
Large in an organized and logical fashion is
spool of also a way to reduce welding costs.
wire for This type of scenario is also true for
welding companies that may outsource parts
to a vendor. Though it may cost more
to have parts delivered in batches, it
may save more in time than having to
organize and search through parts to
be able to get to the welding stage

How many times each piece is handled in the shop may be an eye-opener to
reducing wasted time. To measure such an intangible as this, operators are
asked to put a soapstone mark on the piece each time it is touched - some
companies are surprised to find out how many times a part is picked up,
transported and laid down in the manufacturing process. In the case of one
company, moving the welding shop closer to the heat treatment station
eliminated four extra times that the part was handled. Basically, handling a
part, as few times as possible and creating a more efficient production line or
work cell will reduce overall costs.

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3. Ways to correct over welding

One of the "cardinal sins" that almost every shop does is over weld. This
means that if the drawing calls for a 1/4" fillet weld, most shops will put down
a 5/16" weld. The reasons? Either they don't have a fillet gauge and are not
exactly sure of the size of the weld they are producing or they put in some
extra to "cover" themselves and make sure there is enough weld metal in
place.

But, over welding leads to tremendous consumable waste. Let's look again at
our example. For a 1/4" fillet weld, the typical operator will use .129 lbs. per
foot of weld metal. The 5/16" weld requires .201 lbs. per foot of weld metal - a
56 percent increase in weld volume compared to what is really needed. Plus,
we must take into account the additional labor necessary to put down a larger
weld. Not only is the company paying for extra, wasted consumable material, a
weld with more weld metal is more likely to have distortion because of the
added heat input. It is recommended that every operator be given a fillet
gauge to accurately produce the weld specified - and nothing more. In
addition, changes in wire diameter may be used to eliminate over welding.

4. Enhancing the current welding processes and procedures

We need to look for ways to create more efficiency in the welding process. This
includes examining such things as wire diameter, wire feed speed, voltage,
travel speed, gas type, transfer mode, etc. For instance, if the shop is
currently welding with a short arc process and a 75/25 blend of shielding gas,
it may be more effective to switch to a different gas and a spray mode of
transfer. Or, a change in process may be warranted based on the condition of
the part. If there is oxide on the part, it may be easier to change to a process
that will overcome contamination problems rather than try to clean each part
before welding. Our shop was using the GMAW- Short arc and later switched
over to FCAW – Gas shielded to achieve spray transfer.

5. Optimizing the joint preparation

In some cases, it may be better to double bevel a joint to prepare it for

welding rather than single bevel it. It is recommended to double bevel any
material that is more than 3/4" in thickness. ASME B31.3 code recommends
compound bevel for wall thickness more than 22 mm.

Just this simple change in procedure can save quite a bit in weld metal. On a
3/4" thick piece, a double bevel will use 1.45 lbs. per foot of weld metal while
a single bevel will use 1.95 lbs. per foot.

6. Eliminating the extra welds from the design

We need to look for ways to modify product designs to eliminate unnecessary

welds. For example, one company that manufactured boxes originally had a
design that called for welded lift handles on each side of the box. By simply

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changing the design of the box to cut out lifting slots, it eliminated the need
for welding the handles - saving time and money. In another instance, rather
than making a part with an open corner, the design was changed to
accommodate a closed corner, which meant 1/3 less metal required to fill the
corner.

7. Looking for items that can be welded rather than cast

We've already discussed ways to eliminate welds to create efficiencies, but

what about adding welds? In some cases, it may be more cost effective to
weld metal pieces to a part rather than cast the entire component in a costly
alloy or exotic metal. For example, a company that originally used a part cast
in a high-nickel alloy found that 50 percent of the part could be composed of
standard, structural steel, which allowed a savings in material and thus a
savings in total cost.

Also, the company was further able to redesign the part so that it was more
efficient

8. Ways to eliminate costly record keeping

Many companies get completely "bogged down" in the paperwork required to

run a business. But with today's latest technological advances, there are items
that can be a great help.

9. Adding robotics or hard automation to the operation

Today's technological advances offer many options. Robotics can be justified

when the volume of parts a company produces is so great that it can offset the
monies spent on a robot. Robotics can also be considered if there are a
number of different parts that are similar enough in nature to be able to be
handled by the same robot.

If robots are not justified, a company might determine that fixturing or hard
automation could be used to increase efficiency or quality. One company
incorporated fixturing and clamps to hold down a tank while the seam was
being welded. In another case, an automotive manufacturer decided that
automation was necessary because of the amount of parts and intricate angles
and welding positions.

10. Examine safety concerns

Although it may not lead to immediate welding cost reductions, operating

under proper safety techniques will save money in the long run by reducing
employee accidents. Safety items to consider may include chaining gas
cylinders so they can't fall, installing flash back arrestors to eliminate blow
back when ox fuel cutting or labeling piping to avoid mishaps.

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8.0 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OVERVIEW

8.1Definition and general description

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is an arc welding process in which

coalescence of metals is produced by heat from an electric arc that is
maintained between the tip of a covered electrode and the surface of the base
metal in the joint being welded.

The core of the covered electrode consists of either a solid metal rod of drawn
or cast material. The core rod conducts the electric current to the arc and
provides filler metal for the joint. The primary functions of the electrode
covering are to provide arc stability and to shield the molten metal from the
atmosphere with gases created as the coating decomposes from the heat of
the arc.

The shielding employed, along with other ingredients in the covering and the
core wire, largely controls the mechanical properties, chemical composition,
and metallurgical structure of the weld metal, as well as the arc characteristics
of the electrode. The composition of the electrode covering varies according to
the type of electrode.

8.2Principles of operation

Shielded metal arc welding is by far the most widely used of the various arc-
welding process. It employs the heat of the arc to melt the base metal and the
tip of a consumable covered electrode. The electrode and the work are part of
an electric circuit. This circuit begins with the electric power source and
includes the welding cables, an electrode holder, a work-piece connection, the
work piece (weldment), and an arc-welding electrode. One of the two cables
from the power source is attached to the work. The other is attached to the
electrode holder.

Welding commences when an electric arc is struck between the tip of the
electrode and the work. The intense heat of the arc melts the tip of the
electrode and the surface of the work close to the arc. Tiny globules of molten
metal rapidly form on the tip of the electrode, then transfer through the arc
stream into the molten weld pool. In this manner, filler metal is deposited as
the electrode is progressively consumed. The arc is moved over the work at an
appropriate arc length and travel speed, melting and fusing a portion of the
base metal and continuously adding filler metal. Since the arc is one of the
hottest of the commercial sources of heat [temperatures above 9000 degrees
F(5000 degrees C) have been measured at its center], melting of the base
metal takes place almost instantaneously upon arc initiation. If welds are made
in either the flat or the horizontal position, metal transfer is induced by the
force of gravity, gas expansion, electric and electromagnetic forces, and
surface tension. For welds in other positions, gravity works against the other
forces.

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The process requires sufficient electric current to melt both the electrode and a
proper amount of base metal. It also requires an appropriate gap between the
tip of the electrode and the base metal or the molten weld pool. These
requirements are necessary to set the stage for coalescence. The sizes and
types of electrodes for shielded metal arc welding define the arc voltage
requirements (within the overall range of 16 to 40 V) and the amperage
requirements (within the overall range of 20 to 550 A). The current may be
either alternating or direct, depending upon the electrode being used, but the
power source must be able to control the level of current within a reasonable
range in order to respond to the complex variables of the welding process
itself.

8.3Covered Electrodes

In addition to establishing the arc and supplying filler metal for the weld
deposit, the electrode introduces other materials into or around the arc, or
both. Depending upon the type of electrode being used, the covering performs
one or more of the following functions:

1. Provides a gas to shield the arc and prevent excessive atmospheric

contamination of the molten filler metal.
2. Provides scavengers, de oxidizers, and fluxing agents to cleanse the
weld and prevent excessive grain growth in the weld metal.
3. Establishes the electrical characteristics of the electrode.
4. Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air and
enhance the mechanical properties, bead shape, and surface cleanliness
of the weld metal.
5. Provides a means of adding alloying elements to change the mechanical
properties of the weld metal.

Functions 1 and 4 prevent the pickup of oxygen and nitrogen from the air by
the molten filler metal in the arc stream and by the weld metal as it solidifies
and cools.

Either the extrusion or the dipping process applies the covering on shielded
metal arc electrodes. Extrusion is much more widely used. The dipping process
is used primarily for cast and some fabricated core rods. In either case, the
covering contains most of the shielding, scavenging, and deoxidizing materials.
Most SMAW electrodes have a solid metal core. Some are made with a
fabricated or composite core consisting of metal powders encased in a metallic
sheath. In this latter case, the purpose of some or even all of the metal
powders is to produce an alloy weld deposit.

In addition to improving the mechanical properties of the weld metal, electrode

coverings can be designed for welding with alternating current (AC). With AC,
the welding arc goes out and is reestablished each time the current reverses
its direction. For good arc stability, it is necessary to have a gas in the arc
stream that will remain ionized during each reversal of the current. This
ionized gas makes possible the re ignition of the arc. Gases that readily ionize
are available from a variety of compounds, including those that contain

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potassium. It is the incorporation of these compounds in the electrode

covering that enables the electrode to operate on AC.

To increase the deposition rate, the coverings of some carbon and low alloy
steel electrodes contain iron powder. The iron powder is another source of
metal available for deposition, in addition to that obtained from the core of the
electrode. The presence of iron powder in the covering also makes more
efficient use of the arc energy. Metal powders other than iron are frequently
used to alter the mechanical properties of the weld metal.

The thick coverings on electrodes with relatively large amounts of iron powder
increase the depth of the crucible at the tip of the electrode. This deep crucible
helps to contain the heat of the arc and permits the use of the drag technique
(described in the next paragraph) to maintain a constant arc length. When iron
or other metal powders are added in relatively large amounts, the deposition
rate and welding speed usually increase.

Iron powder electrodes with thick coverings reduce the level of skill needed to
weld. The tip of the electrode can be dragged along the surface of the work
while maintaining a welding arc. For this reason, heavy iron powder electrodes
frequently are called drag electrodes. Deposition rates are high, but, because
slag solidification is slow, these electrodes are not suitable for out-of-position
use.

Arc Shielding

The arc shielding action is essentially the same for all electrodes, but the
specific method of shielding and the volume of slag produced vary from type to
type. The bulk of the covering materials on some electrodes are converted to
gas by the heat of the arc, and only a small amount of slag is produced. This
type of electrode depends largely upon a gaseous shield to prevent
atmospheric contamination. Weld metal from such electrodes can be identified
by the incomplete or light layer of slag, which covers the bead.

For electrodes at the other extreme, the bulk of the covering is converted to
slag by the heat of the arc, and only a small volume of shielding gas is
produced. The tiny globules of metal being transferred across the arc are
entirely coated with a thin film of molten slag. This molten slag floats to the
surface of the weld puddle because it is lighter than the metal. The slag
solidifies after the weld metal has solidified. The heavy slag deposits that
completely cover the weld beads identify Welds made with these electrodes.
Between these extremes are a wide variety of electrode types, each with a
different combination of gas and slag shielding.

Variations in the amount of slag and gas shielding also influence the welding
characteristics of covered electrodes. Electrodes, which produce a heavy slag,
can carry high amperage and provide high deposition rates, making them ideal
for heavy weldments in the flat position. Electrodes, which produce a light slag
layer, are used with lower amperage and provide lower deposition rates. These
electrodes produce a smaller weld pool and are suitable for making welds in all

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positions. Because of the differences in their welding characteristics, one type

of covered electrode usually will be best suited for a given application.

Process capabilities and limitations

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the most widely used processes,
particularly for short welds in production, maintenance and repair work, and
for field construction. The following are advantages of this process:

(9) The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive, and portable.

(2) The filler metal, and the means of protecting it and the weld metal from
harmful oxidation during welding, are provided by the covered electrode.

(3) Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not required.

(4) The process is less sensitive to wind and draft than gas shielded arc-
welding processes.

(5) It can be used in areas of limited access.

(6) The process is suitable for most of the commonly used metals and alloys.

(7) The process can be applied for all position welding.

SMAW electrodes are available to weld carbon and low alloy steels, stainless
steels, cast irons, copper, and nickel and their alloys, and for some aluminum
applications. Low melting metals, such as lead, tin, and zinc, and their alloys,
are not welded with SMAW because the intense heat of the arc is too high for
them. SMAW is not suitable for reactive metals such as titanium, zirconium,
tantalum, and columbium because the shielding provided is inadequate to
prevent oxygen contamination of the weld.

Covered electrodes are produced in lengths of 9 to 18 in. (230 to 460 mm). As

the arc is first struck, the current flows the entire length of the electrode. The
electrical resistance of the core wire, therefore, limits the amount of current
that can be used. Excessive amperage overheats the electrode and breaks
down the covering. This, in turn, changes the arc characteristics and the
shielding that is obtained. Because of this limitation, deposition rates are
generally lower than for a welding process such as GMAW (Gas Metal Arc
Welding).

Operator duty cycle and overall deposition rates for covered electrodes are
usually less than provided with a continuous electrode process such as FCAW
(Flux Cored Arc Welding). This is because electrodes can be consumed only to
some certain minimum length. When that length has been reached, the welder
must discard the unconsumed electrode stub and insert a new electrode into

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the holder. In addition, slag usually must be removed at starts and stops and
before depositing a weld bead next to or onto a previously deposited bead.

9.0Flux cored arc welding overview

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an arc welding process that uses an
arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The process
is used with shielding from a flux contained within the tubular electrode, with
or without additional shielding from an externally supplied gas, and without the
application of pressure.

The flux-cored electrode is a composite tubular filler metal electrode

consisting of a metal sheath and a core of various powdered materials. During
welding an extensive slag cover is produced on the face of a weld bead.

The feature that distinguishes the FCAW process from other arc welding
processes is the enclosure of fluxing ingredients within a continuously fed
electrode. The remarkable operating characteristics of the process and the
resulting weld properties are attributable to this electrode development.

FCAW offers two major process variations that differ in their method of
shielding the arc and weld pool from atmospheric contamination (oxygen and
nitrogen). One type, self-shielded FCAW, protects the molten metal through
the decomposition and vaporization of the flux core by the heat of the arc. The
other type, gas shielded FCAW, makes use of a protective gas flow in addition
to the flux core action. With both methods, the electrode core material
provides a substantial slag covering to protect the solidifying weld metal.

9.1Principal features

The benefits of FCAW are achieved by combing three general features:

(1) The productivity of continuous wire welding
(2) The metallurgical benefits that can be derived from a flux
(3) A slag that supports and shapes the weld bead

FCAW combines characteristics of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas

metal arc welding (GMAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW).

Principal applications

Application of the two methods of FCAW process overlap. However, the

specific characteristics of each method make each one suitable for different
operating conditions. The process is used to weld carbon and low alloy steels,
stainless steels and cast irons. It is also used for arc spot welding of lap joints
in sheet and plate, as well as for cladding and hard facing.

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The type of FCAW used depends on the type of electrodes available, the
mechanical property requirements of the welded joints, and the joint designs
and fit-up. Generally, the self-shielded method can often be used for
applications that are normally done by shielded metal arc welding. The gas-
shielded method can be used for some applications that are welded by the gas
metal arc welding process. The advantages and disadvantages of the FCAW
process must be compared to those of other processes when it is evaluated for
a specific application.

Higher productivity, compared to shielded metal arc welding, is the

chief appeal of flux cored arc welding for many applications. This generally
translates into lower overall costs per pound of metal deposited in joints that
permit continuous welding and easy FCAW gun and equipment accessibility.
The advantages are higher deposition rates, higher operating factors and
higher deposition efficiency (no stub loss).

FCAW has found wide application in shop fabrication. Maintenance and

field erection work. It has been used to produce weldments conforming to the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the rules of the American Bureau of
Shipping and ANSI/AWS D 1.1, Structural Welding Code Steel. FCAW enjoys
pre-qualified status in ANSI / AWS D1.1

Stainless steel, self-shielded, and gas shielded flux cored electrodes

have been used in general fabrication, surfacing, joining dissimilar metals, and
maintenance and repair.

The major disadvantages, compared to the SMAW process, are the

higher cost of the equipment, the relative complexity of the equipment in
setup and control, and control and the restriction on operating distance from
the electrode wire feeder. FCAW may generate large volumes of welding
fumes, which except in fieldwork, require suitable exhaust equipment.
Compared to the slag-free GMAW process, the need for removing slag between
passes is an added labor cost. This is especially true in marking root pass
welds.

Semiautomatic equipment

The basic equipment for self-shielded and gas shielded flux cored arc
welding is similar. The major difference is the provision for supplying and
metering gas to the arc of the gas shielded electrode. The recommended
power source is the dc constant-voltage type, similar to sources used for gas
metal arc welding. The power supply should be capable of operating at the
maximum current required for the specific application. Most semiautomatic
applications use less than 500 A. The voltage control should be capable of
adjustments in increments of one volt or less. Constant-current (dc) power
sources of adequate capacity with appropriate controls and wore feeders are
also used, but these applications are rare.

The purpose of the wire feed control is to supply continuous electrode

to the welding arc at a constant preset rate. The rate at which the electrode is
fed into the arc determines the welding amperage that a constant-voltage
power source will supply. If the electrode feed rate is changed, the welding

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machine automatically adjusts to maintain the preset arc voltage. Electrode

feed rate may be controlled by mechanical or electronic means.

Welding guns may be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Air-cooled guns

are favored because there is no requirement to deliver water. However, water-
cooled guns are more compact, lighter in weight, and require less maintenance
than air-cooled guns. Water-cooled guns generally have higher current ratings.
Capacity ratings range up to 600 A, continuous duty. Guns may have either
straight or curved nozzles. The curved nozzle can vary from 40 0 to 600. In
some applications, the curved nozzle enhances flexibility and case of electrode
manipulation.

Shielding gases

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most widely used shielding gas for flux cored arc
welding. Two advantages of this gas are its low cost and deep weld
penetration. Although it usually gives a globular metal transfer, some flux
formulations produce a spray-like metal transfer in CO 2.

Carbon dioxide is relatively inactive at room temperature. When it is

heated to high temperature by the welding arc, CO 2 dissociates to form carbon
monoxide (CO) and oxygen (O), as indicated by the chemical equation.

2CO2  2CO + O2

Thus, the arc atmosphere contains a considerable amount of oxygen to react

with elements in the molten metal. The oxidizing tendency of CO 2 shielding gas
has been recognized in developing flux cored electrodes. Deoxidizing materials
are added to the core of the electrode to compensate for the oxidizing effect of
the CO2.

In addition, molten iron reacts with CO2, producing iron oxide and
carbon monoxide in a reversible reaction:

Fe + CO2  FeO + CO

At red heat temperatures, some of the carbon monoxide dissociates to

carbon and oxygen:

2CO  2C + O2

The effect of CO2 shielding on the carbon content of mild and low alloy
steel weld metal is unique. Depending upon the original carbon contents of the
base metal and the electrode, the CO 2 atmosphere can behave as either a
carburizing or de-carburizing medium. Whether the carbon content of the weld
metal will be increased decreased depends upon the carbon present in the
electrode and the base metal. If the carbon content of the weld metal is below
approximately 0.05 percent, the molten weld pool will tend to pick up carbon
from the CO2 shielding atmosphere. On the other hand, if the carbon content
of the weld metal is greater than approximately 0.10 percent, the molten weld

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pool may lose carbon. The loss of carbon is attributed to the formation of
carbon monoxide (CO), because of the oxidizing characteristics of CO 2
shielding gas at high temperatures.

When this reaction occurs, the carbon monoxide can be trapped in the
weld metal as porosity. This tendency is minimized by providing an adequate
level of deoxidizing elements in the core of the electrode. Oxygen will react
with the deoxidizing elements rather than the carbon in the steel. That
reaction results in formation of solid oxide compounds that float to the surface
of the molten weld pool, where they form part of the slag covering.

Gas Mixtures

Gas mixtures used in flux cored arc welding may combine the separate
advantages of two or more gases. The higher the percentage of inert gas in
mixtures with CO2 or oxygen, the higher will be the transfer efficiencies of the
de-oxidizers contained in the core. Argon is capable of protecting the molten
weld pool at all welding temperatures. Its presence in sufficient quantities in a
shielding gas mixture results in less oxidation than occurs with 100 percent
CO2 shielding.

The mixture commonly used in gas shielded FCAW is 75 percent argon

– 25 percent carbon dioxide. Weld metal deposited with this mixture generally
has higher tensile and yield strengths than weld metal deposited with 100
percent CO2 shielding. When welding with mixture, spray transfer-type arc is
achieved. The ar-CO2 mixture is primarily used for our-of-position welding; it
has greater operator appeal and better arc characteristics than 100 percent
CO2.

The use of shielding gas mixtures with high percentages of inert gas for
electrodes designed for CO2 shielding my cause an excessive buildup of
manganese, silicon, and other deoxidizing elements in the weld metal. Such
higher alloy content of the weld metal will change its mechanical properties.
Therefore, electrode manufacturers should be consulted for the mechanical
properties of weld metal obtained with specific shielding gas mixtures. If data
are not available, tests should be made to determine the mechanical
properties for the particular application.

Gas mixtures high in argon content, such as 95 percent argon – 5

percent oxygen, generally are not used with flux-cored electrodes because the
slag cover is lost.

Base metals welded

Most steels that are weldable with the SMAW, GMAW, or SAW processes
are readily welded using the FCAW process. Examples of these steels include
the following:

1) Mild steel, structural, and pressure vessel grades, such as ASTM A36,
A515, and A516

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2) High-strength, low alloy structural grades, such as ASTM A440, A441,

A572, and A588
3) High-strength quenched and tempered alloy steels, such as ASTM A514,
A517, and A533
4) Chromium-molybdenum steels, such as 1-1/4 percent Cr-1/2 percent
Mo and 2-1/4 percent Cr-1 percent Mo
5) Corrosion-resistant wrought stainless steels, such as AISI Types 304,
309, 316, 347, 410, 430, and 502; also cast stainless steels such as ACI Types
CF3 and CF8
6) Nickel steels, such as ASTM A203
7) Abrasion-resistant alloy steels when welded with filler metal having a
yield strength less than that of the steel being welded

Electrodes

Flux cored arc welding process owes much of its versatility to the wide
variety of ingredients that can be included in the core of a tubular electrode.
The electrode usually consists of a low carbon steel or alloy steel sheath
surrounding a core of fluxing and alloying materials. The composition of the
flux core will vary according to the electrode classification and the particular
manufacturer of the electrode.

Most flux-cored electrodes are made by passing steel strip though rolls
that form in into a U-shaped cross section. The formed strip is filled with a
measured amount of granular core material (alloys and flux). Closing rolls that
round it and tightly compress the core material then closes the filled shape.
The round tube is next pulled through drawing dies or rolls that reduce its
diameter and further compress the core. The electrode is drawn to final size,
and then wound on spools or in coils. Other methods of manufacture are also
used.

Manufacturers generally consider the precise composition of their cored

electrodes to be proprietary information. By proper selection of the ingredients
in the core (in combination with the composition of the sheath), the following
is possible:

1) Produce welding characteristics ranging from high deposition rates in

the flat position to proper fusion and bead shape in the overhead position.
2) Produce electrodes for various gas shielding mixtures and for self-
shielding.
3) Vary alloy content of the weld metal from mild steel for certain
electrodes to high alloy stainless steel for others.

The primary functions of the flux core ingredients are to do the

following:

1) Provide the mechanical, metallurgical, and corrosion resistant

properties of the weld metal by adjusting the chemical composition.
2) Promote weld metal soundness by shielding the molten metal from
oxygen and nitrogen in the air.
3) Scavenge impurities from the molten metal by use of fluxing reactions.

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4) Produce a slag cover to protect the solidifying weld metal from the air,
and to control the shape and appearance of the bead in the different welding
positions for which the electrode is suited.
5) Stabilize the arc by 0providing a smooth electrical path to reduce
spatter and facilitate the deposition of uniformly smooth, properly size beads.

EXXT-1.

Electrodes of the T-1 group are designated for CO2 shielding gas by this
specification and are used with DCEP. However, gas mixtures of argon and CO 2
are also used to improve usability, especially for out-of-position applications.
Decreasing amounts of CO2 in the argon-CO2 mixture will increase manganese
and silicon in the deposit and may improve the impact properties. The
electrodes are designed for single – or multiple – pass welding. A spray
transfer, low spatter loss, flat to slightly convex bead configuration, and a
moderate volume of slag, which completely covers the weld bead, characterize
the T-1 electrodes.

Protection from Moisture

Protection from moisture pickup is essential with most flux-cored

electrodes. Moisture pick up can result in “worm tracks,” or porosity in the
weld bead. A return to the original package is recommended for overnight
storage.
Reconditioning of exposed wire by baking at 300 to 600 F (150 to 315
C) is recommended by certain manufacturers. This assumes that the wire is
spooled or coiled on a metal device.

PROCESS CONTROL

Welding current

Welding Current is proportional to electrode feed rate for a specific

electrode diameter, composition, and electrode extension. A constant voltage
power source of the proper size is used to melt the electrode at a rate that
maintains the preset output voltage (arc length). If the other welding variables
are held constant for given diameter of electrode, changing the welding
current will have the following major effects:

(1) Increasing current increases electrode deposition rate.

(2) Increasing current increases penetration.
(3) Excessive current produces convex weld beads with poor
appearance.
(4) Insufficient current produces large droplet transfer and
excessive spatter.
(5) Insufficient current can result in pickup of excessive nitrogen
and also porosity in the weld metal when welding with self-
shielded flux cored electrodes.

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As welding current is increased or decreased by changing electrode feed

rate, power supply output voltage should be changed to maintain the
optimum relationship of arc voltage to current. For a given electrode
feed rate, measured welding current varies with the electrode
extension. As the electrode extension increases, welding current will
decrease, and vice versa.

Arc voltage

Arc voltage and arc length are closely related. The voltage shown on
the meter of the welding power supply is the sum of the voltage drops
throughout the welding circuit.

The arc voltage can affect the appearance, soundness, and properties
of welds made with flux-cored electrodes. Too high an arc voltage (too long an
arc) can result in excessive spatter and wide, irregularly shaped weld beads.
With self-shielded electrodes, too high an arc voltage will result in excessive
nitrogen pickup. With mild steel electrodes, this may cause porosity. With
stainless steel electrodes, it will reduce the ferrite content of the weld metal,
and this in turn may result in cracking. Too low an arc voltage (too short an
arc) will result in narrow convex beads with excessive spatter and reduced
penetration.

Travel speed

Travel speed influences weld bead penetration and contour. Other

factors remaining constant, penetration at low travel speeds is greater than
that at high travel speeds. Low travel speeds at high currents can result in
overheating of the weld metal. This will cause a rough appearing weld with the
possibility of mechanically trapping slag, or melting through the base metal.
High travel speeds tend to result in an irregular, ropy bead.

Shielding gas flow

For gas shielded electrodes, the gas flow rate is a variable affecting
weld quality. Inadequate flow will result in poor shielding of the molten pool,
resulting in weld porosity and oxidation. Excessive gas flow can result in
turbulence and mixing with air. The effect on the weld quality will be the same
as inadequate flow. Either extreme will increase weld metal impurities. Correct
gas flow will depend on the type and the diameter of the gun nozzle, distance
of the nozzle from the work, and air movements in the immediate region of the
welding operation.

Deposition rate and efficiency

Deposition rate in any welding process is the weight of material

deposited per unit of time. Deposition rate is dependent on welding variables
such as electrode diameter, electrode composition, electrode extension, and
welding current.

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Deposition efficiencies of FCAW electrodes will range from 80 to 90

percent for those used with gas shielding, and from 78 to 87 percent for self-
shielding electrodes. Deposition efficiency is the ratio of weight of metal
deposited to the weight of electrode consumed.

Advantages of FCAW

Flux cored arc welding has many advantages over the manual SMAW
process. It also provides certain advantages over the SAW and GMAW
processes. In many applications, the FCAW process provides high-quality weld
metal at lower cost with less effort on the part of the welder than SMAW. It is
more forgiving than GMAW, and is more flexible and adaptable than SAW.
These advantages can be listed as follows:

1) High-quality weld metal deposit

2) Excellent weld appearance – smooth, uniform welds
3) Excellent contour of horizontal fillet welds
4) Many steels weldable over a wide thickness range
5) High operating factor – easily mechanized
6) High deposition rate – high current density
7) Relatively high electrode deposit efficiency
8) Economical engineering joint designs
9) Visible arc – easy to use
10)Less pre cleaning require than GMAW
11)Reduced distortion over SMAW
12)Up to 4 times greater deposition rate than SMAW
13)Use of self-shielded electrodes eliminates need for flux handling or gas
apparatus, and is more tolerant to windy conditions present in outdoor
construction (see disadvantage “6” below for gas shields)
14)Higher tolerance for contaminants that may cause weld cracking
15)Resistant to under bead cracking

Limitations of FCAW

The following are some of the limitations of the process:

1) FCAW is presently limited to welding ferrous metals and nickel base

alloys.
2) The process produces a slag covering which must be removed.
3) FCAW electrode wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid
electrode wires, except for some high alloy steels.
4) The equipment is more expensive and complex than that require for
SMAW; however, increased productivity usually compensates for this.
5) The wire feeder and power source must be fairly close to the point of
welding.
6) For the gas-shielded version, breezes and drafts may adversely affect
the external shield. Except in very high winds this is not a problem with self-
shielded electrodes because the shield is generated at the end of the electrode,
which is exactly where it is required.

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7) Equipment is more complex than that for SMAW, so more maintenance

is required.
8) More smoke and fumes are generate (compared to GMAW and SAW).

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10.0 Comparison of SMAW and FCAW Processes

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S No FCAW
1 The equipment is more expensive
complex and less portable than that
require for SMAW. Also in our case, we
have selected the portable Lincoln
make LN-25 wire feeder and hence
there is no problem.
2 Changing of accessories are often
required like contact tip, tip body or
gas diffuser, gas nozzle etc after
extensive use.
3 Anti spatter spray is required to avoid
spatter formation especially while
using Co2 as shielding gas.
4 Very minimal inter pass cleaning is
required and slag removal is very easy
and often self-peeling in nature for
FCAW-GS. For self shielded FCAW,
inter pass cleaning, slag and spatter
cleaning is required more like SMAW.
5 Wire feeding difficulties will be faced in
case of poor maintenance of drive
rolls.
6 More operator factor and less operator
fatigue
7 Continuous wire feeding and no down
time of changing electrodes
8 Very less stub loss and electrode
wastage
9 No re drying and holding temperature
requirements
10 All position capability depends upon
the shielding gas mixture/wire
formulation and mode of metal
transfer
11 Mode of metal transfer and shielding
gas mixture are essential variables for
welder qualification and procedure
qualification
12 Short circuiting mode of metal transfer
is not accepted for medium and heavy
wall thickness due to cold lap and lack
of fusion.
13 Weld groove accessibility is restricted
due to gas nozzle diameter and
electrode extension
14 Protection of weld metal by shielding
gas and flux in case of FCAW-GS and
no shielding gas required in case of
self shielded FCAW
15 For the gas-shielded version, breezes
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SMAW
The equipment is relatively simple,
inexpensive, and portable.
Electrode holder and grounding
clamps, terminal lugs were the
accessories need change after
extensive use.
Not required.
Slag removal and continuous inter
pass cleaning is required. In addition
each and every starting and
termination points shall be ground
for removing the porosity if any.
No wire-feeding problem. Manual
electrode feeding.
Operator fatigue is more and less
operator factor
Electrode change over time is more
and affects the operator factor
Minimum 13 to 18% electrode
wastage due to stub loss
Low hydrogen electrodes need to be
re dried after opening the package
and requires to be held at specified
temperature in holding oven or
quivers
The process can be applied for all
position welding
No such requirements
Very good side wall lack of fusion
Good accessibility to bevel and open
groove and especially in case of
heavy wall thickness joints.
The filler metal, and the means of
protecting it and the weld metal from
harmful oxidation during welding, are
provided by the covered electrode
The process is less sensitive to wind

and drafts may affect the external
shield, but less than GMAW. Except in
very high winds this is not a problem
with self-shielded FCAW.
16 FCAW is presently limited to welding
ferrous metals and nickel base alloys.
17 Shielding gas is required for the
FCAW-GS. For FCAW-SS no shielding
gas is required. But poor weld finish
and extensive slag cleaning, spatter
generation are the limitations with
FCAW-SS.
18 FCAW electrode wire is more
expensive on a weight basis than solid
electrode wires, except for some high
alloy steels
19 Deposition rate of Gas shielded FCAW
is higher than self shielded FCAW,
SMAW and GMAW.
20 Deposition efficiency of FCAW-GS is
higher than SMAW but less than
GMAW.
21 More smoke and fumes are generated
during welding compared to GMAW,
SAW and SMAW. More smoke is
generated in self shielded FCAW than
FCAW-GS.
22 Equipment is more complex than that
for SMAW, so more maintenance is
required
23 Excellent bead appearance and no
cosmetic grinding are required for
FCAW-GS.
24 Shallow penetration and flat bead
25 FCAW-GS can be mechanized and very
high productivity can be obtained
using rotators and manipulators
26 Training of welders is easy and user
friendly
11.0Experiment details:
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and draft than gas shielded arc-
welding processes
The process is suitable for most of
the commonly used metals and
alloys
Auxiliary gas shielding or granular
flux is not required
SMAW electrode costs less compared
to FCAW. But stub loss, less
deposition efficiency and less
deposition rate are the
disadvantages.
Deposition rate is less than FCAW.
Deposition efficiency is lower. It is
found 69% in our studies.
Smoke generation is less than FCAW-
GS and FCAW-SS.
Equipment maintenance is less than
FCAW.
Bead appearance is not much good
compared to FCAW-GS and cosmetic
grinding is required.
Convex bead appearance
Not possible to mechanize.
Training of welders is difficult
compared to FCAW-GS.
 PM GANESAN
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Test data for SMAW:

1. Pipe material: A106 GR.B
2. Pipe diameter: 168 mm outside diameter.
3. Wall thickness of the Pipe: 18.25 mm
4. Test Pipe length: 150 mm each
5. Type of joint: Butt
6. Type of groove geometry: Single V Groove weld
7. Groove angle: 75 degree included angle
8. Root face: 1 mm
9. Root Opening or root gap: 2.5 mm
10. Welding Position: 5G
11. Electrode used for Root Pass: E6010
12. Electrode used for Fill up/Capping runs: E7018
13. Polarity: DCEP

Test data for FCAW:

1. Pipe material: A106 GR.B
2. Pipe diameter: 168 mm outside diameter.
3. Wall thickness of the Pipe: 18.25 mm
4. Test Pipe length: 150 mm each
5. Type of joint: Butt
6. Type of groove geometry: Single V Groove weld
7. Groove angle: 75 degree included angle
8. Root face: 1 mm
9. Root Opening or root gap: 2.5 mm
10. Welding Position: 5G
11. Electrode used for Root Pass: E6010
12. Electrode used for Fill up/Capping runs: E71T-1
13. Shielding gas used: 100% Co2 and 75%Argon+25%Co2.
14. Polarity: DCEP

Figure of Actual job being carried out at fabrication shops

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Sheet 1
Test Data OF SMAW Process with E6010 + E7018
Pass details AWS Diamet Voltag Amper Trav Tot Arc Cleanin No. Of Weig Total
Class er of e e el al tim g time electro ht weight
electrod spee tim e de per of used
e d e used elect electrod
rode e
in in in in min in in gram
mm min min gram
per .
min.
Root E6010 2.5 23 - 26 45 - 60 60 8 5.5 2.5 9.5 15 142.5
Hot pass E7018 2.5 22 - 24 75 - 85 100 7 5 2 5 25 125
Fill up – 1 E7018 3.15 20 - 24 90 - 70 15 10 3 6 41 246
100
Fill up – 2 E7018 4 20 - 24 120 - 35 21 14 7 8 60 480
130
Fill up – 3 E7018 3.15 20 - 24 90 - 85 12 6 3 4.5 41 184.5
100
Final – 1 E7018 3.15 20 - 24 90 - 75 12 6 3 4.5 41 184.5
100
Final – 2 E7018 3.15 20 - 24 90 - 75 12 6 3 4.5 41 184.5
100
Final – 3 E7018 3.15 20 - 24 90 - 75 12 6 3 4.5 41 184.5
100
Total Time 91 53 24

Sheet 2
Test Data for FCAW Process E6010 + E71 T-1 with CO2 gas
Pass details AWS Diamet Voltag Amper Trav Tot Arc Cleanin No. Of We Total
Class er of e e el al time g time electro igh weight
electro spee tim de used t of used
de d e per electrod
ele e
ctr
ode
In In In In min In In gram
mm min min gra
per m.
min.
Root E6010 2.5 23 - 45 - 60 55 6 5.5 1 9.5 15 142.5
26
Pass details AWS Diamete Voltag Amper Total Arc Clearin Flow Wire Tra Wire
Class r of filler e e time time g time rate of speed vel weight
wire gas spe per meter
ed
In In In min In LPM In mm In In gram
min min per min. mm
per

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min
.
Hot pass E71 T-1 1.2mm 23 - 130 - 8.5 4 1.5 12 to 5.46 112 6.95
24 150 15 .5
Fill up – 1 E71 T-1 1.2mm 24 - 150 - 10.5 6 1.5 11 to 5.9 81. 6.95
25 160 14 82
Fill up – 2 E71 T-1 1.2mm 24 - 140 - 10 6.15 1.5 12 to 5.9 81. 6.95
25 150 15 82
Fill up – 3 E71 T-1 1.2mm 25 - 140 - 6.25 3.25 1 12 to 5.9 180 6.95
26 150 14
Fill up – 4 E71 T-1 1.2mm 25 - 140 - 6.6 3.75 1 12 to 5.9 180 6.95
26 150 14
Final – 1 E71 T-1 1.2mm 25 - 140 - 9.85 5.35 1.5 10 to 5.9 120 6.95
26 160 12
Final – 2 E71 T-1 1.2mm 25 - 140 - 8.3 4.5 1 10 to 5.9 120 6.95
26 160 12
Total Time 60 33 9
Sheet 3
Test data for FCAW Process E6010 + E71 T-1 with 75% Argon+25% Co2

Pass details AWS Diamet Volta Ampe Trav Tot Arc Cleani No. Of We Total
Class er of ge re el al time ng electro igh weight
electro spee tim time de used t of used
de d e pe electrod
r e
ele
ctr
od
e
In In In min In min In In gram
mm min gr
per am
min. .
Root E601 2.5 23 - 45 - 62 8 5.5 3 9.5 15 142.5
0 26 60
Pass details AWS Diamete Voltag Amper Total Arc Clearin Flow Wire Tra Wire
Class r of filler e e time time g time rate of speed vel weight
wire gas spe per meter
ed
In LPM In mm In In gram
per min. m
m
per
mi
n.
Hot pass E71 1.2mm 29 175 9 4 1 24 5.6 11 6.95
T-1 0
Fill up – 1 E71 1.2mm 31 180 10 5 1 24 5.6 10 6.95
T-1 0
Fill up – 2 E71 1.2mm 31 180 6 5 0.5 24 5.6 13 6.95

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T-1 0
Fill up – 3 E71 1.2mm 31 180 8 4 0.5 24 5.6 13 6.95
T-1 0
Final – 1 E71 1.2mm 31 180 6 4 0.5 24 5.6 13 6.95
T-1 0
Final – 2 E71 1.2mm 31 180 6 4 0.5 24 5.6 13 6.95
T-1 0
Total Time 45 26 4
WELD METAL RECOVERY DATA – TAKEN FROM ACTUAL TESTS

FCAW FCAW
Serial
Details SMAW Remarks
No. (75%Ar +
(100 % CO2)
25% CO2)
6.00
1 Pipe dia. inch 6.00 inch 6.00 inch
18.25
2 Pipe thickness mm. 18.25 mm 18.25 mm.
Pipe weight 19.130
3 before root kg 19.200 kg 19.020 kg Weighted physically
Weight of Taken from sheet 1 & it
142.5
4 electrode used 142.5 gram 142.5grm is taken by physically
gram
for root weighting the electrode
All the end rods of
Stub loss for electrode which is
5 30 gram 30 gram 30 gram
6010 thrown cumulatively
weighed for root pass
Pipe weight 19.200 Weighted physically
6 after root Kg. 19.270 kg 19.090 kg
Taken from sheet 1 & it
is taken by physically
weighting the
Weight of
electrode, In case of
electrode/filler 1.589
7 1.341 kg 1.011 kg filler wire it is
wire used for kg.
calculated by equation:
fill up & final
Arc time x Wire
speed x Weight of
wire per meter.
All the end rods of
electrode which is
Stub loss for
8 0.210 kg ----------- ----------- thrown cumulatively
7018
weighed for fill up &
final pass
Material use for
welding Weight of electrode
9 1.379 kg 1.341kg 1.011 kg
excluding stub used of 7018 - stub
loss loss of 7018
Weighted physically
Pipe weight
10 after welding 20.15 kg 20.360 kg 19.990 kg
11 Weld metal 0.95 kg 1.09 kg 0.9 kg Weight of pipe after

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welding - weight of
pipe after root
welding

deposited in
7018/ E71 T-1
Weight of electrode
used for fill up &
Material loss in
12 0.429 kg 0.251 kg 0.111 kg final pass - weld
7018 / E71 T-1
metal deposited in
7018/E71 T-1
(Weld metal
Percentage of
deposited / Actual
13 Weld metal 68.89% 81.28% 89.02%
material used for
recovery
welding)*100

Formula used for calculation of numerical values in above tables with respect
to serial number reference:
4 = Cost of Electrode/Kg of weld metal deposit = one kg weld metal deposited
x cost of electrode per kg / weld metal recovery
5 = Cost of Shielding gas/Kg of weld metal deposit = one kg weld metal
deposited x cost of gas per kg / weld metal recovery
6 = Deposition rate Per Hour = Deposition rate in kg x weld metal recovery x
60 / minute
B = power cost of welding = cost per kWh x volt x ampere / 1000 x deposition
rate per hour
C = Power Cost for Mother Oven for re drying low hydrogen electrodes/kg of
electrode = 6 hour (cycle time) X rating in kilo watt per hour x cost per kWh /
over capacity

D = Power Cost for Holding Oven (BIG)/kg of electrode = 24 hour x rating kilo
watt per hour x cost per kWh / oven capacity

E = Power Cost for Portable oven/kg of electrode = Rating in kg per hour x

cost per kWh / 2

H = Labor and over head cost = Labor and over head cost per hour /
deposition rate per hour x operator factor

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FINAL DATA AND CASE STUDY REPORT BASED ON SUMMARY OF ALL

TESTS CONDUCTED
Description
and studies
Sl. NO. conducted SMAW FCAW 1 FCAW 2 Remarks
Cost of True Prices including all
1 Electrode/Kg 75 115 115 taxes.
Current price of gases.
Rs.765/Co2 cylinder and
Cost of Shielding Rs700/Argo-shield
gas/KG of cylinder.1 no Co2 Cylinder
2 NA 14.57 70
electrode will burn 52.5 kg FCAW
consumption electrode and 1 no A-S
cylinder is burning 10 kg
FCAW wire. Measured.
From the weld recovery
table by equation: (Weld
Weld metal
3 69% 89% 81% metal deposited /
recovery
material used for
welding)*100
Cost of 1 kg of weld metal
Electrode/Kg of deposited / (weld metal
4 109 129.2 142
weld metal recovery * cost of
deposit electrode or filler wire)

Cost of stub loss 60 * stub loss for 1 kg of

5 per kg of weld 17 0.0 0 weld metal deposited *
metal deposit cost of electrode / actual
arc time in kg per minute
1kg of weld metal
Cost of Shielding deposited / (weld metal
6 gas/Kg of weld 0 16 86 recovery * cost of gas
metal deposit per kg of weld metal
deposited)
Electrode and
shielding gas
A 125.3 145.5 228.4 Sum of sr. no. 4,5,6
Cost of 1 kg of
weld metal
This is calculated as:
Deposition rate 60*weld metal deposited
7 1.08 1.98 2.08
Per Hour / actual arc time in kg
per minute
Power Cost for
Welding
M/c=Cost/KWH*
B 12.22 9.70 13.41
volt*ampere/(10 Value of voltage & ampere
00*Deposition taken averagely from
rate) attached sheet
Power Cost for Required power for oven is
C 5.4 0 0
Mother Oven for 4.5kw. & Cycle time for

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backing is taken generally

as 6 hours with power cost
re drying low assuming 5 Rs. Per kilo
hydrogen watt. Oven capacity is 25
electrodes/kg of kg Power cost = (Cost
electrode per kwh * volt *
ampere) / (1000 * oven
capacity)
Required power for oven is
3.5kw. & It is work for 24
Power Cost for hours with power cost
Holding Oven assuming 5 Rupees per kw.
D 7.2 0 0
(BIG)/kg of Oven capacity is 50 kg.
electrode Power cost = (Cost per
kwh * volt * ampere) /
(1000 * oven capacity)
Required power for oven is
0.165-kilo watt assuming
12 hours working of oven &
Power Cost for power cost is 5 Rs. Per
E Portable oven/kg 4.95 0 0 kilowatts. Oven capacity is
of electrode 2 kg. Power cost = (Cost
per kwh * volt *
ampere) / (1000 * oven
capacity)
B+C+D Total Power
+E Cost 29.77 9.70 13.41
Taken on the basis of trial
8 Operator factor 40% 55% 58% conducted.
Time for
deposition of 1
kg weld metal in
hours= 1 kg
F 2.31 0.92 0.83
weld
metal/Operator
factor*Depositio
n rate/hour
Labour &
overhead
G cost/hour 150.00 150.00 150.00
150 / (deposition rate
Labour & per hour * operator
H overhead cost 347.22 137.74 124.34 factor)
Total Cost in
Rupees of
A+B+C+D+E
J +H 502.27 292.94 366.15

12.0Conclusion of Case Study:

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1. When we compare to the productivity, quality, and economy of the two

welding processes selected for studies, Gas shielded FCAW is the best
process among all criterions.
2. FCAW with 75%Argon+25% Co2 as shielding gas is the best choice to
be used for out of position welding applications, greater operator appeal
and better arc characteristics than 100 percent Co2. Also when more
variety of materials are required to be fabricated in a single shop, this
will be the Common best shielding gas to use considering the use of
FCAW with same mixture on multiple materials. We have bought liquid
argon and liquid Co2 and processed the same to gases, where the
gases was mixed at required proportionate by using gas proportionate
mixers and piped to various welding stations for continuous supply of
mixed shielding gas for FCAW. Deposition efficiency of this process is
slightly higher than FCAW with 100 percent Co2 as shielding gas.
3. Whereas if there is no sufficient scope of work in other materials like
stainless steels and low alloy steels, and majority of work scope is only
carbon steel pipe spools, then the better option is to use Co2 alone
considering its cost competitiveness and ability to meet the specified
quality requirements in our case.
4. Currently we do not have much scope of work in other materials and
hence we have decided to apply FCAW-GS with 100 percent Co2 as
shielding gas.
5. FCAW with 100% Co2 as shielding gas will be the economical welding
process. Product quality was verified by Visual examination and
radiographic test and found satisfactory. Welding procedure was
qualified and found meeting the mechanical and chemical requirements.
6. The same process can be used in all positions welding and mode of
metal transfer will be spray transfer. Suitable welding technique should
be adopted for overhead /vertical position welding to train the welders
properly.
7. Current recommended by manufacturer is 120-300 Amperes and can be
used depends upon the welding Position.
8. Deposition rate with respect to wire feed speed i.e. maximum
amperage for 1.2 mm wire diameter will be a maximum of 5.6
kilograms/hour, which will be obtained in flat position only and in case
of fillet welding with backing. More deposition rates can be achieved in
flat position by using higher diameter wires.
9. This process can be mechanized for obtaining higher welding speeds
and deposition rates in flat position for groove welds i.e. butt joints.
10. Voltage loss is measured and found as 1V for 10-meter length of
welding cable.
11.The best-cost competitive welding process is FCAW with 100 percent
Co2 as shielding gas. Since this process is meeting the weld acceptance
criteria and mechanical properties requirements of B31.3 code, the
same is recognized as the suitable welding process for welding the large
bore pipe fabrication spools of medium wall thickness.
13.0References:
1. AWS WELDING HANDBOOK, VOLUME 2, Volume 1
2. Actual study data, technical articles and Lincoln procedure welding hand
book

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