TRANSLATION AS INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION:

TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY

By

Isra Al Saabri

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the

American University of Sharjah
College of Arts & Sciences
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of

Master of Arts in
Translation and Interpreting (English/Arabic/English) (MATI)

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 Declaration of Authorship

I declare that this thesis is my own work and, to the best of my knowledge and
belief, it does not contain material published or written by a third party, except where
permission has been obtained and/or appropriately cited through full and accurate
referencing.

Signature
Isra Al Saabri

Date 2nd March 2021

The Author controls copyright for this report.

Material should not be reused without the consent of the author. Due
acknowledgement should be made where appropriate.

© Year 2021

Author's Full Name (Isra Al Saabri)

ALL RIGHTS RESERVE

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Approval Signatures

We, the undersigned, approve the Master’s Thesis of Isra Al Saabri.

Title: Translation as Intercultural Communication: Translation and Commentary
Date of Defense: 31-May-2015

Name, Title and Affiliation Signature

Dr.Sattar Izwaini
Associate Professor,
Department of Arabic and Translation Studies
Thesis Advisor

Dr. Said Faiq

Professor
Department of Arabic and Translation Studies
Thesis Committee Member

Dr. Yousef Casewit

Assistant Professor
Department of Arabic and Translation Studies
Thesis Committee Member

Dr. David Wilmsen

Head
Department of Arabic and Translation Studies

Dr. Hana Sulieman

Associate Dean
College of Arts and Sciences

Dr. Mahmoud J Anabtawi

Dean
College of Arts and Sciences

Dr. Mohamed El-Tarhuni

Vice Provost for Graduate Studies
Office of Graduate Studies
 Acknowledgments
I extend warm thanks to Dr. Sattar Izwaini, my advisor, for his prompt and
helpful insights during all stages of my thesis. I am also thankful to all the MATI
professors who made this journey a memorable one. Your passion for translation has
taught me unforgettable and perceptive insights into the field of translation. I will
remain forever grateful for your support. Lastly, I would also like to thank Ms. Maureen
for her kindness and timely assistance.

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 Dedication
To my loving mother and father
To my sisters and friends for their support

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 Abstract
This thesis is a translation of “Translation as Intercultural Communication” by
David Katan, which comprises chapter five of The Routledge Companion to
Translation Studies, edited by Jeremy Munday (2009). The translation is from English
to Arabic, followed by a commentary that addresses challenges faced in the process of
translating the chapter in terms of register and genre, with a focus on terminology.
Newmark’s (1987) translation methods (such as literal and semantic translation
procedures, and textual level) were followed as a guideline in the translation to deal
with a scholarly/academic-type text. Sixteen terms were identified, arranged according
to terms and their Arabic meanings/translations were looked up the Al Mawrid
dictionary (2003). The translations of the terms were compared against those that would
result following the methods of Newmark (1987), Baker (1992), Munday (2009) and
other translation scholars and their strategies. Since the chapter chosen for translation
in this thesis is a specialized scholarly/academic text, among the major challenges were
factors such as finding appropriate equivalents and standardized terms in Arabic. The
analysis of the translations of the sixteen terms showed that recording, studying and
analyzing terms during the translation process enhances the quality of the translation.

Search Terms: David Katan, Intercultural Communication, Translation Studies

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 Table of Contents
Abstract 6
List of Figures 9
Abbreviations 10
Chapter One: Introduction 11
Chapter Two: Translation methods and theories 13
2.1 Translation as an act of communication 14

2.2 The translation of scholarly/academic texts 15

2.3 Equivalence effect 16
2.3.1 The notion of non-equivalent words 17
2.4 English to Arabic translation: between domestication and 18
foreignization 2.5 Translation procedures 19
2.5.1 Translation shifts 19
2.5.2 Transposition 20
2.5.3 Modulation in translation 20
2.5.4 Adaptation 21
2.5.5 Functional equivalence 21
2.5.6 Descriptive equivalence 22
2.6 Identifying terminology 22
2.6.1 What is terminology? 22
2.7 The translator’s role 23
2.8 Levels of translation 24
Chapter Three: The English ST and Arabic TT 26
3.1 Translation as intercultural communication 26
3.2 The English source text 27
3.3 The Arabic target text 44
Chapter Four: Commentary 64
4.1 Overview 64
4.2 Discussion 65
4.3 Translation methods 67

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4.3.1 Semantic translation 67
4.3.2 Literal translation 68

4.3.3 Adaptation 71

4.3.4 Faithful translation 71

4.4 Functional equivalence 72

4.5 Translation procedures 74

4.5.1 Descriptive equivalence 74

4.5.2 Collocation 75

4.5.3 Word order 76

4.5.4 Addition 76

4.6 Domestication and foreignization 76

4.7 Textual levels 78

4.7.1 Referential level 78

4.7.2 Cohesion level 79

Chapter Five: Conclusion 77

References 82
Vita 81

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 List of Figures
Figure 1: The English original text

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 Abbreviations
SL: Source Language
ST: Source Text
TL: Target Language
TT: Target Text

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 Chapter 1: Introduction
The term “culture” encompasses a range of different notions, including morals,
language, customs, traditions, and many other implications. The philosophy of culture
is complex, in the sense that understanding a culture in its deep meaning requires more
than simply understanding and gathering information. Austrian-British philosopher
Ludwig Wittgenstein, states that silence holds the importance of the message, it is the
deep, indescribable and unspoken words (Nyberg & McGuinness, 1971, p.16).
Significant portions of cultural practice are implicit and full cultural understanding and
competence, therefore, requires that one go beyond the explicit cultural level to learn
about the hidden factors, the “deep” nature of the culture, and the baggage that it brings
along with it. Further, given the close association between culture and language,
cultural notions are usually expressed in a language that itself relies on the implications
and norms of that specific culture. One of the best ways to understand a culture,
therefore, is to read culturally specific expressions, tales, or fables stemming from that
culture.
Language is one of the key expressive tools that communicates a culture. It is
through the deciphering of certain codes that bridges of knowledge are built between
different cultures. This is where significant beliefs and concepts are introduced to the
world and where cultures open up to each other and learn from each other.
Many culture-related books have specialized in culture and language, where
understanding a culture is seen as key to communicating messages and ideas. Through
translation, cultures are connected and new horizons are introduced. Translation is seen
as a tool of communication between nations, countries, cities, cultures, and societies.
In a time when knowledge is shared and the global world is now seen as a smaller, more
intimate space, exposure happens naturally, intentionally and unintentionally, through
the media and education as they help to ease communication.
This thesis seeks to shed light on a type of translation that is concerned with
scholarly/academic text that discusses the subject of culture, translation and
communication. The thesis provides a translation from English into Arabic of the
chapter titled “Translation as Intercultural Communication” by David Katan (2009),
from the book The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies edited by Jeremy
Munday (2009).
Chapter two presents studies by translation scholars, including their views on
translation techniques, culture, and terminology. Furthermore, it discusses the
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translation of scholarly academic text types and other points of view on how to
approach such text types.
Chapter three is an introduction of the author of the chapter “Translation as
Intercultural Communication”, David Katan, as well as the content source text (ST),
which is chapter five of The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies, followed by
the translated Arabic target text (TT). This is followed by chapter four, which is a
commentary that discusses the translation choices made and why each term was chosen
from among various possibilities. This chapter also presents the reasoning behind the
translation strategies used and why they are seen as suitable methods to be used in the
target text. Finally, chapter five provides a conclusion to the thesis, summarizing the
translation journey of the project and discussing the experiences of the translator.

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 Chapter 2: Translation Methods and Theories
Stated simply, as translation is a process that involves two languages, it involves two
cultural traditions (Toury, 1978, p. 200). This statement offers an introductory insight
into translation elements, language, and culture. The process of translation does not
merely involve restating words in another language; instead, it is a way of bridging
knowledge between cultures. Translators deal with questions of how to treat and draft
the text when translating a source text (ST) and seek the most suitable techniques of
how to coin phrases, words and sentences when trying to convey the desired meaning
of the target text (TT). When culturally specific aspects are embedded in the content,
the challenge presented by this aspect of the task is heightened. Therefore, the translator
is required to tackle the text at hand to transform the given information from the source
language context to a comprehensible and clear target language text. Translation
problems vary according to the scope or genres in question, a well as the linguistic and
cultural gaps between the two languages concerned.
Newmark (1987) states that the translator is continuously faced with choices.
Additionally, the translator is essentially solving riddles. The process of juggling
metaphors and constantly looking for words requires both knowledge and imagination.
The translator refers to translation theories to make decisions and provide a frame of
reference for the various struggles faced in translation, be they in sentences, clauses,
word groups, proper names, “non-equivalent words”, neologisms and contextual terms
– morphemes and punctuation marks. According to Newmark’s procedure, in order to
achieve better translation results, the translator should, first, identify and define the
translation; second, utilize all the factors that have to be taken into account to solve the
problem; and finally, adopt the suitable translation procedure for translation (Newmark,
1987, pp. 8-9).
According to Bahameed (2008), the main challenges in translation arise due to
lexical, prosodic, structural, and cultural hindrances. Of these, the most important is the
cultural hindrance, which arises due to the complexity embedded in cultures, which can
be understood to be the cumulative experiences of a group of people including their
knowledge, beliefs, moral and value systems, arts, traditions, and any habits acquired
by them. Capturing these cultural nuances in translation is a major challenge and
requires a deep understanding of the complicated implications of a culture, as was
highlighted by Hall (1990, p. 3-4). Hall noticed that misunderstandings arose not just
through language but also through other “silent”, “hidden” or “unconscious” yet
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patterned factors – in short, cultural differences. It is accepted that cultures differ in
their languages, values and behavioral patterns, which implies the complexity and
profoundness of spoken or written cultural messages (Bennett, 1968).

2.1 Translation as an Act of Communication

According to Vermes (2010, cited in Parlog et al., 2010, p. 5), problems of
translatability arise not only due to differences between the source and the target
languages, but also due to differences in the conceptual systems of the source and the
target cultures. Translation is an act that requires sound linguistic knowledge.
Linguistic barriers arise due to differences in grammar, language structure and
terminology between the two languages. In addition, the emotions or beliefs the
translator has towards their culture may also pose further challenges in translation.
Jacques Perret (cited in Pym, 1992, p. 194) contends that “each discourse on
translation implies a theory of language.” This implies that translators may use theories
as a guide to structure their translation in a framed content, with either a limitation or
no limitation in the production of the content. Theoretical frameworks help translators
find solutions for their practical problems, although the aim is not necessarily to restrict
translations but rather to help produce principles that can be applied to present a
comprehensible piece of translation.
According to Halliday (1970, cited in Baker, 1992, p. 82), “[l]anguage…gives
structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things.” Each
language follows a certain structure, and that given structure governs the way people
see and express the world. In the attempt to translate from one language into another,
translators have to bear in mind what that given structure implies in the source language
(SL) and the target language (TL).
Translation is the art of communicating harmoniously with a consistent flow.
Traditionally, good translation between languages has been thought to accord with the
principle of “equivalence”. In this scheme, texts have an equivalent meaning regardless
of the cultural representations in both ST and TT. More recently, however, theorists
and practitioners have re-defined translation to go beyond equivalence, instead
considering translation as the transfer of meaning from one language into another
(Baker, 1992) (TL).
According to Newmark (1987), “Translation is the attempt to produce
approximate equivalence or respectable synonymy between two chunks of different
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languages on various levels: thought and linguistic form” (p. 19). Newmark (1987) and
Baker (1992) suggest that the principle of equivalence is relevant, but practically not
possible in translation processes due to differences in languages and the absence of
equivalent words in the target language. For example, the Arabic expression ‫"اﻻﺑﺘﺴﺎﻣﺔ‬
"‫ اﻟﺼﻔﺮاء‬which literally translates to “yellow smile” in English has no neologism in
English. In Arabic it means a pale, deceptive and sarcastic smile. The English
equivalent would be “crocodile smile”, which also means a smile that hides evil
intentions.

2.2 The Translation of Scholarly/Academic Texts

The present study is interested in exploring the identified theories that aid in
translating scholarly/academic texts. Such text types can be categorized as branches of
the social sciences, which includes: anthropology, communications, cultural studies,
economics, gender studies, geography, international relations, law, political science,
psychology, public health, sociology, and other related fields that fall under the social
sciences umbrella (Heim & Tymowski, 2006, p. 1).
The translation process is an act of communication, not merely translating word
for word; rather, it is the art of rewriting the content as a creative writer, where the
translator tries to deliver the target text in a concise and articulate manner. Just as art
has different forms of expression, translation has different fields that require different
modes of expression. Translating a novel would require creativity, while translating a
scientific text or a text from a new emerging field would require re-invention or creation
of terminology. Likewise, translating a scholarly/academic text requires meeting
expectations in terms of producing a target text that communicates the meanings and
ideology of that particular academic text (Heim & Tymowski, 2006, p. 1). Heim and
Tymowski (2006) also maintain that, despite the challenges of the translation process,
“successful translation through communication is possible” (p. 1). In their book
Guidelines for the Translation of Social Science Texts, Heim and Tymowski discuss
guidelines that outline expectations and guide the translator throughout the translation
process. By focusing on a specific register and genre, these guidelines facilitate the
comprehension and swift delivery of the message to the target text reader.
Furthermore, Heim and Tymowski (2006) experimented with a translation
project in which translators chose from among eight social science categories to
specialize in. Throughout the process, Heim and Tymowski (2006) developed a scope
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of work for future translators to use as a guideline in their translations. The section
entitled “How the Guidelines Came About” reveals that the translators were advised to
write notes and comments on the challenges that arose during the process of translation
and explain the decisions that were made to resolve the translation issues. Thus, the
process is three-fold: the first part is choosing the context, the second is discussing the
translation, and the third is composing the guidelines for that particular social science
text (Heim & Tymowski, 2006, p. 2). This experiment helped establish a framework
for translating social science texts, as the fields are dense and deep, and each branch
would naturally include presuppositions, terminology, and concepts that structure the
given context.

2.3 Equivalence Effect

In Newmark’s (1987) A Textbook of Translation, he dedicates a section to the
subject of equivalence in translation. Newmark defines different types of techniques in
order to achieve equivalence in translation. These techniques are discussed below.
Communicative translation: In this form of translation, the equivalent effect is
necessary. This category includes the following text types: notices, instructions,
publicity, propaganda, persuasive writing and popular fiction. An example would be
instructions such as: ‫ – ﻣﻤﻨﻮع اﻟﺪﺧﻮل‬No Entry. The intention of this form of translation
is to be faithful to the source text to achieve maximum understanding among the readers
of the target text.
Informative translation: This equivalence technique seeks to create an impact on the
reader of the target text, but not necessarily by using maximum equivalence. Naturally,
the source text and the target text are of different cultures; therefore, the effect required
here is to produce a translation that will fit with the target language’s culture. In other
words, "the most informative text has to be rendered with a style that is familiar to the
readership, i.e. with an equivalent effect purpose" (Newmark, 1987, p. 48).
Semantic translation: This type of translation is dependent on the translator’s intuition
towards the given source text. The translator renders the source according to the effect
and impact the text had on them. It is a reproduction of the source text with a different
approach: it is not a word-for-word translation, but rather a comprehensive translation.
For example, one could consider translation of the name of the historic battle ‫"ﻏﺰوة‬
"‫ اﻟﺨﻨﺪق‬to “Battle of Trench”. The word ‫ ﻏﺰوة‬could be translated to battle, war, conquest
or invasion, while the word ‫ اﻟﺨﻨﺪق‬means a deeply dug hole, a moat or trench. From
16
among these given meanings, the translator could combine meanings to formulate a
final decision-pool comprising phrases such as “the war of the trench”, “the conquest
of the moat” and “the battle of the trough”. In this context, it is the translator’s role to
use intuition and sense of meaning to combine and connect terms to reach a solution
that sounds semantically and idiomatically acceptable in the target language.
Comparing communicative translation with semantic translation, Newmark (1987,
p. 49) argues that the former establishes more equivalence because it is set at the
reader’s level of language and knowledge.
Re-creative translation: Throughout the steps of translation, literal translation is
considered to be the first step that the translator would opt for. However, it is not a good
choice when the literal translation leads to an inaccurate target text. Newmark describes
a good translator as one who will abandon literal translation in such a situation, while
a bad translator will strain to achieve a literal word-for-word translation. Another
approach in translation, introduced by Newmark, is re-creative translation or
“contextual re-creation” (1987, p. 76), where the translator forsakes word-for-word
translation and instead seeks to capture the essence of the content. Although re-creative
translation sounds appealing insofar as it interprets the essence behind the literal
meaning, Newmark regards it as inadequate, as most translations are not meant to be
creative.
Faithful translation: This type of translation attempts to produce the precise
contextual meaning of the source language and preserve it in the target language. It
mediates cultural words and preserves grammatical and lexical structures from the
source language context, even if these may seem abnormal in the target language
context. In this translation type, the translator conveys the text as the author originally
intended, in the ST (Newmark, 1987, p. 46).

2.3.1 The notion of non-equivalent words. According to Faust, the figure of

German legend who devoted his life to unlimited knowledge and worldly pleasure,
“Words are untranslatable, texts can always be translated” (Newmark, 1987, p. 79).
Faust’s argument can be deemed valid in the sense that two different languages that
carry two different systems might encounter the absence of an intersection point where
two concepts fail to find equivalence. However, Newmark argues that it is incorrect to
say that a word is untranslatable. In accordance with Hans-Georg Gadamer, the German
philosopher and author of Philosophical Hermeneutics (Gadamer, 1976, p. 68), he
17
believes that “no translation can replace the original…the translator’s task is never to
copy what is said, but to place himself in the direction of what is said (i.e. in its
meaning)” (Newmark, 1987, p. 79). When the translator is working towards this vision,
he or she is in a moment of decision-making and in cognition with psychological factors
such as personality, judgments, and emotional and intellectual development. For
example, there will be instances in which the translator may under-translate to achieve
clarity of the target, as omission is one of the techniques of under-translating. This
indicates that in order to achieve an un-biased translation, the translator should account
for the source language words, and blend them into the translation, and not be guilty of
not translating every word, but rather transferring the ideas that are embedded within
the words (Newmark, 1987, p. 80).

2.4 English to Arabic translation: between domestication and foreignization

The translator mentally outlines and processes the best methods that apply to
the given text. In this situation, accuracy and precision are crucial when it comes to
translating scholarly/academic discourse. As a starting point, analyzing the source text
and focusing on the outcome of the translation helps the translator focus on the target.
The aim is to produce a well-interpreted target text for the target audience readers. This
scenario is relevant when translating from an English source text to an Arabic target
text. This type of translation is aimed at producing a coherent target text that reflects
the ideologies and theories presented in the original source text. In this case, the
translation process should serve neither for the translator to reflect personal thoughts
and emotions nor to introduce or impose cultural implications. Rather, it calls for
objectivity and direct translation. The target text readers will be looking at the direct
and intended meaning of the text to learn from and use it in academic studies. However,
being faithful to the translation does not imply that the translator need make no attempt
to comprehend what is beyond the sentence level. Therefore, the translator should
consider interlingual factors between the source text and the target text.
In consideration of the above factors, the content is intended to serve the target
text readers and reduce the level of ambiguity that may occur. In Lawrence Venuti’s
(2000) translation procedures, the notion of domestication and foreignization strategies
in translation provide linguistic and cultural guidance. Venuti (1995) describes
domestication in translation as a way to present a transparent and fluent translation,
which reduces peculiarities between the source text and the target text. For instance,
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the Arabic saying “‫” اطﺮق اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺪ وھﻮ ﺳﺎﺧﻦ‬, literary translates to “Hammer the iron while
it is hot” can be translated transparently to English as “Strike the iron while it is hot”
the saying exists in the target language, as both sayings convey the same meaning,
which is take the opportunity when presents itself before its gone. In contrast, the
foreignization strategy in translation is a way of depicting exactly what the source text
is portraying, without seeking to smooth over the peculiarities in cultural connotations
and register, but rather fully exposing these elements in the target text. For example,
the word imperialism in English is foreignized in Arabic as “‫”اﻹﻣﺒﺮﯾﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬. Venuti supports
the latter strategy and believes that reflecting on cultural perspectives and ideologies
creates what he calls “an ethno-deviant pressure” (Venuti, 1995, p. 20-21) that
preserves the foreign text from domestication and gives the translator visibility and
presence as the transmitter of the text.
Nevertheless, there are reservations to applying Venuti’s foreignization or
domestication techniques. In dealing with two languages such as English and Arabic,
which not only come from different cultures but also different (lingual) structures, the
concepts of domestication and foreignization would be a double-edged sword. The use
of a foreignization strategy for political content can cause disputes, while applying it to
scholarly academic content would be a benefit for the target text audience, to provide
as much exposure to and knowledge of the original content as possible.

2.5 Translation Procedures

The difference between translation methods and procedures is that methods relate to
the overall text, while procedures relate to sentences and smaller units of language
(Newmark, 1987, p. 81). The following section is concerned with procedures such as
shifts and modulation in translation.

2.5.1 Translation shifts. The term “shift in translation” was coined by John
Catford (1965) to refer to an instance in which an SL item has a textual equivalence but
on a different linguistic level. According to Catford, shifts occur on a grammatical and
lexical level. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) discussed translation shifts and outlined
seven procedures that translators can use as a technique in translation. The shifts are
divided between direct and oblique translation. Direct techniques include borrowing,
calque or literal translation; while oblique translation is a non-direct procedure and
includes transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation. Both concepts are
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concerned with grammatical shifts from ST to TT and might also involve a change from
singular to plural. In a shift in translation, the structure is rendered so as to familiarize
the reader, which makes it easier to follow and allows the TT reader to comprehend the
sentence (Jabak, 2014). An example of a shift in translation would be:
ST: ‫ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ‬
TT: Mohammed works at the bank
There is an obvious shift in the target text where the verb (works) is shifted to the middle
of the sentence, where in the source text it was at the beginning of the sentence.

2.5.2 Transposition. Transposition, as mentioned above, falls under the

category of oblique translation shifts. This technique involves the use of a relevant TL
word order and grammatical level that would not affect the translation and its
intended SL meaning. For example, “a polite girl” in English would be translated to
"‫"ﻓﺘﺎة ﻣﮭﺬﺑﺔ‬in Arabic. Here, we notice a change in the TL structure, where the adjective
had been shifted in Arabic to the end of the sentence while in the SL the adjective was
at the beginning of the sentence.

2.5.3 Modulation in translation. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1995, p. 31, 33)

most famous methodologies in translation studies are literal translation and oblique
translation. The former is a direct transfer of SL in which the translator adheres to the
structure of the SL and instills it in the TL, and the translator’s role is limited. In
contrast, the latter method gives the translator the freedom to explore and express the
TL translation to achieve equivalence. Modulation falls under oblique translation as a
non-direct approach. For the purpose of this thesis, the focus will be on modulation.
The term “modulation” was coined by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) and is
defined as a change in perspective and viewpoint in the process of translation.
Modulation occurs when “the target language rejects literal translation” (Newmark
1988, p. 88). The greater the structural difference between the source language and the
target language, the more challenging it is for the translator when using modulation. In
the process of modulation, the translator will alter their judgment of the message
without altering the original intended meaning to the target language reader. As an
example of modulation in English–Arabic translations, the expression “It’s okay” in
Arabic literally translates to “‫”ھﺬا ﺟﯿﺪ‬, but could also mean “‫”ﻻ ﺑﺄس‬. Another example is
“Safe journey”, which literally means “‫ ”طﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ‬but it could also be translated to
20
“‫”رﺣﻠﺔ ﺳﻌﯿﺪة‬. Here, the translator’s skill is engaged with the text, considering the source
language phrase from various perspectives. The modulation technique adds familiarity
to the target text and allows the reader to be in sync with the content (Adetunji, 2010).

2.5.4 Adaptation. Adaptation takes place when the source language culture is
converted into the target language culture and the translator adapts a similar relevant
description to fit it in the TT readers’ context (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, p. 52). It is
flexible and considered the “freest” type of translation (Newmark, 1987, p. 46). An
instance of the concept of adaptation would be the Arabic saying"‫"ﻋﺎد ﺑﺨﻔﻲ ﺣﻨﯿﻦ‬, an
expression that derives from a cultural denotation from a famous story in Arab culture
(Al Maydani, 1955). The story states that there was a cobbler called Hunain, who had
a misunderstanding with another man about some shoes, which led to Hunain wanting
revenge. In order to get his revenge, Hunain threw one of the shoes of the pair on one
side of the road, and the other on the other side of the road. On the journey back
home, the man found the shoes. While he was picking up the second, he left his camel
unattended. Hunain slyly stole his camel. The man therefore, went back home with a
pair of shoes and lost his camel (his means of transportation). Hence the literal
translation of the saying “He came back with Hunain’s shoes” would not capture the
meaning it would convey in its original cultural context. Therefore, it could be
adapted into “He came back empty handed.”

2.5.5 Functional equivalence. Functional equivalence is applied when the SL

uses cultural words or a specific new term, in which case the functional effect comes
in as a neutralizer to add familiarity to the TL word produced. Newmark calls this
procedure a cultural componential analysis for its precision and accurate way of
translation. The same procedure is also used when a technical term in the SL has no
equivalent in the TL (Newmark, 1987, p. 83).

21
 2.5.6 Descriptive equivalence. The descriptive equivalence procedure is used
in cases where the text requires clarification of the function of a certain concept. It
aids in explaining terms that require description of their function. The example that
Newmark provides is the Japanese word “Samurai”. In many TL languages the term
is irrelevant; when is it accompanied with a description such as “the Japanese
aristocracy from the eleventh to the nineteenth century”, and a definition of its
function such as “to provide officers and administrators” it adds more sense and
understanding to the translation (Newmark, 1987, p. 84).

2.6 Identifying Terminology

The translated chapter “Translation as Intercultural Communication” from The
Routledge Companion to Translation Studies is a highly specialized text, as it is rich in
terminological nuances that address various areas in intercultural translation. The
chapter, which introduces terms that are likely to be unfamiliar to the target text readers,
asserts that focusing on the terminology when translating creates a link between the
sentences and helps the TT to scan through the piece of writing more quickly.

2.6.1 What is terminology? The study of terminology is concerned with

specialized terms, which means terms that are related to a certain field of study with a
specific genre. Somers (1996) confirms that special terminology comprises a common
stem of technical and scientific subject fields. A term is classified as specialized when
three conceptualizations are considered: (a) discipline, (b) practice, and (c) product
that is generated by the practice. “For linguistics, terms are a way of knowing how”
and “a way of knowing what” (Somers, 1996, pp. 16-17).
It is apparent that with new emerging fields and growing industries, new
explorations and ideologies being discovered, and new concepts being developed, new
names will be emerging all the time. Thus, new terminologies emerge. The
conceptualization of terminology has been divided into three meanings, which are “the
discipline, the practice and the product generated by the practice” (Somers, 1996, p.
16). The discipline is the specificity of the field of contextual study, which concerns
specialized terms; the practice refers to the conceptual field that underpins the terms
and from which the terms emerge; and the product is the set of compiled terms relating
to that specific field.

22
 From the above conceptualizations, the creation of terms is seen as follows: for
linguistics, they represent units of meaning; for philosophy, they are cognitive units;
and for other subject fields, they are units of transference and communication (Somers,
1996, pp. 17-18). Terminology is specific to a subject field where it includes terms
specific to that subject only and excludes other concepts that do not relate to the subject
field. Therefore, we can say that terminology is concerned with the area of the
conceptualization of the object of study by the discipline. Terminology in practice
encompasses the collection of data related to the subject field, assembling the
methodology, and presenting the data developed in a glossary. The documentation
methodology allows the translator to explore the subject field more deeply and dig for
relevant terminologies. Even if they do not exist in the target language culture or norms,
concepts presented in the subject field can lead the translator to a suitable neologism in
the TT. In this step, the translator can be the inventor of new terms; juxtapose existing
terms with new ones; or introduce the concept in the original, given terminology.
Terminology is flexible, as it can adapt to rendering. This characteristic allows
terms to be considered universal, as terms can be formed based on new
conceptualizations. When a translator deals with a source text that covers a certain
subject field and deals with specific terminology related to that genre, they are advised
to produce a list of terms with notions similar to that of the subject field. This process
is known as onomasiology, which has to do with dealing with terminology and
contrasting terms with similar concepts (Somers, 1996, p. 25).

2.7 The Translator’s Role

Once the translator has been assigned a text to translate, the logical approach
for the translator is to define the scope of work of that given text. According to
Newmark (1987), the translator is on a continuous mission of extending their
knowledge, forms of expression, and words. Thus, Newmark (1987) sees translators as
working at four levels, which are outlined below.
1. Translation is a science, which entails knowledge and verification of facts and
language;
2. It is a skill, which calls for appropriate language and writing;
3. It is an art, which distinguishes good translations from weak ones;
4. It is a matter of taste, where arguments cease, preferences are expressed, and where
translations reflect individual differences (Newmark, 1987, p. 6).
23
 A scholarly/academic field branches from the social sciences and humanities.
The ideas are introduced through concepts and the theories that have been agreed on or
shared through a community of scholars concerned with that specialized area of study.
Translation is not merely a transmission of culture, but also information (Newmark,
1987, p. 7). In order to accomplish optimum results in translation, the translator should,
first, read the source language text, and second, define the discourse, then define the
tools that would express the translation in a clear and communicative target text. Since
the subject of interest in this study is scholarly/academic texts, one of the tools of the
trade here would be defining the subject of the discourse, then highlighting keywords
and terminologies, grasping the subject at hand, and analyzing encounters during
translation. With this type of work, the terminology is crucial, as it leads to the
clarification of the concepts provided in the source language field of study.

2.8 Levels of Translation

Newmark identified four levels for setting the tone for the translation and how
to portray the final product (Newmark, 1987, p. 22-24). The levels are as follows:
Textual level: This level is concerned with the literal translation of the source language.
At this level of translation, the translator can render the syntactic structures of the
source text in the target language and phrase it in a way that the target text reader can
understand.
Referential level: The referential level proposes that the translator works on the content
of the SL to present concept in the TL where terms are simplified, idioms, expressions
and figurative speech are plugged into the sentence to produce a comprehendible TL.
Cohesion level: This level is built on two factors, the structure and mood of the text. It
is concerned with the connectedness of the text and the overall feeling of the text. The
structure is determined through connective words, linking sentences, introduction of
known information, and the linking of known information with new information. This
structure is concerned with the order of the thought, which determines the direction of
the text and its logic, while the mood determines the transition between the positive and
the negative, emotive and neutral, and examines the values presented through
expression and the use of words.
Level of naturalness: The last level is to ensure that the text is natural and simple to
read. To keep the target text as simple and natural as possible, the translator might have

24
to drop idioms or stylistic and figurative speech to produce a basic text (Newmark,
1987, pp. 22-24).
The above approaches are the most common cognitive processes that the
translator is likely to choose when beginning a translation. However, each text type has
a specific set of principles, and the approach of the translator depends on the intention
and the target text audience.

25
 Chapter 3: The English Source Text and Arabic Target Text

3.1 Translation as Intercultural Communication

This thesis provides a translation of chapter five of The Routledge Companion
to Translation Studies, edited by Jeremy Munday: “Translation as Intercultural
Communication”. The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies is a detailed
compilation papers by scholars specialized in various areas of translation studies.
Chapter five, “Translation as Intercultural Communication” is a contribution from
David Katan, a faculty member in the Department of Humanities at the University of
Salento, Italy. His area of expertise includes linguistics, intercultural communication,
and interpretation studies. Katan has published over 40 articles on translation and
intercultural communication (Munday, 2009).
In chapter five, Katan discusses how to treat a text specializing in intercultural
communication and how unconscious factors can lead the translator to
misunderstanding the text at hand. Furthermore, the chapter also describes the cognitive
processes and the translator’s frame of reference, and how their cultural assumptions
can affect the translation. Katan (2009) utilizes models, diagrams, tables, and examples
to guide translators to optimum results in translations, and to avoid misinterpretation.
The importance of this is underscored by the fact that culturally-related texts are highly
sensitive and could lead to serious misunderstandings.

26
3.2 The English Source Text
Figure 1 below displays the English original text that is translated into Arabic (see
also section 3.3).

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‫‪3.3 The Arabic target text‬‬

‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ أداًة ﻟﻠﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‬

‫دﯾﻔﯿﺪ ﻛﺎﺗﺎن‬
‫اﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ‬
‫إن إدوارد ھﻮل )‪ (1999/1959‬ھﻮ ﻣﻦ ﺻﺎغ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم "اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت" )‪ .(Rogers et al. 2002‬أﺛﻨﺎء‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﮫ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﻲ اﻹدارات اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﻮاطﻨﯿﻦ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﯿﻦ اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﻻﺣﻆ ھﻮل أن ﺳﻮء اﻟﻔﮭﻢ ﻻ ﯾﻨﺸﺄ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺧﻼل اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ ﯾﻌﻮد أﯾﻀﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻷﺳﻠﻮﺑﯿﺔ "اﻟﺼﺎﻣﺘﺔ" أو"اﻟﺨﻔﯿﺔ" أو ﺣﺘﻰ"اﻟﻼﺷﻌﻮرﯾﺔ‪ ".‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮭﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﯾﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﯿﻨﯿﺖ )‪ (1998: 3‬أن اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ "ﻟﻨﮭﺞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﺗﺘﻤﺤﻮر‬
‫ﺣﻮل اﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ واﻷﻧﻤﺎط اﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﯿﺔ واﻟﻘﯿﻢ‪ ".‬ﻟﺬا ﻓﺈن ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎﻧﺔ ﺑﺸﺨﺼﯿﺔ )أﺣﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ(‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت واﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﺮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﻻ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺠﺪﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرﺟﺢ ‪ ،‬ﻷن اﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ‬
‫ھﺬه اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺘﺼﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺳﺘﻌﺪ ﺿﺮﺑﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺿﺮوب اﻟﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ اﻹﺛﻨﻲ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ھﻲ "ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ" )‪ (Blum-Kulka, 1986/2004: 291‬وﺗﻌﺪ أﻣﺮًا ﻣﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ وﻓﻖ )ﺷﺘﺎﯾﻨﺮ(‬
‫)‪ ،(1975/1998: 45‬إﻻ إﻧﮫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻹﺗﻔﺎق ﻋﻠﻰ وﺟﻮد اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ أوﻋﻼﻗﺘﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ .‬وھﻨﺎك ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﯿﻨﮭﺎ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﮭﺬا اﻷﻣﺮ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ ھﻲ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻗﺾ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪ ذاﺗﮫ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ ،1952‬ﺳﺠﻞ )ﻛﺮوﺑﺮ( و‬
‫)ﻛﻠﻜﮭﻮھﻦ( ‪ 165‬ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻔﺎً ﻟﮭﺎ‪ ،‬وإﻟﻰ اﻵن ﻻ ﺗﺰال اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎت ﺗﺘﺼﺎرع ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻟﮭﺬه اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺪ "ﻣﻦ ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﻛﻠﻤﺘﯿﻦ أو ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻛﻠﻤﺎت ﺗﻌﻘﯿﺪًا ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪ ،Williams 1976/1983: 87) ".‬وأﯾﻀﺎ ﻓﻲ ‪Jenks 1993:‬‬
‫‪(1‬‬
‫وﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ ﺗﻌﺪ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﺴﯿﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﮭﺎ إذ ﺗﺸﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺟﮫ اﻟﺤﺼﺮ إﻟﻰ اُﻟﻤﺜﻞ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﯿﺎ ﻟﻤﻈﺎھﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻤﺪن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﻀﺮة )اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ واﻟﻔﻨﻮن واﻟﻌﻤﺎرة(‪ .‬واﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﮭﺎ ھﻮ أﺳﻠﻮب ﺣﯿﺎة اﻟﺸﻌﻮب‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﺬي ﺗﺘﺤﺪد ﻣﻼﻣﺤﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮازي ﻣﻊ ھﺬه اﻟﻤﻈﺎھﺮ‪ .‬وﻛﺎن اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻣﻨﺼﺒﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت "اﻟﺒﺪاﺋﯿﺔ"‬
‫واﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻟﻘﺒﻠﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﻣﻊ ﺗﻄﻮر ﻋﻠﻢ اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎع واﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ظﮭﺮ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻘﻮى اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ أو‬
‫اﻷﯾﺪﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪة ﻓﯿﮫ‪.‬‬
‫وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﻐﯿﺮ طﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻛﺘﺴﺎب اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ وﻓﻖ اﻟﻤﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﻨﻈﺮي‪ .‬وﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء اﻷﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﺘﻌﺮف اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻛﺘﺴﺎﺑﮫ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺘﺪرﯾﺲ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ‪ .‬وﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻷﻧﺜﺮﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ أن اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺘﻨﺸﺌﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﻮاﻟﺪان ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة أو ﻻواﻋﯿﺔ أو اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ أو ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﻏﺮﺳﮫ ﻣﻦ أﻓﻜﺎر ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ طﻮﯾﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺪى ﻣﻊ اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ‪ .‬وﺑﻤﺮور اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻣﺸﺎرﻛﺘﮭﺎ ﻻ ﺷﻌﻮرﯾﺎً ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص‪ .‬وﺗﻌﺮف اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎع واﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺼﺮاع ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻔﻮذ أواﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻌﻨﺪ اﻛﺘﺴﺎﺑﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل أﻋﺮاف‬
‫ﻻواﻋﯿﺔ أو ﻧﺎﻓﺬة‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل اﻟﻔﻌﻞ اﻟﺮأﺳﻤﺎﻟﻲ واﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎري‪.‬اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﺟﻮد اﻧﻘﺴﺎم ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﻲ واﺿﺢ‬
‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻘﻮﻟﻮن أن اﻟﻠﻐﺔ واﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻛﯿﺎﻧﺎن ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺎن‪ ،‬وﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺮون أن اﻟﻠﻐﺔ ھﻲ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﻈﺮ‬
‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﺸﺎط ﻟﻐﻮي ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺸﻔﺮات وﻓﻜﮭﺎ وﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر إﻟﻰ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﯿﮫ رﯾﺪي "اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﻤﺠﺎزﯾﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ" )‪ ،(metaphor conduit‬وﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ أو‬
‫أﯾﺔ اﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ دون ﺧﺴﺎرة اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‪ .‬وﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ آﺧﺮون‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ )ﻧﺎﯾﺪا( )‪ (2002: 29‬أن "اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﯾﻨﻄﻮي‬

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‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﻼف ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ أﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﮫ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺨﻀﻊ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻠﯿﻞ‪ ،‬وﻋﻠﯿﮫ ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ "ﻧﻘﻞ" ) ‪Katan‬‬
‫‪ (1999/2004‬اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﯾﺘﻔﺎوض ﻋﻠﯿﮫ اﻟﻘﺮاء ﻋﺒﺮ ﺳﯿﺎﻗﺎﺗﮭﻢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺮاء ﻻ ﺑﺪ أن‬
‫ﻼ ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎً ﻣﻦ "أﺷﻜﺎل اﻟﺘﻼﻋﺐ" )‪ (Hermans 1985‬أو‬
‫ﺗﺘﻠﻘﻰ اﻟﻨﺺ وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ‪ ،‬و ﺗﻌﺪ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺷﻜ ً‬
‫"اﻧﺤﺮاف اﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ" )‪ (Lefevere 1982/2004‬ﺑﯿﻦ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺘﯿﻦ ﻟﻐﻮﯾﺘﯿﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺘﯿﻦ )‪.(Agar 1994‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ارﺗﺒﺎطﺎً وﺛﯿﻘﺎً ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺘﯿﻦ وھﻲ أھﻤﯿﺔ " ﻣﺼﻔﺎة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ" ) ‪the culture‬‬
‫‪ (filter‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 1‬ﻣﺼﻔﺎة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ )ھﺎوس( و )ھﺮﻓﻲ( و )ھﯿﺠﻨﺰ( و )ﻛﺎﺗﺎن( "ﻣﺼﻔﺎة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ" أو " اﻟﻤﺮِﺷﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ‪ ".‬ﻓﻘﺪ ﻧﺎﻗﺶ )ﻛﺎﺗﺎن(‬
‫أرﺑﻌﺔ ﻣﺮﺷﺤﺎت إدراﻛﯿﺔ ﻣﺮﺗﻜﺰة ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺼﺒﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﺮِﺷﺢ ﻣﻦ ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت ﯾﺤﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻮﺟﯿﮫ إدراﻛﻨﺎ وﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮﻧﺎ وﺗﻘﯿﯿﻤﻨﺎ وﻗﻮﻟﺒﺘﮭﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ ﯾﺤﺪث وﻓﻖ ﻣﺎﯾﻘﻮﻟﮫ واﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت ھﻲ‪" :‬اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﻲ"‬
‫"واﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ" "واﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ" "واﻟﻠﻐﻮي‪".‬‬
‫وﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻨﻤﺎذج‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮذج طﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻣﻔﯿﺪة )ﻋﺎدًة( ﻟﺘﺒﺴﯿﻂ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ‬
‫اﻷﺷﯿﺎء اﻟﻤﻌﻘﺪة وﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪھﺎ ﻣﺜﻞ "اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ‪ ".‬وﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﻨﻤﺎذج‪ ،‬وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﻮﻟﮫ )ﺑﺎﻧﺪﻟﺮ( و )ﺟﺮﯾﻨﺪر( ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺒﺎدئ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﺤﺬف واﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﻒ واﻟﺘﻌﻤﯿﻢ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻨﻤﺎذج اﻟﺒﺸﺮﯾﺔ ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ إدراك ﺟﻤﯿﻊ "ﻣﺎ ﯾﺤﺪث" )اﻟﺤﺬف(؛ ﻓﻨﻤﯿﻞ إﻟﻰ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ اﻹﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻲ أو ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻮﻓﯿﻖ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻧﺮاه وﻣﺎ ﻧﻌﺮﻓﮫ أو ﻧﺘﻮﻗﻌﮫ أو ﻣﺎ ﯾﺠﺬب اﻧﺘﺒﺎھﻨﺎ )اﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﻒ(؛ وﻧﻤﯿﻞ إﻟﻰ‬
‫إﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻤﻮذﺟﻨﺎ اﻟﺨﺎص أو ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﺔ اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻟﺒﺎرزة )اﻟﺘﻌﻤﯿﻢ(‪ ،‬ﻟﺠﻌﻞ "ﺧﺮﯾﻄﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ" اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻔﯿﺪة‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺮ )ﻛﺎﺗﺎن( ھﻲ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻄﺮق اﻷرﺑﻌﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺒﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‪،‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ﺑﺘﻨﻈﯿﻢ ﻓﮭﻤﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮك )اﻟﻤﺤﺪود واﻟﻤﻨﺤﺮف واﻟﻤﻘﻮﻟﺐ( ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻟﻢ‪ .‬وھﺬا ﯾﺘﺒﻊ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ‬
‫)ﻏﻮداﯾﻨﺎف( ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ "ﻣﻨﻈﻮﻣﺔ‪ ....‬ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮭﺎ ﺷﻜﻞ اﻷﺷﯿﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻋﻘﻮل اﻟﻨﺎس‪ ،‬وﻧﻤﻮذج اﻟﻔﮭﻢ ﻟﮭﺆﻻء اﻟﻨﺎس‬
‫وﻋﻼﻗﺘﮭﻢ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻷﺷﯿﺎء و ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮھﻢ ﻟﮭﺎ‪ ".‬وﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺮ ھﺎوس اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ھﻮ وﺳﯿﻠﺔ ﻹﻟﺘﻘﺎط‬
‫اﻹﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻹدراﻛﯿﺔ واﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻄﺒﻘﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻮن وﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ھﺬا اﻷﻣﺮ ﻣﻦ وﺟﮭﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻛﺎﺗﺎن ﺑﻘﺪرة‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﯾﻜﻮن وﺳﯿﻄﺎً ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪.‬‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﻘﺪر اﻟﺬي ﯾﺴﻮد ﺑﮫ أﺣﺪ اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻵﺧﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﯾﺼﺒﺢ اﻷﻣﺮ ھﻨﺎ ﺧﻼﻓﺎً ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺄ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﻊ "اﻟﺘﺤﻮل‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ" )‪ (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990: 1‬ﺗﻘﻮل )ﺑﺎﺳﻨﺖ( )‪ (1980/2002: 23‬إن "اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﯾﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻨﺺ ﺑﻤﻌﺰل ﻋﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﺘﺤﻤ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺎطﺮة‪"،‬وﯾﺤﺘﻞ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﯾﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻨﯿﻮﻣﺎرك ھﻨﺎك‬
‫"ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻣﻔﺮط ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻦ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ أﺧﺮى )ﺑﺴﺒﺐ( ﻗﻀﺎﯾﺎ أﻛﺜﺮ ﺷﻤﻮ ً‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﺘﺠﺎوز ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪".‬‬
‫وﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺣﯿﺎن ﺗﺘﻨﻜﺮ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﺒﺎس اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﯾﻘﺘﺼﺮ اﻷﻣﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪود ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ )‪ .(Katan 2009‬وﺗﺘﻔﻖ آراء‬
‫)ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرك( ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ وﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ آﺧﺮون أﯾﻀﺎً أن اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻻﺑﺪ أن ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ‬
‫اﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻲ‪ ،‬إذ ﺗﻘﻮل )ھﺎوس( إن "اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ" ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ "إدراﺟﮫ" ﺗﺤﺖ أﻧﻮاع ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص ﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﺘﺐ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺤﯿﻦ ودﻟﯿﻞ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب‪ .‬ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى ﯾﺮى )ﻧﺎﯾﺪا(‪ ،‬أن درﺟﺔ اﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻮع اﻟﻨﺺ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪ ذاﺗﮭﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺪرﺟﺔ أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻋﺘﻤﺎدھﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ واﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ أو اﻟﻔﺠﻮة ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻠﻐﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﺘﯿﻦ‪.‬‬

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 ‫‪ 2‬اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﺎً إطﺎرﯾﺎً‬
‫ھﻨﺎك ﺛﻼث أﻓﻜﺎر ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺒﻌﻀﮭﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺢ اﻟﺮؤى اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎﯾﻨﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ :‬اﻟﺴﯿﺎق واﻷطﺮ واﻟﻨﻮع‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 2.1‬اﻟﻌﺜﻮر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬
‫ذﻛﺮﻧﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ رأي )ﻧﺎﯾﺪا( ﻓﻲ اﻷھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﺼﻮى ﻟﻠﺴﯿﺎق‪ .‬إﻻ أﻧﮫ وﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎل اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻻ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺴﯿﺎق داﺋﻤﺎً ﺑﮭﺬه‬
‫اﻷھﻤﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﺤﺘﺎج دﻓﺘﺮ ھﺎﺗﻒ أو ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻣﺒﯿﻌﺎت أو ﻧﺸﺮة ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ أي ﺳﯿﺎق ﻟﻔﮭﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ أو ﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺘﮫ‪ .‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻟﮫ )ھﻮل( أﻧﮫ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻷﺣﻮال‪ ،‬وﻓﻲ أي ﻧﻮع ﻣﻦ أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ ،‬ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫"ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق" اﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﮭﺎ ﯾﺘﻔﺎوض ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺛﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪر اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺮاﺟﮫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‪ ،‬وﻣﻘﺪار‬
‫اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﺬي ﯾﺘﻘﺎﺳﻤﻮﻧﮫ‪ ،‬وإذا ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻘﺎﺳﻤﻮن اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‪" :‬ﯾﺠﺐ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‪ ،‬ﺑﺈﻋﺘﺒﺎر أن اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﻣﻔﻘﻮد‪ ،‬إذا ﻛﺎن ذﻟﻚ‬
‫ﺳﯿﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﺒﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‪ .‬وھﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ ﻓﻲ رأي )ھﻮل( "اﻹﺷﺘﺮاك ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق" )‪ (membershipping‬وﺗﻌﻤﻞ‬
‫"ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻠﺔ" )‪ (relevance theory‬اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ ‪ .4‬وﺣﺘﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت‪ ،‬ﻓﻼ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻓﺘﺮاض أن ﻣﺎ‬
‫ھﻮ ﻣﺘﺼﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع أﻣٌﺮ ﻋﺎم‪ ،‬اﻧﻈﺮ )‪".(Katan 1999/2004‬اﻟﺴﯿﺎق" ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ وإن ﻛﺎن ﻏﺎﻣﻀﺎً‪ ،‬ﻓﺄول‬
‫ﻣﻦ طﺒﻘﮫ ھﻮ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ اﻻﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ )ﻣﺎﻟﯿﻨﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ(‪ ،‬واﻟﺬي ﻣﺎزال ﺑﺤﺜﮫ ﻗﺎﺑ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺣﺘﻰ وﻗﺘﻨﺎ ھﺬا وإن ﻛﺎن ﯾﺮﻛﺰ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت "اﻟﺒﺪاﺋﯿﺔ‪ ".‬وﻗﺪ أﺟﺮى )ﻣﺎﻟﯿﻨﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ( دراﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻜﺎن ﺟﺰر ﺗﺮوﺑﺮﯾﺎﻧﺪ )‪ (Trobiand‬وﻟﻐﺘﮭﻢ‪ ،‬وﻻﺣﻆ‬
‫أﻧﮫ ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ إدﺧﺎل ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮات ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﺤﺎدﺛﺎﺗﮭﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻜﯿﺮﯾﻮﯾﻨﻮﯾﺔ )‪ (Kiriwinian‬إﻟﻰ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪،‬‬
‫واﺳﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﺤﺮﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺜﺎ ً‬
‫ﻻ ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ‪:‬‬
‫;)وﻧﺠﺪف ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﻨﺎ( ‪); we paddle in place‬ﻧﺠﺮي أﻣﺎم اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت ﻣﻨﺎ( ‪“We run front-wood ourselves‬‬
‫‪). He runs rear-wood behind their‬واﻟﺘﻔﺘﻨﺎ ﻓﺮأﯾﻨﺎ إﺻﺪﻗﺎﺋﻨﺎ( ‪we turn we see companion ours‬‬
‫)ﺗﺬھﺐ ﺧﻠﻔﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻟﺴﺎن ﺑﺤﺮ ﺑﯿﻠﻮﻟﻮ( ”‪sea-arm Pilolu‬‬
‫وأدرك )ﻣﺎﻟﯿﻨﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ( أﻧﮫ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺢ طﺒﻘﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻤﺎه ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫)ﺟﯿﺮﺗﺰ( "اﻟﻮﺻﻒ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻖ‪ ".‬وھﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﺮوج ﻟﮫ اﻵن ﻓﻲ دراﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ )أﺑﺎﯾﺎه( )‪ (1993/2004‬و)ھﯿﺮﻣﺎﻧﺰ(‬
‫)‪ (2003‬ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ "اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻘﺔ‪ ".‬أو ً‬
‫ﻻ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﻘﺎرئ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﺠﻢ اﻟﻨﺤﻮي ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟﻤﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ اﻟﻘﺼﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﻞ ﯾﺤﺘﺎج أﯾﻀﺎً إﻟﻰ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ دراﯾﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﺬي ﻗﯿﻠﺖ ﻓﯿﮫ ھﺬه اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت‪1923/1938: 301) ،‬‬
‫‪ (Malinowski‬أي "ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ‪ ".‬وﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن أﺣﺪ ﺻﯿﻎ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻟﻘﺮاء آﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺤﻮ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪:‬‬

‫‪In crossing the sea-arm of Pilolu (between the Trobriands and the Amphletts), our canoe‬‬
‫‪sailed ahead of the others. When nearing the shore we began to paddle. We looked back‬‬
‫‪and saw our companions still far behind, still on the: sea-arm of Pilolu.‬‬

‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﻋﺒﻮرﻧﺎ ﻟﻠﺴﺎن ﺑﺤﺮ ﺑﯿﻠﻮﻟﻮ )ﺑﯿﻦ ﺟﺰﯾﺮﺗﻲ ﺗﺮوﺑﺮﯾﺎﻧﺪ وأﻣﻔﻠﯿﺖ( أﺑﺤﺮ ﻗﺎرﺑﻨﺎ أﻣﺎم اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ‪ ،‬وﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ اﻗﺘﺮﺑﻨﺎ ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺸﺎطﺊ ﺑﺪأﻧﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺠﺪﯾﻒ‪ ،‬وﻧﻈﺮﻧﺎ ﺧﻠﻔﻨﺎ ﻓﺮأﯾﻨﺎ أن أﺻﺪﻗﺎءﻧﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﻮا ﻣﺎ ﯾﺰاﻟﻮن ﺧﻠﻔﻨﺎ ﺑﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﻌﯿﺪة‪ ،‬ﻋﻨﺪ ﻟﺴﺎن ﺑﺤﺮ‬
‫ﺑﯿﻠﻮﻟﻮ‪.‬‬

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‫أﺻﺒﺢ ﻟﮭﺬا اﻻﻗﺘﺒﺎس ﻣﻌﻨﻰ اﻵن‪ ،‬وﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﺰﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺢ ﻟﻠﺴﯿﺎق ﻗﺪ ُﯾﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ ھﺬا اﻻﻗﺘﺒﺎس ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره ﺟﺰءًا ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻗﺼﺔ ﺗﺪور ﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﺴﺎن أﺣﺪ ﺳﻜﺎن ﺗﺮوﺑﺮﯾﺎﻧﺪ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﺠﻠﺲ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﺘﻮاﻗﯿﻦ ﻟﻠﻘﺼﺺ‪ ،‬ﯾﻌﯿﺪ ﻟﮭﻢ‬
‫وﺻﻒ ﻧﮭﺎﯾﺔ رﺣﻠﺔ اﻟﺼﯿﺪ ﻓﻲ ﯾﻮم ﻣﻦ اﻷﯾﺎم‪.‬‬
‫وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻟﻜﻲ ﯾﻔﮭﻢ اﻟﻘﺎرئ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً "ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺠﺮي" ﯾﺤﺘﺎج إﻟﻰ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ "ﺑﺄن اﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺗﻀﺮب‬
‫ﺑﺠﺬورھﺎ ﻓﻲ أﻋﻤﺎق واﻗﻊ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ...‬اﻟﺴﯿﺎﻗﺎت اﻷوﺳﻊ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﻄﻮق اﻟﺸﻔﻮي‪ "،‬واﻟﺘﻲ أطﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ )ﻣﺎﻟﯿﻨﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ( ﺑﻌﺪ ذﻟﻚ‬
‫"ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ".‬وﺗﻄﺮق )ﻣﺎﻟﯿﻨﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ( ﺧﺎﺻﺔً إﻟﻰ ﻛﻠﻤﺘﯿﻦ‪ "Front-wood" :‬اﻟﻠﺘﯿﻦ ﺗﻨﻄﻮﯾﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ "ﻣﺴﺤﺔ ﻋﺎطﻔﯿﺔ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ إدراﻛﮭﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﯿﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ إطﺎر اﻟﺤﯿﺎة اﻟﻘﺒﻠﯿﺔ وطﻘﻮﺳﮭﺎ‪ ،‬وﺗﺠﺎرة ﺳﻜﺎن اﻟﺠﺰﯾﺮة وأﻋﻤﺎﻟﮭﻢ"‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻲ "‪ ،"top-of-the-range leading canoe‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺸﯿﺮ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ "‪ "paddle‬ھﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ ﺧﻔﺾ اﻟﺸﺮاع ﻷﻧﮭﻢ‬
‫وﺻﻠﻮا إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﯿﺎه اﻟﻀﺤﻠﺔ‪ .‬وأﺻﺒﺢ اﻵن واﺿﺤﺎً أﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﺸﮭﺪ ﻗﺼﺔ ﻟﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺻﯿﺪ أﺳﻤﺎك ﻧﺎﺟﺤﺔ اﻧﺘﮭﺖ ﺑﺴﺒﺎق إﻟﻰ‬
‫اﻟﺸﺎطﺊ‪ ،‬وﺑﮭﺬا اﻧﺘﮭﺖ اﻟﻘﺼﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﻣﻨﺬ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﺤﯿﻦ ﻧﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ووﺿﻌﻮا ﻟﮫ ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻔﺎت‪ ،‬ﺧﺎﺻﺔً )ھﺎﻟﯿﺪاي( و )ﺣﺴﻦ(‪،‬‬
‫)راﺟﻊ أﯾﻀﺎً ھﺎوس ‪ ،(1997 House) (1997‬إﻻ أﻧﮭﻤﺎ أﺷﺎرا إﻟﻰ أن ﻗﻠﯿ َ‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ أﺟﺮي ﻟﺘﻄﻮﯾﺮ ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪،‬‬
‫وھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻨﻨﺎﻗﺸﮫ اﻵن‪.‬‬
‫‪ 2.2‬اﻟﻨﻮع اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬
‫أﺷﺎر ﻋﺎﻟﻢ اﻻﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ )ﺑﺎﺗﯿﺴﻮن( )‪ (1972: 289‬إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺨﻀﻊ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻤﺎه "اﻟﻨﻮع اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ"‬
‫ﻟﻜﻲ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﺎً ﻣﻔﯿﺪًا‪ ،‬وھﺬا ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أﻧﮫ‪ :‬إﻣﺎ أن ﻧﮭﻤﻞ ﻓﻜﺮة "اﻟﺴﯿﺎق" أو ﻧﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ أوﻧﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﻓﻜﺮة اﻟﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ اﻟﮭﺮﻣﯿﺔ‬
‫واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﻔﺰ واﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﺤﻔﺰ وﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﺤﻔﺰ‪ ،‬إﻟﺦ‪ .‬وﯾﻘﺼﺪ )ﺑﺎﺗﯿﺴﻮن( ﺑﺎﻷﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ أن ﻛﻞ‬
‫ﺳﯿﺎق ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﻧﻮﻋﺎً )ﻣﺜﻞ أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ؛ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ واﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ( وأن ﻛﻞ "ﻧﻮع " ﯾﺤﺪد إطﺎر اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ‬
‫اﻟﮭﺮﻣﻲ ﻟﻸﻧﻮاع‪ ،‬أو ﯾﻘﺪم ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻣﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ ﺗﻀﯿﻒ إﻟﯿﮫ وھﻲ اﻷﻧﻮاع اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻗﻀﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺣﯿﺎن‪.‬‬
‫أوﺿﺢ )ﻏﻮﻓﻤﺎن( )‪ (1974‬ﻓﻲ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﮫ ‪Frame Analysis‬أن اﻹطﺎر ﯾﻮﺿﺢ ﻟﻨﺎ "ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺤﺪث" وأن ﻛﻞ إطﺎر‬
‫ﯾﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺘﮫ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﮫ ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ أﺷﺒﮫ ﺑﻤﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﻄﻮط اﻟﺒﯿﻀﺎء واﻟﺴﻮداء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺎﺋﻂ أﺑﯿﺾ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬
‫أن ﯾﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ ﻟﻮﺣﺔ ﻓﻨﯿﺔ إذا وﺿﻊ ﻟﮭﺎ إطﺎرًا‪ .‬وﺗﺆﺛﺮﻋﻼﻣﺎت اﻹطﺎر)ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻠﯿﻞ واﻟﻨﮭﺎر( ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﮭﻤﻨﺎ ﻋﻤﺎ ﯾﺤﺪث‪ .‬ﻓﺈذا‬
‫وﺿﻌﻨﺎ إطﺎرًا ﻟﻤﻌﺮض ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺜﻞ "ﺗﺄﻣﻼت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﺠﻦ" ﺳﻮف ﻧﻐﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ رؤﯾﺘﻨﺎ‪ ،‬وﻧﻔﮭﻢ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻟﻤﺎ ﯾﺤﺪث )وﻓﻖ رؤﯾﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﺮض(‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ اﻵن اﻟﻌﻮدة إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﺮﯾﻔﺎت اﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ وﻋﺮﺿﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھ ﺎ أﺟﺰاءًا أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻤﻮذج اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺣﺪ‬
‫أو ﺑﺎﻷﺣﺮى ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎق ﻧﻈﺎم اﻷطﺮ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎذا ﻧﺘﺮﺟﻢ وﻣﺘﻰ وﻛﯿﻒ وﻟﻤﺎذا‪.‬‬
‫‪ 2.3‬اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ "ﺑﻨﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ" ﻟﻠﺒﺮﻣﺠﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺼﺒﯿﺔ ) ‪e.g. Dilts‬‬
‫‪ (1990; O’Connor 2001: 28–32‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﻧﻤﻮذج "ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ" اﻟﻤﻨﺪرج ﺗﺤﺖ ﺣﻘﻞ اﻷﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‪ ،‬اﻟﺬي رّوج‬
‫ﻟﮫ )ھﻮل( وﻓﻖ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺘﮫ "ﺛﻼﺛﯿﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ" وﺗﮭﺪف اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ُﺑﻌﺪ واﺣﺪ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎم‪ ،‬وﺗﻘﺴﯿﻢ ﺟﻮاﻧﺐ‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ )إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ( ﻓﻮق ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﺎء‪ ،‬وﺷﺒﮫ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ وﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ ﻛﻤﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺨﻄﻂ‬
‫رﻗﻢ )‪ (1‬وﺗﺨﺘﻔﻲ اﻷطﺮ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺧﻂ اﻟﻤﺎء ﺗﺪرﯾﺠﯿﺎً وﻟﻜﻨﮭﺎ أﯾﻀﺎً ﻗﺮﯾﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎﺗﻨﺎ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﻧﻘﺎش ﻓﯿﮭﺎ ﺑﺸﺄن‬
‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ وھﻮﯾﺎﺗﻨﺎ )اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ( وﯾﻤﻜﻦ وﺻﻒ ُﺑﻌﺪ آﺧﺮ ھﻮ اُﻟﺒﻌﺪ اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮫ ﯾﺆﺛﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻻ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻠﻐﻮي اﻟﺒﺤﺖ( وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات‬
‫وﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﺤﺪد ﻣﺪى ﺗﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ )أي ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﻟﻨﺺ وﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺘﮫ ﺑﺪ ً‬
‫اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻹطﺎر أو اﻷطﺮ اﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮًا ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ .‬وﯾﻤﯿﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻷﻛﺜﺮ‬
‫ِﺧﻔﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﮭﺘﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻮن اھﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎً أﻛﺒﺮ ﺑﻤﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻄﺢ )‪.(Katan 2009‬‬

‫اﻟﻤﺨﻄﻂ ‪ :1‬اﻟﺮﺳﻢ اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺤﻲ ﻟﺠﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺘﺒﺲ ﻣﻦ )‪(Katan 1999/2004: 43‬‬

‫‪ 3‬اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﺔ‪ :‬اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺳﻮﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ‬

‫ﯾﻜﻮن اﻹطﺎر اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ اﻷول ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ وﯾﺘﻔﻖ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﻔﮭﻮم اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ .‬وﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻓﯿﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺺ‬
‫وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟـ )ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرك( ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﻠﯿﻔﮫ ﺑﺄﻓﻀﻞ طﺎﺑﻊ ﺣﻀﺎري ﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‪ .‬وﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى "اﻟﺘﻘﻨﻲ"‪ ،‬ﺗﺤﻤﻞ إﺷﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫وظﯿﻔﺔ ﻣﺮﺟﻌﯿﺔ واﺿﺤﺔ )ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮاه ھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ(‪ ،‬وأي ﻗﯿﻢ ﺧﻔﯿﺔ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﮫ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ‪ .‬وﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﮭﻤﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت واﻟﻤﻔﺎھﯿﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر ﺑﺄﻗﻞ ﻗﺪر ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻘﺪان اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻷﻓﻜﺎر اﻷدﺑﯿﺔ واﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻛﺘﯿﺒﺎت ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب‪ ،‬ﺣﺘﻰ ﯾﻜﻮن "ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ" ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎً "ﻟﻤﺎ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ" ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف‪ .‬وﻣﺎ داﻣﺖ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺘﺎن ﻗﺪ وﺻﻠﺘﺎ إﻟﻰ درﺟﺔ ﺗﻄﻮر ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﯿﺲ ھﻨﺎك ﺳﺒﺐ أن ﻻ‬
‫ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ واﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻘﺎرئ واﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎﺑﮫ ﻋﺎﻣﺎً وﺷﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻼ ‪.(Seleskovich in Newmark, 1988: 6; Wilss‬‬
‫)‪1982: 48‬‬
‫وھﺬا ھﻮ ﻣﺎ أﺳﻤﺎه )ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرك( )‪" (1981: 184-185‬اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ" ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬وھﻮ ُﻣﺪﻣﺞ ﻓﻌ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬
‫اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎد اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪة ﻓﻲ ﻧﺸﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ أﻧﺤﺎء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‪ .‬وﺗﻘﺪم ﻟﻨﺎ ﻋﻨﺎوﯾﻦ ﻓﺼﻮل‬

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‫ﻛﺘﺎب‪" Translators through History‬اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻮن ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺘﺎرﯾﺦ" )‪(Delilse and Woodsworth 1995‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮة ﻋﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻀﻤﻦ ذﻟﻚ‪ :‬اﺧﺘﺮاع اﻟﺤﺮوف اﻟﮭﺠﺎﺋﯿﺔ ووﺿﻊ اﻟﻘﻮاﻣﯿﺲ‪ ،‬وظﮭﻮر اﻟﻠﻐﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ وآداﺑﮭﺎ‪ ،‬وﻧﺸﺮ اﻷدﯾﺎن‬
‫واﻟﻘﯿﻢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﺑﺎﻹﻋﺘﻤﺎد ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻤﺎﺛﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ‪ ،‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت واﻟﻤﻔﺎھﯿﻢ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره‬
‫ﺗﻨﻮﯾﺮًا أو إھﺎﻧﺔ وإذﻻل‪ ،‬أو ﺑﺴﻂ ﻟﻠﮭﯿﻤﻨﺔ أو إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻗﯿﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺎظﺮ اﻟﻔﻜﺮي‪.‬‬

‫‪ 3.1‬اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫ﯾﻨﺼﺐ اﻻھﺘﻤﺎم اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺘﺪﺧﻠﻮن ﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺺ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪ ذاﺗﮫ وﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت‬
‫"اﻟُﻤﻼِزﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ" ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ :‬ظﺎھﺮة رﺳﻤﯿﺔ وإﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ وﻗﻀﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ وﻓﻖ ﺻﯿﻐﺔ‬
‫أو وظﯿﻔﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ وﺗﻘﺘﺼﺮﻋﻠﻰ إﺣﺪى اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺘﯿﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ) ‪Vermeer in Nord 1997: 34 and Nord‬‬
‫‪ (2000: 214‬وھﺬه "اﻟﻔﺌﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ" )ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرك ﻣﺘﺒﻌﺎً رأي ﻧﺎﯾﺪا( )‪ (Newmark, 1988: 95‬ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ﺣﻘﻮل اﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺎ واﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺎدات واﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﺎت‪ .‬وﻗﺪم اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء ﻣﻨﺬ )ﻓﯿﻨﯿﮫ( و)دارﺑﻠﻨﯿﯿﮫ(‬
‫)‪ (1958/1995‬ﻋﺪدًا ﻻ ﯾﺴﺘﮭﺎن ﺑﮫ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﻟﺘﻌﻮﯾﺾ اﻧﻌﺪام اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮاﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﻟﺨﺺ‬
‫)ﻛﻮﯾﺸﻨﺴﻜﻲ( )‪ (2001: 157‬ھﺬه اﻻﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﻓﻲ أرﺑﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت‪" :‬ﺧﻄﻮات ﺗﻐﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ‪ "،‬و" ﺧﻄﻮات ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺤﯿﺔ‬
‫إﺛﺮاﺋﯿﺔ" و"ﺧﻄﻮات ﺗﻐﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺔ" و"ﺧﻄﻮات اﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎﺑﯿﺔ"‪ .‬اﻧﻈﺮ أﯾﻀﺎً رأي )ﺑﯿﺪرﺳﻮن( )‪ (2008: 103‬اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﻟﻺﺷﺎرات اﻟﻤﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻄﺎق اﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻷﻓﻼم‪.‬‬
‫وﺗﺴﻤﺢ آﻟﯿﺔ "إدﺧﺎل ﻛﻠﻤﺔ دﺧﯿﻠﺔ" ﺑﺪﺧﻮل اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ اﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف ﻣﺜﻞ ‪) falafel‬ﻓﻼﻓﻞ(‪ ،‬أو‬
‫‪) macho‬ذﻛﺮي(‪ ،‬أو ‪) weltanschauung‬اﻟﺮؤﯾﺔ اﻟﻜﻮﻧﯿﺔ(‪ ،‬أو ‪) burka‬ﺑﺮﻗﻊ(‪ .‬وﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺮ )ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرك( ﻣﺜﺎل‬
‫)‪ ،(1988: 82‬ﯾﻈﮭﺮ ھﺬا اﻹﺟﺮاء طﺎﺑﻊ و طﻌﻢ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‪ ،‬إﻻ أن )ﺑﯿﺮﻣﺎن( )‪ (1985/2004: 286‬اﻧﺘﻘﺪ ھﺬا اﻷﺳﻠﻮب‪،‬‬
‫وﻗﺎل أﻧﮫ ﺟﻌﻞ اﻟﻨﺺ أﻛﺜﺮ واﻗﻌﯿﺔ و ﯾﺆﻛﺪ ﺻﻮرة ﻧﻤﻄﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ وﯾﺠﻌﻠﮭﺎ ﻏﺮﯾﺒﺔ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﺤﺘﺎج إﻟﻰ أن ﻧﻌﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻔﺮق ﺑﯿﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻓﺮة ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ واﻹﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻷﻋﻤﻰ ﻷي ﺷﻲء ﺑﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮﻋﻦ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق أو اﻟﮭﺪف ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﺘﻠﺨﺺ ھﺪف اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﯿﺔ "اﻟﺨﻄﻮات اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺤﯿﺔ اﻹﺛﺮاﺋﯿﺔ" ﻓﻲ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ أو ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﯿﻦ‬
‫زاﺋﺪﯾﻦ ﻟﻔﺘﺢ اﻟﻄﺮﯾﻖ أﻣﺎم اﻟﻘﺎرئ ﻟﻠﻔﮭﻢ اﻟﻜﺎﻓﻲ ﻟﻠﺴﯿﺎق‪ ،‬وﯾﺤﺪث ذﻟﻚ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻧﻈﯿﺮ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‪ ،‬ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺟﯿﮫ ﻧﺤﻮ إدراك‬
‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻜﺎﻓﺆًا‪ .‬وﻣﻦ ﺿﻤﻦ اﻟﺨﻄﻮات اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪة اﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ إطﺎر ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‪ ،‬اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻷﻗﻮاس اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺤﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ‪:‬‬
‫"اﻟﻜﻨﯿﺴﺖ" )اﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎن اﻹﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﻲ(‪ ،‬أو ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ اﻷﺻﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺻﻔﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ‪" hot cotechino sausage" :‬‬
‫اﻟﺴﺠﻖ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺴﺎﺧﻦ‪ .‬اﻗﺘﺮح ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎرك وﻣﻦ ﺑﯿﻦ آﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﻣﺜﻞ )‪ ،(Nida, 1975‬اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻨﺺ‬
‫ﻟﺘﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﺪﻻﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬أو اﻟﺮواﺑﻂ أو اﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر واﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫اﻟﮭﺪف‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ وﻗﺖ اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺢ وﻣﻜﺎﻧﮫ وطﺮﯾﻘﺘﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ درﺟﺔ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎة اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ اﻟﻔﻄﻨﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎب اﻟﻘﺎرئ‪ .‬وﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ‬
‫ﻻ ﺟﯿﺪًا ﻟﻘﺮارات اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﻮازﻧﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﮭﺎري ﺑﻮﺗﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ )ﻣﯿﻨﺎرد( ﻣﺜﺎ ً‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﺛﻞ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق )ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ھﻨﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺨﻂ اﻟﻌﺮﯾﺾ‪:‬‬

‫‪Viewers as far apart as Kent, Yorkshire and Dundee have been phoning in (Rowling,‬‬
‫)‪1997a: 12‬‬
‫‪51‬‬
 ‫ﻛﺎن اﻟﻤﺸﺎھﺪﯾﻦ ﯾﺘﺼﻠﻮن ﻣﻦ ﻣﺪن ﺑﻌﯿﺪة ﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﯿﻨﺖ‪ ،‬وﯾﻮرك ﺷﺎﯾﺮ‪،‬ودﻧﺪي )روﻟﯿﻨﺞ‪(1997a: 12 ،‬‬
‫‪Des téléspectateurs qui habitent dans des régions aussi éloignées les unes des autres‬‬
‫‪que le Kent, le Yorkshire et la côte est de l’Ecosse m’ont téléphoné (Rowling, 1997b:‬‬
‫)‪11‬‬
‫‪[Viewers who live in regions as distant from one other as Kent, Yorkshire and the east‬‬
‫‪coast of Scotland have phoned me].‬‬

‫]اﻟﻤﺸﺎھﺪون اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻌﯿﺸﻮن ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎطﻖ ﺑﻌﯿﺪة ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﯿﻨﺖ‪ ،‬وﯾﻮرك ﺷﺎﯾﺮ‪ ،‬واﻟﺴﺎﺣﻞ اﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ ﻻﺳﻜﺘﻠﻨﺪا‬
‫اﺗﺼﻠﻮا ﺑﻲ‪[.‬‬

‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ "اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﺪﺧﯿﻠﺔ اﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ"‪ ،‬ﻓﺴﻨﺠﺪ أن ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺳﻤﺎء اﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺔ وأﺳﻤﺎء اﻷﺷﺨﺎص‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﻟﮭﺎ "ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ" ﺗﺘﻐﯿﺮ ﺑﺘﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ :‬ﻣﺜﻞ )‪ (Geneva‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ ﺗﺘﺮﺟﻢ إﻟﻰ )‪ (Genève‬ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﺔ‪ ،‬أو )‪ (Genf‬ﻓﻲ اﻷﻟﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬أو )‪ (Ginevra‬ﻓﻲ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﻻ ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﺨﻠﻂ ﻣﻊ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ )‪ ،(Genova‬وھﻲ‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫)‪(Genoa‬‬ ‫ﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‬ ‫اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬
‫و ﻣﺜ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﯾﺘﻐﯿﺮ اﺳﻢ اﻟﺮﺳﺎم اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﻲ ‪ Tiziano Vecellio‬إﻟﻰ ‪ Titian‬ﻓﻘﻂ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪ ،‬وﯾﺘﺮﺟﻢ اﺳﻢ‬
‫)‪ (Charlemagne‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ )‪ (Karl der Große‬ﻓﻲ اﻷﻟﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬واﺳﻢ )‪ (Carlo Magno‬ﻓﻲ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫إﻟﻰ )‪ (Charlemagne‬أو ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪ ،‬و)‪ (La Gioconda‬ﻓﻲ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ )‪ (Mona Lisa‬ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫واﻻﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎءات أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻹدﺧﺎل وﻟﯿﺲ "اﻹدراك"‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﺟﺪال ﺑﻞ داﺋﻢ اﻟﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﺜ ً‬
‫ﻼ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻨﺬ‬
‫ﺛﻼﺛﯿﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﺎً‪ ،‬اﻋﺘﺎد اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰ ﻗﻀﺎء اﻟﻌﻄﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ )‪ (Apulia‬اﻵن )‪ (Puglia‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ اﻋﺘﺎد اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﻮن اﻟﺬھﺎب إﻟﻰ‬
‫)‪ (Nuova York‬واﻵن إﻟﻰ )‪ (New York‬وﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ ،‬ﻣﺎ زال اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﻮن ﯾﻔﻀﻠﻮن ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ‪Apulia‬‬
‫وﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﯾﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ داﺋﻤﺎ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺪى اﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ اﻟﺪﺧﯿﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫أﻣﺎ اﻟﻨﻮع اﻷﺧﯿﺮ"اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﺎظﺮﯾﺔ" ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر إﻟﻰ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬
‫ﻗﺮﯾﺒﺔ وﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ وظﯿﻔﯿﺎً أوﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺣﺬﻓﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﯿﻦ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﺮادف اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﻟـﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ‬
‫‪ Premier Ministre‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﺔ‪ ،‬و ‪ Presidente del gobierno‬ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﺎﻧﯿﺔ ھﻤﺎ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎن اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺎن ﻟـﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ‬
‫)‪ (prime minister‬رﺋﯿﺲ اﻟﻮزراء‪ ،‬وإن ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﻠﻄﺎت وﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺎت ﻛﻞ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺳﺒﻖ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً‪ .‬وﯾﻨﻄﺒﻖ ذﻟﻚ‬
‫أﯾﻀﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺒﺎرات اﻻﺻﻄﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ‪ .‬وﻗﺪ أﺷﺎر ﻧﺎﯾﺪا وﺗﺎﺑﺮ )‪ (1969/74: 4‬إﻟﻰ أن ‪“white as egret’s‬‬
‫”‪feather‬أﺑﯿﺾ ﻣﺜﻞ )رﯾﺶ طﺎﺋﺮ اﻟﺒﻠﺸﻮن( ﻗﺪ ﺗﺆدي ﻧﻔﺲ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ "‪) "white as snow‬أﺑﯿﺾ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺜﻠﺞ(‪،‬‬
‫إذا ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ "‪ "snow‬ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻋﺒﺎرة ﺷﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف‪ .‬وﺑﺪ ً‬
‫ﻻ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﻘﺮر اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ "ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺺ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮي" ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮة اﻹﯾﺤﺎء ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺸﺒﯿﮫ وﯾﺠﻌﻠﮫ وﺻﻔﺎً ﻧﺜﺮﯾﺎً‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ "‪"very, very white‬‬
‫ﺷﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﺒﯿﺎض‪ .‬وﻻ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ وﺟﻮد ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎت ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺔ أو ﺣﺘﻰ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ إن اﻻﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﺎظﺮﯾﺔ أو اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺣﺘﻔﺎظ ﺑﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬

‫‪ 1‬اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ‬
‫‪ 2‬اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ‬
‫‪52‬‬
 ‫اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ اﻟﻤﻮ ّ‬
‫طﻨﺔ ھﻲ اﻹﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ اﻷﻓﻀﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ .‬وﻣﺜﻞ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ طﺮق اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ھﺬه‬
‫اﻻﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﺟﺰءًا ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻮارد اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻓﺮة اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ أن ﯾﺨﺘﺎر ﻣﻨﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 3.2‬اﻹﺣﺎﻻت‬
‫ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻧﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮك‪ ،‬ﺳﻨﺠﺪ أﻧﻔﺴﻨﺎ ﺑﻌﯿﺪًا ﻋﻦ اﻟﺠﺰء "اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮر" اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة "ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮاه ھﻮ‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ"‪ ،‬ﻟﺪﻋﻢ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺻﺎﻏﮫ )ﻟﯿﺒﯿﮭﺎﻟﻢ( ‪key-phrase allusions‬‬
‫"إﺷﺎرات اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ" اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﺼﯿﻎ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺮرة اﻟﺠﺎﻣﺪة واﻟﻤﺤﻔﻮظﺔ واﻷﻣﺜﺎل ﻣﺜﻞ ‪(Apparently taxis‬‬
‫)‪all turn into pumpkins at midnight‬وﺗﻘﺘﺮح )ﻟﯿﺒﯿﮭﺎﻟﻢ( دﻋﻢ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ )‪،(1997:20‬‬
‫"اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﮭﻢ "اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺑﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر" ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎة اﻟﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎت واﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﺪى‬
‫اﻟﻘﺮاء اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﯿﻦ ﻟﻠﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف‪ .‬وﯾﻘﻮل )أﻛﯿﺮا ﻣﯿﺰوﻧﻮ( )ﻣﻘﺘﻄﻒ ﻓﻲ ‪ (Tebble and Kondo, 1997‬اﻟﺬي ﯾﻌﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻤﺎً ﻓﻮرﯾﺎً إذاﻋﯿﺎً ﻓﻲ اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎن‪" ،‬ﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ اﻷﻣﺮ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺸﻌﺒﯿﺔ أﺣﺪ أﻛﺒﺮ اﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮاﺟﮫ اﻟﻤﺬﯾﻌﯿﻦ‬
‫اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﯿﻦ‪ ".‬وﯾﻘﺪم ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻔﻀﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺘﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﺔ أﺻﻌﺐ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ وﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺑﯿﻦ ھﺬه اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‪"،‬ﺳﻮﺑﺮﻣﺎن" و"ﺣﻮرﯾﺔ اﻷﺳﻨﺎن" ”‪ “Tooth fairy‬و"ﻛﯿﻠﺮوي ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎ" ”‪.“Kilroy was here‬‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻹﺷﺎرات ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬه اﻹﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﻘﺎﻣﯿﺔ واﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ اﻟﻮاﺿﺤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ طﯿﺎﺗﮭﺎ أﯾﻀﺎً "أﻣﺘﻌﺔ‬
‫ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ"‪ 3‬ﺗﻔﺘﺢ ﺑﺪورھﺎ أُطﺮًا أو ﻣﺨﻄﻄﺎت ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪًا ﺑﻤﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ أو ذي ﻗﯿﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‪،‬‬
‫وھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻨﻨﺎﻗﺸﮫ اﻵن‪.‬‬
‫‪ 4‬اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ ‪:‬اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻟﻮظﺎﺋﻔﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻼﺋﻤﺔ‬
‫ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ"اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ"‪ ،‬طﺒﻘﺎً ﻟﻨﻈﺮﯾﺔ )ھﻮل( ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺟﺰءًا ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﻷﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ‪ ،‬واﻟﺬي ﻋﺎدًة ﻣﺎ‬
‫ﯾﻮﺻﻒ ﺑﻤﺎ ھﻮ طﺒﯿﻌﻲ وﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ‪ .‬وﯾﻄﻔﻮ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﻤﺮﺋﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ ﻷن اﻟﻤﻔﺎھﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻼﺋﻤﺔ‬
‫واﻟﻤﻌﺘﺎدة ﻧﺎدرًا ﻣﺎ ُﺗﺪرس ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ رﺳﻤﻲ‪ .‬وھﺬه اﻟﻤﻔﺎھﯿﻢ أﻛﺜﺮﻏﻤﻮﺿﺎً‪ ،‬وﻧﻨﺘﺒﮫ إﻟﯿﮭﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻏﯿﺎﺑﮭﺎ أو ﺗﺄدﯾﺘﮭﺎ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺧﺎطﺊ‪ .‬وﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻮﺿﺢ )آﻏﺎر( )‪" (2006:5‬ﺗﺼﺒﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﺮﺋﯿﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻨﺪ ظﮭﻮر اﻹﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت‪ ".‬وﻗﺪ َﺗﺒﻨﻰ‬
‫ﻋﺪدًا ﻛﺒﯿﺮًا ﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ )ﺑﮭﺎﺑﺎ( )‪" Location of Culture" ،(1994‬ﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ" ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ ﻓﺮاغ‬
‫"ﻣﻮﺟﻮد ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺼﻒ" وﻟﺘﻜﻮن اﺳﺘﻌﺎرة ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ )ﻣﺜﻞ ‪Wolf 2000‬؛ اﻧﻈﺮ أﯾﻀﺎً ‪2003: 186-7‬‬
‫‪ Tymoczko‬ﻟﻼطﻼع ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻘﺪ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ(‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ )ﻓﯿﺮﻣﯿﯿﺮ( اﻟﺬي ﯾﻘﻮم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺠﺰء اﻷول ﻣﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ )ﻏﻮداﯾﻨﺎف( )‪ ،(1957/1964: 36‬إﻟﻰ ھﺬا‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى"ﺗﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻞ ﺷﻲء ﯾﺤﺘﺎج اﻹﻧﺴﺎن ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﮫ واﻟﺒﺮاﻋﺔ ﻓﯿﮫ واﻟﺸﻌﻮر ﺑﮫ ﻟﻜﻲ ﯾﺤﺪد إن ﻛﺎن ﺗﺼﺮف‬
‫ﻻ أو ﻏﯿﺮﻻﺋﻘﺎً وﻓﻖ أدوارھﻢ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ" )‪ (Snell-Hornby 2006: 55‬ووﻓﻘﺎً‬
‫أي ﻣﻦ أﻓﺮاد اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺗﺼﺮﻓﺎً ﻣﻘﺒﻮ ً‬
‫ﻟـ)ﺳﻨﯿﻞ ھﻮرﻧﺒﻲ(‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧﮫ ﻣﻘﺒﻮل ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺘﺤﺪﺛﻮن اﻷﻟﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺈﻋﺘﺒﺎره "ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﯾﺎً" وﯾﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻐﺮض ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ‪ Skopos‬أي اﻟﻐﺎﯾﺔ أو اﻟﮭﺪف ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ )ﻓﯿﺮﻣﯿﯿﺮ(‪ ،‬وإﺧﺮاج اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫أﺳﺎس ﺗﻠﻘﯿﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻢ ﻧﻌﺪ ﻗﺎدرﯾﻦ ﻟﻐﻮﯾﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻐﯿﺮﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺷﺮﺣﺎً ﻓﻨﯿﺎً‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ أﻛﺪ )ﺳﺎﺑﯿﺮ( )‪ (1929/1958: 214‬ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ اﻷﻣﺮ"ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻮاﻟﻢ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ"‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮭﺎ ھﻨﺎ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة‪ ،‬ﻟﺬا ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص وﺳﺎطﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﻞ واﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺢ‪ .‬وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أن ﻟـ)ﯾﺒﯿﮭﺎﻟﻢ(‬

‫‪3‬‬
‫ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﯾﺮﻣﺰ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺎدات اﻟﺘﺮاﺛﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺳﺨﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬھﻦ واﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺄﺧﺮ أو ﺗﻌﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﺼﺮﻓﺎت أو اﻻﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎب‬
‫‪53‬‬
‫ﯾﺤﺼﺮ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ "اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﯿﻞ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ" ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﻘﯿﺪة ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻏﯿﺮ واﺿﺤﺔ أو ﻣﺤﯿﺮة )‪ ،(1997: 4‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن‬
‫ﯾﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ "اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﯿﻞ" ﻋﻠﻰ أي ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ .‬وﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ ﺻﺎﻏﮫ )آرﺗﺸﺮ( )‪ (1986‬ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره‬
‫ﺻﻮرة أﻗﻞ ﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ ﺻﻮر"اﻟﺼﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ"‪ ،‬اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮭﺎ "ردة ﻓﻌﻞ ﻋﺎطﻔﯿﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﺤﯿﺮة اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺘﺮي‬
‫اﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻐﻮص ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻻ ﯾﻌﺮﻓﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ظﻞ ﻋﺪم وﺟﻮد أﯾﺔ إﺷﺎرات ﻣﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ ﻋﻨﺪه" )‪.(Paige 1993: 2‬‬
‫ﯾﻮﺿﺢ اﻟﻤﺜﺎﻻن أدﻧﺎه اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺪث أﺛﻨﺎء ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ "اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ" ﺑﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻘﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ُ 1996‬ﻛﺘﺐ ﻓﺎﻛﺲ ‪2‬ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺎﻛﺴﺘﺎن إﻟﻰ ﺑﯿﺖ أزﯾﺎء إﯾﻄﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﺸﮭﻮر‬
‫ﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻮردًا ﻟﮭﻢ‪ ،‬واﺳﺘﮭﻞ اﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺼﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪:‬‬
‫]‪Attn: [name and department‬‬
‫‪I made samples for you in 1994 for the summer and we had received orders for about‬‬
‫‪20,000 blouses to be shipped in 1995 but due to a plague in our country these orders‬‬
‫)‪were cancelled by you. The contact was made by (full named and full address‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﯾﺔ‪) :‬اﻻﺳﻢ واﻟﻘﺴﻢ(‬
‫أرﺳﻠﺖ ﻋﯿﻨﺎت ﻋﺎم ‪ 1994‬ﻟﻤﻮﺳﻢ اﻟﺼﯿﻒ وﺗﻠﻘﯿﻨﺎ ﻣﻨﻜﻢ طﻠﺒﺎً ﺑﺤﻮاﻟﻲ ‪ 20000‬ﻗﻤﯿﺺ ﻟﺘﺸﺤﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ 1995‬وﻟﻜﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﻔﺸﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻋﻮن ﻓﻲ ﺑﻠﺪﻧﺎ أﻟﻐﯿﺘﻢ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‪ .‬وﻛﺎن اﻻﺗﺼﺎل ﻣﻦ )اﻻﺳﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ( و)اﻟﻌﻨﻮان ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ(‪.‬‬
‫ھﺬه ﻟﯿﺴﺖ اﻟﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ "اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ" ﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺧﻄﺎب ﻋﻤﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪ .‬إذ إن اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﮭﻼﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة ﺟﺪًا وﺷﺨﺼﯿﺔ‬
‫وإﺗﮭﺎﻣﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﯾﺨﺒﺮﻧﺎ )ﺑﻨﺘﺎھﯿﻼ( )‪ (2004‬ﺑﺸﻲء ﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻘﺒﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ دراﺳﺔ أﺟﺮاھﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ طﻠﺒﺔ اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ )ﺗﻄﻮان‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻐﺮب(‬
‫‪،‬ﻓﻘﺪ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻮا أﺳﻠﻮﺑﺎً أﻛﺜﺮ ﺷﺨﺼﯿﺔ وﻋﺎطﻔﯿﺔ أﺛﻨﺎء ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ طﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻟﻤﻨﺢ دراﺳﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‪ .‬وظﮭﺮت‬
‫أﻋﻠﻰ درﺟﺎت ھﺬه اﻟﺼﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﺜﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ واﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻤﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى‪ :‬إذ ﻋّﺒﺮ ‪ 96‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎﺋﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل ﻋﻦ رﻏﺒﺘﮭﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ طﻤﻮﺣﮭﻢ اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ ﻣﺜﻞ "أﻧﺎ ﻻ أﺑﺎﻟﻎ إن ﻗﻠﺖ أن ھﺬا ھﻮ ﺣﻠﻤﻲ"‪.‬‬
‫”‪“I don’t exaggerate if I say that it is my dream.‬‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ أن ﺗﺴﺘﻮﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص ذات اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ اﻹﻗﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﻨﺺ أﻋﻼه ﺷﺮوط اﻹﻗﻨﺎع ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف‪.‬‬
‫وﻛﻤﺎ ﻋّﺒﺮ )ﻧﺎﯾﺪا( )‪ (1997: 37‬ﻋﻦ ذﻟﻚ‪" :‬ﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ أﻧﮭﻢ إن اﻋﺘﻨﻮا ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت واﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﯿﺲ‬
‫ھﻨﺎك ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﻺﻋﺘﻨﺎء ﺑﺘﺮاﻛﯿﺐ اﻟﺨﻄﺎب إذ ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﯿﺎً‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﻔﮭﻮم ﯾﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ ﻓﮭﻢ ﻧﺎﻗﺺ ﻟﺪور أﺳﻠﻮب‬
‫اﻟﺨﻄﺎب ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻠﻐﺘﯿﻦ‪ .‬وﯾﺴﺘﻤﺮ )ﻧﺎﯾﺪا( ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻮل ﺑﺄن "اﻟﺴﻜﺮﺗﯿﺮة اﻟﺬﻛﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎ اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ" ھﻲ‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺮف ﻛﯿﻒ ﺗﺤﺬف ﺗﻌﺒﯿﺮات اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻣﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺳﻠﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ أﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎ اﻟﻼﺗﯿﻨﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﺗﻀﯿﻒ ﺗﻌﺒﯿﺮات‬
‫اﻟﺘﺤﯿﺔ واﻟﺼﺪاﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻼﺋﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ رؤﺳﺎﺋﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ أﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎ اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ .‬وإﻻ ﺳﯿﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﻮن اﻟﻼﺗﯿﻨﯿﻮن أن رﺟﺎل اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬
‫اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﯿﻦ ﯾﺘﺮددون ﻓﻲ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻼﺗﯿﻨﯿﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺒﺪون ﻣﺠﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ وﻣﻨﺎﻓﻘﯿﻦ‪.‬‬
‫وﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ أﻧﮫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺪھﺶ أﻧﮫ ﻻ ﯾﺬﻛﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻨﮫ ﯾﻐﻔﻞ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻀﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﻮرﯾﺔ‪ :‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺆدي دور اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ؟ ﻻ ﯾﻤﺘﻠﻚ "اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ" ﺣﺮﯾﺔ ﺗﺴﮭﯿﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻘﺪر اﻟﺬي ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻜﮫ اﻟﺴﻜﺮﺗﯿﺮة‪ ،‬واﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﯾﻌﻮد ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﺘﺰام ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺺ واﻷﻋﺮاف )اﻟﻤﻘﯿﺪة( ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﻋﻦ أدوارھﻢ‪.‬‬
‫وﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﻘﺎرئ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف ﻣﻘﯿﺪ ﻓﻲ "ﺣﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﺌﻲ" ﯾﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ طﺒﯿﻌﺘﮫ أو طﺒﯿﻌﺘﮭﺎ‪ ،‬أو ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎق اﻟﻘﺎﻟﺐ‬
‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ‪ ،‬وﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻗﺪ ﯾﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﺑﺤﺪ أﻗﺼﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻓﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ .‬وإذا ﻛﺎن ﻟﺪﯾﮫ ﻓﮭﻢ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﺴﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﯾﺔ إﺛﻨﯿﺔ‪(Bennet 1993, 1998; Katan 2001) ،‬وﯾﻮﺿﺢ )ﺗﺸﺴﺘﺮﻣﺎن( ھﺬه اﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ )‬
‫ﻼ "اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻨﺘﮭﻜﻮن اﻷﻋﺮاف ﯾﮭﺪدون اﻷوﺿﺎع اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ وﯾﺤﺪﺛﻮن إﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎً وﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﺒﺚ أن ﯾﻨﺒﺬون‬
‫‪ (1997a:54‬ﻗﺎﺋ ً‬

‫‪54‬‬
 ‫وﯾﻌﺎﻗﺒﻮن"‪.‬‬
‫وﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﻤﺎذج ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻔﯿﺪة ﻟﻠﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﺎﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻔﻀﻞ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺒﻼﻏﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ‬
‫)‪ .(Connor 1996‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺳﺎطﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺎت ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة وﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ )ﻣﺜﻞ اﻷﻟﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪/‬اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪،‬‬
‫‪House 2003b: 31‬؛ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪/‬اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪(Katan 1999/2004: 261-262) ،‬؛ اﻧﻈﺮ أﯾﻀﺎً )‪2000‬‬
‫‪Ventola‬؛‪.(Candlin and Gotti 2004‬‬
‫وﻛﻤﺎ أﺷﺮت ﻋﻠﯿﮫ ﺑﺨﺼﻮص ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻖ )ﻧﺎﯾﺪا(‪ ،‬ﺗﺤﺪد أﻋﺮاف اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﺪى إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ھﺬه اﻟﻨﻤﺎذج‪ .‬وﻣﺜﻠﻤﺎ أﻛﺪت‬
‫دراﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻮﺻﻔﯿﺔ )‪ (Chesterman 1993; Toury 1995; Pym et al. 2008‬ﻣﻦ ﺑﯿﻦ آﺧﺮﯾﻦ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﺴﻢ‬
‫اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ واﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﻗﺮارات اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﻼﺋﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺎﺑﻊ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﺎﺑﻊ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ‪ .‬ﺗﺘﺤﻜﻢ ھﺬه اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﺪاﯾﺔً ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺮارات اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ أو ُﻗﺒﻠﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮورًا ﺑﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ وإﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت‪/‬اﻹﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎب‪/‬اﻟﺘﻌﻮﯾﺾ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﺴﺘﺨﺪم‪ ،‬وﺻﻮ ً‬
‫ﻻ إﻟﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 5‬اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ‪ :‬اﻟﻘﯿﻢ واﻟﻨﻈﻢ اﻹدراﻛﯿﺔ‬
‫أطﻠﻖ )ھﻮل( ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ "ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ" أو "اﻟﻼﺷﻌﻮرﯾﺔ"‪ ،‬ﻧﺴﺒﺔً ﻟﻠﻌﻘﻞ اﻟﻮاﻋﻲ اﻟﺬي ﻻ‬
‫ﯾﺴﺘﻮﻋﺐ إﺷﺎرات ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻟﻜﻮﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻨﺪرج ﻓﻲ إطﺎر ﻣﺎ وراء اﻹدراك‪ ،‬وھﺬا ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺬي ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻠﮫ وﻓﻖ ﻧﻤﻮذج ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻗﻮاﻧﯿﻦ رﺳﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ ﺳﻨﺠﺪ ﻋﻮﺿﺎً ﻋﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات واﻟﻘﯿﻢ اﻟﺠﻮھﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺗﻨﺎزع‪ ،‬أو ﺣﻜﺎﯾﺎت ﻋﻦ اﻟﺬات‬
‫أو اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‪ ،‬ﻓﺘﺼﺒﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﻜﺘﺴﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﺮة واﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ واﻹﻋﻼم ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻞ داﺧﻠﻲ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎً‬
‫ﻟﻠﻮاﻗﻊ‪ .‬ووﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﺒﻮردﯾﻮ‪ ،‬ﯾﺴﮭﻢ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺐ اﻹدراﻛﻲ‪/‬اﻟﺬھﻨﻲ ﻻﺣﻘﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺗﻮﺟﯿﮫ طﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻔﺮد ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ أو ﻛﺒﺤﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ُﺗﻌﺮف اﻹﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﻨﻔﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﺮؤﯾﺔ اﻟﻜﻮﻧﯿﺔ )‪ :(Weltanschauung‬ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﻘﺎﻟﺐ أو اﻟﺨﺮﯾﻄﺔ‬
‫أو اﻟﺮؤﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻤﺤﺴﻮس )‪" (Korzybski 1933/1958‬اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﺔ اﻟﻌﻘﻠﯿﺔ" )‪(Hofstede 2001‬؛‬
‫"ھﻲ ﺻﻮرة اﻷﺷﯿﺎء اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺤﺘﻔﻆ ﺑﮭﺎ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻓﻲ أذھﺎﻧﮭﻢ" )‪ (Goodenough 1957/1964: 36‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ‬
‫اﻷﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻨﺘﮭﺠﮭﺎ اﻷﻓﺮاد واﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻹدراك اﻷﺷﯿﺎء‪ .‬وھﺬه ھﻲ "اﻟﻘﯿﻢ اﻟﺠﻮھﺮﯾﺔ واﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ واﻷﺧﻼﻗﯿﺔ"‬
‫)‪ (Chesterman 1997a: 149‬ودﻟﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﯿﺎرات اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﺗﻌﻄﻲ )ﻓﺎﯾﺮزﺑﯿﻜﺎ( )‪ (1992: 63‬ﻣﺜﺎ ً‬
‫ﻻ ﻻﺣﺪى‬
‫اﻟﻘﯿﻢ اﻟﺠﻮھﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺮوﺳﯿﺔ )‪ ،(duša‬ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻲ "ﻋﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻷﻧﺠﻠﻮ ﺳﺎﻛﺴﻮﻧﯿﺔ" وﺗﻜﺮار اﻟﻠﻔﻆ ﻓﻲ رواﯾﺔ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺳﯿﻠﻲ ﺟﺮوﺳﻤﺎن )‪" (Ziza’i sud’ba‬اﻟﺤﯿﺎة واﻟﻘﺪر" ﻣﻠﻤﺢ أﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر‪ .‬إﻻ أن "اﻹﺧﻼص ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ " ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ‪ soul‬أي "روح"‪ ،‬ﺳﺘﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﺧﺘﻼط اﻷﻣﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎرئ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف‪ .‬وﺗﻨﺼﺢ‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫)ﻓﺎﯾﺮزﺑﯿﻜﺎ( ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺮادﻓﺎت اﻟﺠﺰﺋﯿﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى واﺳﺘﺒﻌﺎد ﺑﻌﺾ اﻹﺷﺎرات إﻟﻰ )‪ (duša‬ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً أو أﺣﺪھﻤﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ أن ﺟﻤﯿﻊ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﮭﺘﻤﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺒﺎدل اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﯾﻮاﻓﻘﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ ھﺬه اﻟﺼﻮرة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﻒ اﻟﻔﻌﺎل ﻟﻠﺼﯿﻐﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻔﻲ ﻧﻈﺮ )ﻓﯿﻨﻮﺗﻲ( )‪ ،(1998a‬ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﻘﻀﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻮرﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ ذﻟﻚ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً إذ إﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻜﻤﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻤﺔ اﻷﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ‪،‬‬
‫واﻹﻓﺮاط ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وإرﺿﺎء ﻧﺰوات أﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﻘﯿﻢ اﻷﻧﺠﻠﻮ ﺳﺎﻛﺴﻮﻧﯿﺔ وﺗﺤﺬر )ھﺎوس( ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻼﻋﺐ ﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﺧﺎﺻﺔ اﻷدب‪ ،‬ﻷن ﺻﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ رأﯾﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﻟﮫ "ﻗﯿﻤﺘﮫ" اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﮫ )وﻗﺪ ﯾﺘﻔﻖ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺆدون‬

‫‪) 4‬اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ(‬
‫‪55‬‬
‫دور اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻣﻌﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ(‪ ،‬وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ أﻧﮫ "ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﻜﯿﺎً"‬
‫)‪.(2006: 343‬‬
‫إﻻ أن ﻗﺮاء ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺳﯿﻘّﯿﻤﻮن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻠﻐﺔ )اﻟﺴﻠﻮك( ﻟﯿﺲ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ "ﻏﺮاﺑﺔ" اﻷﺳﻠﻮب‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻦ وﺟﮭﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﺘﺄﺛﺮة ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻤﺎت اﻟﺸﺨﺼﯿﺔ )اﻟﮭﻮﯾﺔ( وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻘﯿﻢ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﮭﻢ‪ .‬وﻟﻢ ﯾﺴﮭﻢ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﻧﻤﻮذج‬
‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ اﻟﻤﻮﺣﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻮك ﻓﺤﺴﺐ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ أدى إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﻤﯿﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ "اﻟﻨﻮع"‪ .‬وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﺘﺴﻠﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﺪودة ﻋﻦ "اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ" ﺑﺴﮭﻮﻟﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻷﻓﻜﺎر اﻟﻨﻤﻄﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻤﻤﺔ ﺑﺸﺄن ﻧﻮع اﻟﻔﺮد‪ .‬وﯾﻀﺮب اﻟﻨﺺ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺘﺒﺲ ﻣﻦ رواﯾﺔ ‪) L’avventura di una moglie‬ﻣﻐﺎﻣﺮة زوﺟﺔ( ﺗﺄﻟﯿﻒ )إﯾﺘﺎﻟﻮ ﻛﺎﻟﻔﯿﻨﻮ( )‪(1993: 116‬‬
‫ﻻ ﺟﯿﺪًا ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ )اﻧﻈﺮ ‪ .(Katan 2002‬ﺳﺘﯿﻔﺎﻧﯿﺎ‪ ،‬زوﺟﺔ ﻣﮭﺬﺑﺔ اﻟﻄﺒﺎع‪ ،‬ذھﺒﺖ إﻟﻰ"اﻟﺤﺎﻧﺔ" ﻷول ﻣﺮة ﺛﻢ اﺗﺠﮭﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎ ً‬
‫إﻟﻰ طﺎوﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوب‪ .‬وﻛﺎﻧﺖ أول ﺧﻄﻮاﺗﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹطﻼق ﻟﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬا اﻟﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﺠﺮيء )ﺧﻂ ﺳﻤﯿﻚ(‪:‬‬

‫وﻗﺎﻟﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺎدل "ﻣﺮﻛﺰ وﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ وﺳﺎﺧﻦ ﺟﺪاً"‬

‫ﻷول وھﻠﺔ ﺳﺘﺆدي ھﺬه اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻐﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ إرﺑﺎك اﻟﻘﺎرئ اﻷﻧﺠﻠﻮﻓﻮﻧﻲ‪ ،‬إذ ﻟﻢ ُﺗِﺸﺮ أي ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
‫إﻟﻰ"اﻟﻘﮭﻮة"‪ .‬ﺑﻞ واﻷﺧﻄﺮ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ أﻧﮫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ أن ﯾﺘﺸﻮه اﻟﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﻤﺘﺼﻮر ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ واﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﯿﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺔ ﻵداب اﻟﺴﻠﻮك اﻟﻤﺘﺤﻔﻈﺔ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ أﯾﻀﺎً أن ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺳﻠﻮك ﺳﺘﯿﻔﺎﻧﯿﺎ اﻟﻤﮭﺬب ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ )اﻟﻘﺎرئ‬
‫أو"اﻟﻮﻗﺢ"‪.‬‬ ‫"اﻟﻔﻆ"‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻧﻮع‬ ‫اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﻲ(‬
‫وﻗﺪ أﻗﺘﺮح )ﻛﺎﺗﺎن( )‪ (2002‬ﻋﺪدًا ﻣﻦ اﻹﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆدي دور اﻟﻮﺳﺎطﺔ و ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ اﻟﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت‬
‫ﺑﺼﯿﻐﺔ طﻠﺐ واﺿﺤﺔ‪ ،‬وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﺮك اﻟﺘﮭﺬﯾﻞ ﻟﻠﺴﯿﺎق ﻛﻲ ﻻ ﯾﺘﺸﻮه اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻓﻲ إطﺎر اﻟﺘﺼﻮر‪ .‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﯿﺢ ﻟﻠﻘﺎرئ‬
‫)وﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ أﯾﻀﺎً اﻟﻨﺎدل( إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ اﻟﺘﮭﺬﯾﺐ ﻹطﺎر ﺗﻮﻗﻌﺎﺗﮭﻢ‪.‬‬
‫”‪She asked the barman for an espresso, “thick, double and really hot‬‬
‫طﻠﺒﺖ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎدل إﺣﻀﺎر ﻛﻮب ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﮭﻮة "ﻣﺮﻛﺰ وﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ وﺳﺎﺧﻦ ﺟﺪاً"‬

‫ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ھﺬا اﻟﺤﻞ ﻟﻠﻘﺎرئ ﺑﻠﻤﺤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﯿﺰ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﮫ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﺮاﺑﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺼﻮرة‪ ،‬دون ﺗﺸﻮﯾﮫ اﻟﻘﺼﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﺈﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﻐﺮﯾﺒﺘﯿﻦ ‪)Thick‬ﺛﺨﯿﻦ( و‪) Double‬ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ( ﺑﺪ ً‬
‫ﻻ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ‪) Large‬ﻛﺒﯿﺮ( و ‪) Strong‬ﻗﻮي( اﻟﻤﺄﻟﻮﻓﺘﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﯾﺄﺧﺬ اﻟﻘﺎرئ ﺑﻌﯿﺪًا ﻋﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ ﻟﺪﯾﮫ إﻟﻰ ﻣﻨﻈﺮ‬
‫ﻗﮭﻮة اﻻﺳﺒﺮﺳﻮ واﻹﺣﺴﺎس ﺑﮭﺎ وﻣﺬاﻗﮭﺎ وراﺋﺤﺘﮭﺎ‪ .‬وﺑﺬﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﯾﺘﻌﺮض اﻟﻘﺎرئ ﻟﻌﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻮﻗﺔ‪ ،‬وﯾﺒﺪأ‬
‫ﺣﯿﻨﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ أﺷﯿﺎء ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‪.‬‬
‫وﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ذات دﻻﻟﺔ ﺗﺎﻣﺔ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻠﻖ‪ ،‬ﺣﺘﻰ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ظﺎھﺮھﺎ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﮭﺎ أن ﺗﺤﻤﻞ "أﻣﺘﻌﺔ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ" ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﮭﺎ وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﺠﻤﮭﻮر اﻟﻘﺮاء‪ .‬وﺗﺸﯿﺮ )ﺑﺎﺳﻨﺖ( )‪1980/2002: 18-‬‬
‫‪ (19, 28-29‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬إﻟﻰ اﻟﻜﯿﻔﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻐﯿﺮ ﺑﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺰﺑﺪ واﻟﻮﯾﺴﻜﻲ‬
‫واﻟﻤﺎرﺗﯿﻨﻲ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﺔ واﻟﺼﻼت ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺘﮭﺎ أو ﻧﻘﻠﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻗﺮاء آﺧﺮﯾﻦ‪ ،‬ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻟﻤﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻛٌﻞ ﻣﻦ )دﯾﺎز ﻏﯿﺮﯾﺮو( و)ﺳﺰاﻟﻲ( )‪ (1991‬ﻛﯿﻒ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ واﺣﺪ ﺑﻘﯿﻢ وﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪات‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻘﯿﺾ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‪ .‬ﺣﯿﺚ ظﮭﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺘﺪاﻋﻲ اﻟﺤﺮ أن اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﯿﻦ ﯾﺮﺑﻄﻮن ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫‪) United States‬اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة( ﺑﺎﻟﻮطﻨﯿﺔ واﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻤﻜﺴﯿﻜﯿﻮن ‪Estados Unidos‬‬
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‫)إﺳﺘﺎدوس ﯾﻮﻧﯿﺪوس( اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺒﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﻐﻼل واﻟﺜﺮاء‪ .‬وﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﻮل )آﻟﯿﻦ( )‪ (2000: 17‬ﻓﻲ رأﯾﮫ‬
‫اﻟﺬي أورده ووﻓﻘﺎً ﻟـ)ﺑﺎﺧﺘﯿﻦ(‪ ،‬ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻓﺮﯾﺪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺤﺪ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ ﻷﻓﺮاد ﻣﻌﯿﻨﯿﻦ أو‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ داﺧﻞ ﺳﯿﺎﻗﺎت إﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة"‪.‬‬
‫وأﺷﺎر )ﻟﯿﺘﺶ( )‪ ،(1983: 174-175, 325‬أﻧﮫ أﺛﻨﺎء ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ أﺣﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ ھﺬا "اﻟﻄﺎﺑﻊ اﻟﻔﺮﯾﺪ"‬
‫ﻋﺎدة ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺢ ﻟﻠﻮظﺎﺋﻒ اﻷداﺋﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ ،‬ﺳﯿﻈﻞ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺆدون دور اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ‬
‫ﻛﯿﻒ أن اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﻤﺮاد ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ارﺗﺒﺎطﺎً وﺛﯿﻘﺎً "ﺑﺎﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﮫ"‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻘﯿﻢ‪ ،‬وﻣﺪى وﺿﻮح‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻟﻘﺎرئ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺻﯿﺎﻏﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻗﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﺰھﺮة اﻷﻗﺤﻮان اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة‪،‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬دﻻﻟﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ وﻣﺤﺪدة ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺛﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﺸﯿﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ رﻣﺰي ﻗﻮي ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻷﺧﺮى‪ .‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻐﺎﻟﺐ "زھﺮة اﻟﻤﻮت‪ ".‬ﻟﺬا ﯾﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪“These autumn classic chrysanthemums will make for a warm, wonderful feeling any‬‬
‫”‪time.‬‬
‫"زھﺮة اﻷﻗﺤﻮان اﻟﻜﻼﺳﯿﻜﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﻤﻮ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺼﻞ اﻟﺨﺮﯾﻒ ﺗﺮﻣﺰ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺪفء أو اﻟﺸﻌﻮر اﻟﺮاﺋﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻷوﻗﺎت"‬
‫اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﻘﺘﺒﺲ ﻣﻦ دﻟﯿﻞ أﻣﺮﯾﻜﻲ‪ ،‬إﻟﻰ وﺿﻊ "ﻓﻌﻞ اﻟﻘﻮل" "‪ " Act of speech‬ﻓﻲ إطﺎر وظﯿﻔﺔ اﻟﻜﻼم‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺠﯿﺐ‬
‫ﻼ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ "أﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎ‪" ،"...‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﻮﻟﻮن"‪) ...‬اﻧﻈﺮ أﯾﻀﺎً ;‪Katan 1999‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﺆال‪" :‬وﻓﻘﺎً ﻷي ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪/‬ﺳﯿﺎق؟"‪ ،‬ﻣﺜ ً‬
‫‪(1999/2004: 145-148‬‬
‫وأﺧﯿﺮًا‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ أن اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﻔﺮدي ﻟﻠﻜﺘﺎب اﻷﺻﻠﯿﯿﻦ ﯾﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻠﺘﺤﺮﯾﻒ أو اﻟﺤﺬف ﺑﺒﺴﺎطﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻋﺪم اﻏﺘﻨﺎم ﻣﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻗﺎرئ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‪ .‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻻﺣﻆ )دﯾﻠﻮن( )‪ (1992: 39-40‬أن ﻗﺮاءة اﻟﻨﺺ ﺳﺘﻜﻮن‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﯾﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻘﺮاء اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﯿﻦ أو اﻟﻐﺮﺑﺎء ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‪:‬‬
‫أن اﻟﻘﺮاء اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﯿﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﻢ ﻗﺪر ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻹدﻋﺎءات اﻷﺧﺮى ذات اﻟﺼﻠﺔ‪ ،‬واﻵراء اﻟﺘﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻠﻘﻮھﺎ‪ ،‬وﻣﻮاﻗﻒ اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪ ،‬إﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﯾﮭﺘﻤﻮن ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻀﯿﺔ ﻛﻤﻮﺿﻊ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎش‪ :‬وھﻢ أﻧﻔﺴﮭﻢ ﻟﮭﻢ ﻣﻮاﻗﻒ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻌﺎرﺿﺔ ﯾﻘﯿﻤﻮن وﻓﻘﮭﺎ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ اﻟﺠﺪل…وھﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﻘﯿﯿﻢ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻗﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺿﻮء ﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أو ﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻮﺻﻞ إﻟﯿﮫ‪،‬‬
‫ﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻘﻞ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 5.1‬اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻜﻠﻢ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻹﺛﻨﻮﻏﺮاﻓﯿﺎ ﻋﻦ إﻧﺸﺎء "اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ" اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ" )اﻧﻈﺮ ‪1997: 27 Duranti‬؛ ‪ Goodenough‬ﻓﻲ‬
‫‪ (Risager 2006: 45‬ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻼوﻋﻲ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ طﺮق اﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ واﻟﺸﻌﻮر واﻟﺘﺤﺪث‬
‫واﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﺎس‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﺮي ﻣﻌﺎﻧﻲ اﻟﻘﯿﻢ واﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ أﺳﺎس ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻼوﻋﻲ ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺘﯿﻦ ﻣﻤﯿﺰﺗﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮرﯾﻦ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ‬
‫واﻟﺨﺎرﺟﻲ‪ 3.‬وﺗﮭﺪف طﺮﯾﻘﺔ )ﻓﺎﯾﺮزﺑﯿﻜﺎ( )‪ (1996: 527‬اﻹﺛﻨﻮﻏﺮاﻓﯿﺔ ذات اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮر اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﺬاﺗﯿﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﻼﺋﻢ ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﻋﺎم ﻟﺪﻻﻻت اﻷﻟﻔﺎظ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ "ﻣﺨﻄﻮطﺎت ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪".‬‬
‫وﯾﻨﻄﻮي ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻌﺎم ﻋﻠﻰ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻣﺤﺪود ﻟﻠﻐﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ،‬دون أن ﺗﺤﻤﻞ أي أﻣﺘﻌﺔ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺼﻔﺎت "ﺟﯿﺪ "‬
‫و"ﺳﯿﺊ‪ ".‬واﻟﺠﺪول رﻗﻢ ‪ 1‬ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻠﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوت ﺑﯿﻦ "اﻟﻄﻤﺲ اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﻲ"‪ ،‬اﻟﻐﺎﻣﺾ وﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﺪد‪ ،‬وأﺳﻠﻮب‬
‫"ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ اﻟﺬات" ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺛﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺠﺪول رﻗﻢ ‪ :1‬ﻧﺼﻮص اﻟﻄﻤﺲ اﻟﺬاﺗﻲ اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﻲ‪ ،‬وﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺛﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‬

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 ‫‪Japanese “self-effacement” script‬‬ ‫‪Anglo “self enhancement” script‬‬
‫ﻧﺺ طﻤﺲ اﻟﺬات اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﺺ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ اﻟﺬات ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‬

‫‪It is good to often think something like this: It is good to often think something like this:‬‬
‫)ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﯿﺪ أن ﺗﻔﻜﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻲء ﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻘﺒﯿﻞ‪(:‬‬ ‫)ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﯿﺪ أن ﺗﻔﻜﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻲء ﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻘﺒﯿﻞ‪(:‬‬

‫‪I did something bad‬‬ ‫‪I did something very good‬‬

‫)ﻓﻌﻠﺖ ﺷﯿﺌﺎً ﺳﯿﺌﺎً(‬ ‫)ﻓﻌﻠﺖ ﺷﯿﺌﺎً ﺟﯿﺪ ﺟﺪًا(‬

‫‪I often do things like this‬‬ ‫‪I can do things like this‬‬

‫)أﻧﺎ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً أﻓﻌﻞ أﺷﯿﺎء ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬا(‬ ‫)أﺳﺘﻄﯿﻊ أن أﻓﻌﻞ أﺷﯿﺎء ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬا(‬

‫‪Not everyone does things like this‬‬ ‫‪Not everyone can do things like this‬‬
‫)ﻻ ﯾﻔﻌﻞ اﻟﺠﻤﯿﻊ ﺑﻤﺜﻞ ھﺬا(‬
‫)ﻻ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﺠﻤﯿﻊ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺑﻤﺜﻞ ھﺬا(‬

‫‪Other people don’t often do things like this Other people don’t often do things like this‬‬
‫)ﻻ ﯾﻔﻌﻞ اﻵﺧﺮون ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً ﺑﻔﻌﻞ ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬا(‬
‫)ﻻ ﯾﻔﻌﻞ اﻵﺧﺮون ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً ﺑﻔﻌﻞ ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬا(‬

‫ﻣﻘﺘﺒﺲ ﻣﻦ )‪(Wierzbieka 1996: 537‬‬

‫وﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ ،‬ﺳﻮاًء ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻻﺛﻨﻮﻏﺮاﻓﻲ أو ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺒﺤﺚ اﻻﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎﻧﻲ اﻟﻤﻜﺜﻒ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎول اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮون‬
‫اﺳﺘﺨﻼص ﺻﻮرة ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻔﺎت ﺧﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﺼﯿﺎﻏﺔ اﻟﺘﻮﺟﮭﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ "طﻤﺲ اﻟﺬات‪ ".‬وﻛﺎن ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ )ﻛﺮوﯾﺒﺮ(‬
‫و)ﻛﻠﻮﻛﻮم( )‪ (1952‬أول ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺗﻮﺟﮭﺎت اﻟﻘﯿﻢ‪ ،‬ﻓﺄﺷﺎر إﻟﻰ وﺟﻮد اﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎت ﻣﺤﺪودة ﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت اﻹﻧﺴﺎن اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‬
‫أو ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻠﮫ وأن اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﺗﻤﯿﻞ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻞ اﻹﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻤﻄﻠﺐ دون اﻵﺧﺮ ﻟﻘﺮاءة ﻣﻠﺨﺺ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ )ﻟﻺطﻼع ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﺨﯿﺺ‬
‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ اﻧﻈﺮ ‪.(Katan 1999/2004‬‬
‫وﻗﺪ ﻣﯿﺰ )إدوارد ھﻮل( )‪ (1976/1989‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل "ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق "ﺑﯿﻦ ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻼت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻨﻘﻞ ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ "ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮاه ھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ" )ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﺾ( )‪ (Low context‬أو ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻗﻨﻮات ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺳﯿﺎق )ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ( )‪ .(High context‬وﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﻌﺎم ﻟﻠﺘﻔﻀﯿﻼت ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﺿﯿﺢ اﻟﻘﯿﻢ‬
‫ذات اﻟﺼﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺸﻔﮭﯿﺔ أو اﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت )‪Hampden-Turner and 1983: 123-124‬‬
‫‪ ،(Trompnaars‬واﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت ﺗﺼﻤﯿﻢ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ )‪ (Wurtz 2005‬وﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﻼﻓﺘﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ذات اﻟﺼﻠﺔ‬
‫وأھﻤﯿﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل "اﺣﺬر‪ ،‬ﺷﻲء ﺳﺎﺧﻦ!" ﻋﻠﻰ أﻛﻮاب اﻟﻘﮭﻮة اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺄﺧﺬھﺎ اﻟﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ ﻣﻌﮭﻢ – ﺿﺮورﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ‬

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‫ﻧﻘﻞ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﺾ‪ ،‬واﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ أن ﻣﺘﺤﺪﺛﻲ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ ﯾﮭﺘﻤﻮن ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺿﻮح ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ‪.(Katan‬‬
‫)‪1999/2004: 234‬‬
‫وﻓﻲ دراﺳﺔ ﻟﻜﺘﯿﺒﺎت اﻟﺘﺄﻣﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﺮﺿﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﺔ واﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﻠﻞ )ﻛﺎﺗﺎن( )‪ (2006‬ﺗﻜﺮار اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﯿﺮ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﯿﺎً إﻟﻰ ﺑﺪاﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮﺟﯿﮫ‪ ،‬وﻓﻖ ﻣﺎ أوﺟﺰه )ھﻮﻓﺴﺘﯿﺪ( )‪ ، (1991, 2001‬وﻛﺎن ﺗﻜﺮار اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت‬
‫ﺑﻜﻠﻤﺎت ذات ﺻﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪) ،‬أﻣﺎن( ‪)Secure/securezza comfort/tranquillita‬راﺣﺔ( ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺎً ﻟﻠﻐﺎﯾﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﻠﻤﺎ ﻛﺎن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻋﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﻮﻗﺖ وﺟﻤﻞ اﻻﺳﺘﻔﮭﺎم‪/‬واﻹﺛﺒﺎت ﺣﺘﻰ أﻧﻚ ﺗﺸﻌﺮ أن اﻟﻘﺎرئ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﻲ ﯾﻘﺮأ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ‬
‫ﺣﯿﺎة ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ وﻣﺮﯾﺤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﺮأ اﻟﻘﺎرئ اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﻲ ﻋﻦ اﻷﻣﺎن واﻟﯿﻘﯿﻦ )‪ (Katan 2006: 69‬اﻧﻈﺮ أﯾﻀﺎً ﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫)ﻣﻮﯾﺠﻲ( )‪ ،(2004b‬ﻋﻦ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت وﻋﻤﻞ )ﻣﺎﻧﻜﺎ( ﻟﻺطﻼع ﻋﻠﻰ وﺟﮭﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﺼﯿﻠﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪ 6‬ﺧﺎرج ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ‪ :‬ﻋﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﻨﻔﻮذ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﯿﺔ‬

‫ﯾﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎع وﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ واﻷﻓﻜﺎر اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪة‪ .‬وﺗﻌﻨﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ھﻨﺎ "ﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﺬي ﺗﺴﻠﻄﮫ اﻟﮭﯿﺎﻛﻞ اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻓﻌﺎل اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ" )‪) (Jenks 1993: 25‬وﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬
‫أن ﯾﺸﻜﻞ ھﺬا اﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻗﻮاﻟﺐ اﻟﻔﺮد وھﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﻗﻮاﻟﺐ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻧﺎﻗﺸﻨﺎھﺎ أﻋﻼه أو ﯾﺘﻼﻋﺐ ﺑﮭﺎ‬
‫أو ﯾﺘﻌﺎرض ﻣﻌﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫وﻟﻜﻦ ﺛﻤﺔ اﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎن ﺟﻮھﺮﯾﺎن آﺧﺮان ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﻟﺐ اﻷﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺖ‪ .‬أو ً‬
‫ﻻ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ رﺑﻂ اﻷﻓﺮاد‬
‫واﻟﻨﺼﻮص ﺑﺜﻘﺎﻓٍﺔ ﻣﺎ وھﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻤﺒﺪأ "اﻟﺠﻮھﺮﯾﺔ" )‪Green‬ﻓﻲ ‪ .(Bhaba 1994: 4‬ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ )ﻓﯿﺮﺷﺎورن(‬
‫)‪ (2003: 7‬أن أي ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ ﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﻣﺤﻔﻮﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺨﺎطﺮ‪ ،‬وﯾﺮى أن اﻟﻤﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوت واﻟﻤﺠﺮدة ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻻ ﻣﺜﯿﺮًا ﻟﻸﺳﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺟﮫ اﻟﺨﺼﻮص‪ .‬وﺗﺘﻔﻖ )ﻓﺎﯾﺮزﺑﯿﻜﺎ( )‪ (2006: 24‬ﻣﻊ‬
‫اﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﺘﻲ طﺮﺣﮭﺎ )ھﻮﻓﺴﺘﯿﺪ( ﯾﻌﺪ ﻣﺜﺎ ً‬
‫ذﻟﻚ ﺑﻘﻮﻟﮭﺎ "ﻻ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺷﻲء ﻣﺸﺘﺮك وﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺌﺎت ﯾﺒﺘﻜﺮھﺎ اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ‪ ،‬ﺛﻢ ﯾﺠﺮي ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻘﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺸﺮ‪ ".‬وﺑﺪ ً‬
‫ﻻ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ﻟﺪى أﻓﺮاد اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ أﺻﻞ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻲ‪ .‬وﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎق ھﺬا اﻹطﺎر اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﻜﻮن ﻓﻜﺮة "ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﺴﯿﻂ وﻣﻔﯿﺪ وواﻗﻌﻲ"‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﺼﻨﯿﻔﺎت اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ اﻟﺠﺎھﺰة ﻓﻲ طﺮﯾﻘﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﻜﻚ‪ .‬وﺣﻈﯿﺖ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‬
‫ﺑﻤﻜﺎﻧﺔ ﻣﺘﻤﯿﺰة وﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖ ﻟﻠﻜﺒﺖ‪ ،‬ﻓﯿﺒﺤﺚ اﻷﻓﺮاد ﻋﻦ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻌﻘﺪة ﻣﻦ اﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎرع‬
‫ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ واﻟﻨﻔﻮذ‪ .‬وﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎق دراﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﺳﺎروا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﮭﺞ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ ﺗﻌﺪد اﻟﻨﻈﻢ )ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،(Even-Zohar 1990/2004) ،‬ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎرﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪Bassnett and ،‬‬
‫)‪ ،(Trivedi 1999‬وﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺴﺮد‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ (Baker 2006)،‬ﻟﺪﯾﮭﻢ ﺟﻤﯿﻌﺎً ھﺬا اﻻﻓﺘﺮاض‪.‬‬
‫ﺛﺎﻧﯿﺎً‪ ،‬إن اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺬي ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻗﮫ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪ ذاﺗﮫ ﺧﺎﺿﻊ ﻟﻠﺴﺆال واﻟﺸﻚ وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺻﺤﺔ اﻟﻨﺴﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى‪ ،‬ﯾﺘﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻮن ﺑﯿﻦ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﻤﺘﺼﺎرﻋﺔ )وﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ(‪ ،‬ﻓﻼ ﯾﺒﺴﻄﻮن اﻷﻣﻮر‪ ،‬وأﻧﮭﻢ‬
‫أﻧﻔﺴﮭﻢ ﻧﻮاﻗﻞ ﻟﮭﺬه اﻷﻓﻜﺎر )‪ (Hatim and Mason 1997: 147‬واﺗﺨﺎذ ﻗﺮار ﺑﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ رواﯾﺔ آﯾﺎت ﺷﯿﻄﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫)‪ The Satanic Verses (1988‬ﻟﻠﻜﺎﺗﺐ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﻲ ﺳﻠﻤﺎن رﺷﺪي أو ﻛﺘﺎب ?‪Did Six Million Really Die‬‬
‫"ھﻞ ﺣﻘﺎً ﻣﺎت ﺳﺘﺔ ﻣﻼﯾﯿﻦ؟" )‪ (Harwood 1977‬ﻣﺜﺎل واﺿﺢ ﻋﻠﻰ ھﺬه اﻟﻔﺮﺿﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﻻ ﯾﻌﻮد اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى‪ ،‬ﻧﺎﻗ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﻻ ﺻﻠﮫ ﻟﮫ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻨﮫ ﯾﺪرك أﻧﮫ "ﻋﺎﻣﻞ أﺧﻼﻗﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ" )‪ ،(Tymoczko 2003: 181‬أو‬
‫"ﻧﺎﺷﻂ" ﻣﻨﺨﺮط ﻓﻲ إﻋﺎدة ﺳﺮد اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ )‪ (Baker 2006‬وﺑﺎﻷﺳﻠﻮب ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‪ ،‬ﺛﺎر )ﻓﯿﻨﻮﺗﻲ( ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ ﺑﻜﺘﺎﺑﮫ "اﺧﺘﻔﺎء‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ")‪ ،“The Translator’s Invisiblity” (Venuti 1995/2008‬وﻓﻀﻞ أن ﯾﺠﻌﻞ اﻟﻘﺎرئ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺗﺼﺎل‬
‫ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت "اﻵﺧﺮ"‪ .‬ھﺬا اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﻮل )ﻓﯿﻨﻮﺗﻲ(‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﺸﺄ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻣﻨﮫ ﻣﻦ ﻧﮭﺞ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‪ ،‬وﻣﻌﺎرﺿﺔ ﻟﮭﯿﻤﻨﺔ‬
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‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ )‪ ،(Venuti 1998a: 10‬وھﻲ اﻟﮭﯿﻤﻨﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﺼﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻗﯿﻢ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة وﺗﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻌﮭﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺜﻞ )اﻟﺮأﺳﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬واﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎر( ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أن اﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﯾﻄﺮح اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﻷﺧﻼﻗﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ھﻨﺎك ﺧﯿﻂ رﻓﯿﻊ ﯾﻈﮭﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺿﻮح ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻐﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﺎﺟﺤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﺎوم اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﻛﻲ ﺗﻘﺪم أﺳﻠﻮﺑﺎً ﺟﺪﯾﺪًا ﻟﻠﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ أو اﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻘﺮوءة‪ ،‬ﺣﺘﻰ إن ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺔ طﺮق اﻟﻘﺺ اﻟﻤﻌﻤﻮل ﺑﮭﺎ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺗﻔﻌﻠﯿﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺒﻜﺔ ﻣﺤﺪودة وﻗﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ )ﻣﺜﺎل‪،‬‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ(‪ ،‬إذا ﻛﺎﻧﺖ واﺿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ أي ﺣﺎل ﻣﻦ اﻷﺣﻮال )‪ (Baker 2006: 98‬إﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻟﺒﺲ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻓﺌﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮر اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﻲ اﻟﻤﺼﻤﻤﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﺠﯿﻊ ﺗﺤﻮل اﻵراء ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ اﻹﺛﻨﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺻﻮر اﻟﻨﻤﻂ ﻏﯿﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺬﻛﻲ‪ ،‬وذﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ وﺳﯿﻠﺔ اﺗﺼﺎل ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‪.‬‬
‫وأﺧﯿﺮًا‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أﻧﮫ ﻻ ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت أو اﻷطﺮ ﻓﺤﺴﺐ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻈﺎم ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﮫ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ إﺷﺎرات اﻟﻨﺺ واﻟﺘﻔﺎوض ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ وإﻋﺎدة ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮھﺎ وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﺴﯿﺎق‬
‫واﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻒ اﻟﻔﺮدﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 7‬اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﮭﻤﺔ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻹﺷﺎرات واﻟﺴﯿﺎﻗﺎت واﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻒ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة‪ .‬وﯾﺮى ﺗﺎﻓﺖ أن‪:‬‬
‫اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ھﻮ اﻟﺸﺨﺺ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺴﮭﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ واﻟﺘﻔﺎھﻢ واﻷﻓﻌﺎل ﺑﯿﻦ أﺷﺨﺎص وﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻔﻮن ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﯿﻨﮭﻢ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ واﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ .‬وﯾﺘﻤﺜﻞ دور اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﻟﻌﺒﺎرات واﻟﻤﻔﺎھﯿﻢ واﻟﺘﻄﻠﻌﺎت ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻷﺧﺮى‪،‬‬
‫أي ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻨﮭﻢ واﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮازن ھﺬا اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ وﺻﻞ ﺑﮭﺬا اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ‬
‫أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻗﺎدرًا ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺎھﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻠﺘﺎ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺘﯿﻦ إﻟﻰ ﺣﺪ ﻣﺎ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﺛﻨﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ )‪(Taft 1981: 53‬‬
‫وﯾﻮﺿﺢ )ﺑﯿﻨﯿﺖ( )‪ (1993 ،1998‬أن اﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮد ﺑﺜﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬إﺟﺘﯿﺎز اﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻟﻌﺪد ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر ﺗﺠﺎه‬
‫"ﺣﺴﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺒﺎدل اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ"‪ .‬وﯾﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻤﺮاﺣﻞ اﻟﻼﺣﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻜﻔﺎءة ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‪" ،‬ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻢ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق"‪،‬‬
‫وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﺘﻌﺮﯾﻒ )ﺑﯿﻢ( )‪ (2003‬ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ إﻧﺸﺎء ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﺧﺘﯿﺎر ﻧﺺ واﺣﺪ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺑﯿﻦ ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ وﺛﻘﺔ ﻣﺒﺮرة‪".‬‬
‫وﻛﻲ ﯾﺘﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﻣﻦ " اﻹﺧﺘﯿﺎر" ﯾﺤﺘﺎج إﻟﻰ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﺗﻮﺟﮭﮫ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ )‪ ،(Taft 1981: 53‬وﻟﯿﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬
‫ذﻟﻚ ﯾﺤﺘﺎج إﻟﻰ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ إﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﺮﺟﻌﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ .‬وﯾﻌﺮف ھﺬا اﻷﻣﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺼﺒﯿﺔ ﺑـ "اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ اﻹدراﻛﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ"‪ (DeLozier and Grinder, 1987; O’Connor, 2001: 33–34; Katan 2001, 2002) ،‬وﻻ‬
‫ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺴﯿﺎﻗﺎت ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر واﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف اﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺰوده ﺑﮫ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﻮن ﺑﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ اﻟﻨﺺ "ﺑﻤﻮﺿﻮﻋﯿﺔ"‪.‬‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ )ﺣﺎﺗﻢ( و )ﻣﺎﯾﺴﻮن( )‪ (1997‬و )ﺑﯿﻜﺮ( )‪ (2006‬وآﺧﺮون ﻣﺤﻘﻮن ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺄﻛﯿﺪ ﻓﻲ رأﯾﮭﻢ ﻓﻲ أن اﻟﻮﺳﻄﺎء‬
‫ﯾﻨﻤﻮن ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﮭﻢ وﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪاﺗﮭﻢ وأﻧﮭﺎ ُﺗﻨﻤﻲ ﻟﮭﻢ أﺛﻨﺎء ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص‪ .‬إﻻ أن اﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﮭﺘﻢ ﺑﮭﺎ ھﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺎم‬
‫اﻷول ﺑﺼﺪد ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع "ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ"‪ ،‬وﻟﯿﺲ اﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮد ﻣﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﻔﻜﺮي ﻟﻠﻮﺳﯿﻂ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﮭﺎ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات ذات اﻟﺼﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت )اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻠﯿﺔ( اﻟﻤﺘﺄﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص واﻟﻘﺮاء‪ .‬ﻗﺎرن ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺎت )ﺟﻮت(‬
‫)‪ (1991/2000‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر ﻧﻈﺮي اﻟﺼﻠﺔ )اﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ(‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻮﺿﺢ اﻟﺠﺪول رﻗﻢ ‪ 2‬أدﻧﺎه ﻛﯿﻒ ﺗﺆطﺮ "اﻷﻧﻮاع" اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‪ .‬وﯾﺤﺘﻮي اﻟﺠﺪول ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت ﻣﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺴﺄل ﻋﻤﺎ ﯾﺪور ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎق ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬وﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﺳﯿﺎق ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ‪.‬‬

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 ‫اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ :2‬ﺟﺪول اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ ﻟﺴﯿﺎق اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ وﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ‬
‫اﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت‬ ‫اﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى‬
‫ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬ ‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﯾﺤﺪث؟‬
‫ﻣﺮاﻋﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻨ ﺺ‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‬

‫اﻟﻤﺎدﯾﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﻤﻌﺠﻤﯿﺔ‬ ‫أﯾﻦ وﻣﺘﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ‬

‫واﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ‪ :‬اﻟﻔﺘﺮة‪،‬‬ ‫واﻟﻨﺤﻮﯾﺔ وﺟﻨﺲ‬ ‫ﯾﺤﺪث‬
‫واﻷﺷﺨﺎص‬ ‫اﻟﻨﺺ‪ ،‬ورواﺑﻂ‬ ‫ھﺬا؟‬
‫واﻟﻮﺿﻊ واﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻨﺎص‪ ،‬واﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺎ ھ ﻮ‬
‫اﻟﺤﺮﻓﯿﺔ واﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‬ ‫ﺳﯿﺎق‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ؟‬
‫اﻟﻤﻮﺳﻮﻋﯿﺔ‪،‬‬
‫واﻹﺣﺎﻻت‬
‫اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫↕‬
‫أﻓﻌﺎل أو أوﺻﺎف‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻢ دﻻﻻت اﻷﻟﻔﺎظ‪:‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك‬
‫ﺳﻠﻮك‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺋﯿﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺋﻲ‪،‬‬ ‫اﻟﻨﺺ‬ ‫ﯾﺤﺪث؟‬
‫ﺷﻔﻮي )ﻏﯿﺮ ﺷﻔﻮي‬ ‫اﻟﻜﻼم‬ ‫وأﺳﻠﻮب‬ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي‬
‫ودراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎت‬ ‫وﺗﻤﺎﺳﻚ اﻟﻨﺺ‬ ‫ﺳﯿﺘﺮﺟﻢ؟‬
‫اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻷﻓﺮاد‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻼت‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﯿﻒ‬ ‫اﻹﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت‬

‫اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ :‬ﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻘﺎﻣﻲ‪ :‬ﻗﺼﺪ‪/‬ﻗﺪرة‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺪث ھﺬه‬
‫اﻷﻓﻜﺎر‪ ،‬واﻷﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ‬ ‫اﻟﻜﻼم ﻋﻠﻰ إﻧﺠﺎز ﻣﺎ‪،‬‬ ‫اﻷﺷﯿﺎء؟‬
‫اﻟﻠﻔﻈﯿﺔ أو اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺨﻄﺎب‪،‬‬ ‫ﻛﯿﻒ‬
‫واﻟﻌﺎدات‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ‬ ‫واﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﺳﯿﺘﺮﺟﻢ‬
‫واﻷﻋﺮاف‬ ‫واﻷﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ‬ ‫ذﻟﻚ؟‬
‫واﻟﻤﻼﺋﻤﺔ‬ ‫واﻟﺘﻤﺎﺳﻚ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬
‫واﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ‪ ،‬وﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻨﺺ‬
‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫↕‬
‫اﻟﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﮭﺮﻣﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻨﻮاﯾﺎ‪ :‬اﻟﺮﺳﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫ﻟﻤﺎذا‬ ‫اﻟﻘﯿﻢ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻔﻀﯿﻞ ﺗﻮﺟﮭﺎت‬ ‫اﻟﺼﺮﯾﺤﺔ واﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺪث ھﺬه‬ ‫واﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات‬
‫اﻟﻘﯿﻢ‪ :‬اﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات‬ ‫واﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت‬ ‫اﻷﺷﯿﺎء؟‬
‫ﻋﻦ اﻟﮭﻮﯾﺔ وﻣﺎ ھﻮ‬ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻟﻐﺮض‬
‫"ﺻﺤﯿﺢ"‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬
‫و"ﻣﻌﯿﺎري"‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ؟‬
‫و"طﺒﯿﻌﻲ"‬
‫↕‬
‫وطﻨﻲ أو إﺛﻨﻲ أو‬ ‫اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻮن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺺ‪:‬‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﮭﻮﯾﺔ‬
‫دﯾﻨﻲ أو اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ أو‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺨﺼﯿﺎت واﻷﺷﯿﺎء‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺸﺎرك‬
‫اﻟﺪور أو اﻟﺸﺨﺼﯿﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺮﻛﺔ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ھﺬا‬
‫اﻟﻔﺮدﯾﺔ واﻷﺻﻮل‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺪث؟‬
‫اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺆﻟﻒ‬
‫اﻷﺻﻠﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺎرئ‬
‫ﺟﻤﮭﻮر‬
‫اﻟﻘﺮاء‬

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 ‫اﻟﻤﻜﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره‬
‫ﻧﺎﻗﻼ أو‬
‫ﻣﻔﺴﺮا‬
‫↕‬
‫اﻟﻘﻮى اﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻨﺺ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره ﻋﺎﻣﻞ‬ ‫ھﻞ أن "ﻣﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺪور أو‬
‫ﻗﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻨﻔﻮذ‬ ‫ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ أو ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﻟﻠﻮﺿﻊ‬ ‫ﯾﺤﺪث"‬ ‫اﻟﻤﮭﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﮭﯿﻤﻨﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺮاھﻦ‪ :‬اﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﺮ‬ ‫ﯾﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻊ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‬
‫اﻷﻓﻜﺎر اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪة‬ ‫واﻷﺧﻼق)اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻮن(‬ ‫دوري أو‬
‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻷﺧﻼﻗﯿﺔ‬ ‫واﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﻠﻔﻈﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﮭﻤﺘﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﮭﯿﻤﻨﺔ‬ ‫طﻮﯾﻠﺔ اﻷﻣﺪ‬ ‫واﻟﻘﻮى‬
‫اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
‫ذات ﺻﻠﺔ؟‬
‫ﻛﯿﻒ‬
‫ﺳﺄﺗﺼﺮف‬
‫ﻷﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻊ اﻟﻘﻮى‬
‫اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬

‫ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﻮﺿﺢ اﻟﻌﻤﻮدان اﻷول واﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ إطﺎر اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺤﺪث ﻓﯿﮫ اﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﯿﻮﺟﮫ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﺑﻄﺮح أﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة ﻟﻠﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى‪ .‬وﯾﺘﻨﺎول اﻟﻌﻤﻮدان اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ واﻟﺮاﺑﻊ اﻟﻨﺼﺎن )اﻟﻤﺼﺪر واﻟﮭﺪف( وﺳﯿﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ واﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ‪ ،‬وﻋﺮض‬
‫أي ﻣﻦ اﻷوﺟﮫ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ ذي ﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﻘﺪم اﻟﺠﺪول إﻟﻰ ﺣﺪ ﺑﻌﯿﺪ ﺗﻠﺨﯿﺼﺎً ﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺠﻠﯿﺪ واﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻓﯿﮫ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬ﻋﻨﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻨﺺ‪ ،‬ﯾﺤﺘﺎج ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﯿﻦ إﻟﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ أوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﻨﻮع اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺘﺮﺟﻢ وﺳﻤﺎﺗﮫ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﯾﺘﺼﻒ‬
‫ﺑﮭﺎ‪ .‬وﺳﯿﺤﺘﺎﺟﻮن ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى "اﻟﺴﻠﻮك" إﻟﻰ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎة "ﻣﺎ ھﺬا اﻟﺬي ﯾﺤﺪث؟" واﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻲ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻨﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﻔﺮدة‪ .‬وﻋﻨﺪ اﻹﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﯾﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻼﺋﻤﺔ ﻛﯿﻒ ُﻛﺘﺐ اﻟﻨﺺ وﻛﯿﻒ‬
‫ﯾﺆﺛﺮ أو ﻗﺪ ﯾﺆﺛﺮﻓﻲ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف وﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى "اﻟﻘﯿﻢ واﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات" ﯾﻨﺘﻘﻞ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ اﻹدراﻛﻲ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﯿﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﻟﺪﯾﮫ‪ :‬ﻣﺎ ھﻲ اﻟﻘﯿﻢ واﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻨﺺ ﺿﻤﻨﺎً‪ ،‬وﻛﯿﻒ‬
‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺷﯿﺤﮭﺎ ﻟﻘﺎرئ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف‪ ،‬وﻣﺎ ھﻲ اﻟﻨﻮاﯾﺎ )اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ( ﻟﻤﺆﻟﻒ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﺎرن ﻣﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ .‬ﺑﺈﺧﺘﺼﺎر "ﻟﻤﺎذا ﺗﺤﺪث ھﺬه اﻷﺷﯿﺎء؟ "وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﮭﻮﯾﺔ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺪﯾﻨﺎ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﻦ‪ ،‬داﺧﻞ اﻟﻨﺺ وﺧﺎرﺟﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪ ﺳﻮاء‪ ،‬اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﺠﺴﺪون ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﻘﯿﻢ واﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات أو إﺣﺪاھﻤﺎ واﻟﺘﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻔﻀﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻟﻨﺺ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺮﺋﯿﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻨﺺ‪ ،‬وﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺑﯿﺌﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة‪ .‬وﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى‬
‫"اﻟﮭﻮﯾﺔ ھﺬا" ﺳﯿﺮاﻋﻲ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﻦ اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ وﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺗﮭﻢ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﺆﻟﻒ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻷﺻﻠﻲ واﻟﻤﻜِﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ وﻗﺎرئ اﻟﻨﺺ اﻟﮭﺪف‪ ،‬وأﺧﯿﺮًا وﻟﯿﺲ آﺧﺮًا اﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻓﻲ طﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻂ‪.‬‬
‫وأﺧﯿﺮًا‪ ،‬ﯾﺮﻛﺰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى "اﻟﻤﮭﻤﺔ" ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻷدوار واﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ وﻛﯿﻒ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺮاھﻦ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ طﺮح اﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻤﮭﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪ ذاﺗﮭﺎ‪ .‬وﯾﺠﯿﺐ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﺆال اﻷﻛﺜﺮ أھﻤﯿﺔ ﺑﺸﺄن "ﻟﻤﺎذا"‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﻘﺮر اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻗﺒﻮل )أو رﻓﺾ( اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﺎﻟﻤﮭﻤﺔ ﺑﻌﯿﻨﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ زﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ وﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺠﻌﻞ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺮﻏﺐ ﻓﻲ‬

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‫أن ﯾﻜﻮن وﺳﯿﻄﺎً‪ .‬وﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى أﯾﻀﺎ ﯾﺨﻀﻊ ﻟﻠﺴﺆال اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ﺑﺄﻛﻤﻠﮫ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺨﺼﯿﺺ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ واﻟﻨﻔﻮذ‬
‫واﻷدوار واﻟﻘﯿﻢ واﻹﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت واﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺒﺎدل ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ذات ﺣﺮﻣﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪ 8‬اﻟﺨﺎﺗﻤﺔ‬
‫وﺧﺘﺎﻣﺎً‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ أداًة ﻟﻠﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‪ ،‬اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻨﺺ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪ ذاﺗﮫ ﺑﺼﻔﺘﮫ أﺣﺪ دﻻﻻت‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻲ‪ .‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺤﺪد ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ أﺧﺮى "ﺧﻔﯿﺔ" و"ﻣﺠﮭﻮﻟﺔ" و"ﻻواﻋﯿﺔ"‪ ،‬وﺣﯿﻦ ﺗﻘﺎﺳﻤﮭﺎ ﻗﺪ ﯾﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻛﯿﻒ ﺳُﯿﻔﮭﻢ اﻟﻨﺺ‪ .‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺳﯿﻨﺸﺄ ﻧﺺ ﺟﺪﯾﺪ وﯾﻘﺮأ وﻓﻖ ﺧﺮﯾﻄﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ أو ﻗﻮاﻟﺐ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻐﺎﯾﺮة‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺷﺤﺎت اﻹدراك‪ .‬ﻣﻦ ھﻨﺎ ﺗﻨﺸﺄ اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻂ‪ .‬وﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻗﺎدرًا‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﯿﺎﻏﺔ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻮاﻟﻢ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﻟﺐ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﺑﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻹدراﻛﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻮرة ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ "ﻟﻤﺎ ﯾﺤﺪث‪ ،‬أو ﻣﺎذا ﯾﻤﻜﻦ‪ ،‬أو ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن ﯾﺤﺪث‪".‬‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺎت‬
‫‪ 1‬ھﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﻧﺴﺨﺔ ﻣﻮﺳﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻛﺘﺒﮫ اﻟﻤﺆﻟﻒ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ "اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎرھﺎ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ"‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ) ‪Baker and‬‬
‫‪(Saldanha 2008‬‬
‫‪ 2‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪاﺗﻲ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ‬
‫‪ 3‬اﺑﺘﻜﺮ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت )ﺑﺎﯾﻚ( )‪ (Headland et al. 1990‬ﻟﻠﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺆطﺮ‪ ،‬واﻷﺣﻜﺎم اﻟﺬاﺗﯿﺔ واﻟﺸﺨﺼﯿﺔ‬
‫)اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ( ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺆطﺮ )اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ( ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﻮع واﻟﺘﺼﻨﯿﻒ‪ .‬اﻷﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ھﻮ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﯿﺔ )ﻣﺜﺎﻟﯿﺔ( ودراﺳﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺠﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‪.‬‬

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 Chapter 4: Commentary
4.1 Overview
This commentary offers a brief insight into the cultural aspects of translation
and focuses on the translator’s analysis and understanding of the source text, which is
reflected in the translation of the target text. The analysis discusses the difficulties in
terminology and the obstacles I faced during the translation process, and how these
issues were dealt with in order to translate the selected chapter. Translation scholars
suggest the use of strategies that deal with terminology and lexical semantics for
translating scholarly academic text. These strategies were applied to overcome the
barriers that any translator would encounter during the process. As a result, it is hoped
that a meaningful and comprehensive translated Arabic version of the chapter has been
produced. The analysis also briefly discusses the translator’s beliefs, style, and values
that may affect their decisions and assessments at a subconscious level. In this case, I
am referring to myself as the translator and how my culturally-nuanced language style
as a writer can be discerned in the final translated piece.
This commentary is an analysis of the translation experience and decisions
made to produce the Arabic target text (TT) of the chapter “Translation as Intercultural
Communication” from The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies. The
commentary presents the cognitive processes and theoretical frames of reference
applied, which led to the final decisions made while dealing with specialized
terminology provided in the English source text (ST).
The translation process was as follows:
● Specifying terms that need to be researched
● Searching the term meanings in Arabic dictionaries
● Highlighting terms that are of interest in discussion
● Comparing definitions provided by both dictionaries, and writing comments on them
● Organizing the terms in a glossary
● Inserting the chosen terms in the target text (TT)
● Writing a commentary about the translation experience

A major focus of this commentary is identifying the problematic instances faced

while translating and explaining how translation decisions were made in these
situations, as well as identifying problematic terms and discussing the challenges faced
while searching for the terms and translating them from English to Arabic. Before
64
starting the translation, I read the chapter carefully a number of times. After reading the
chapter, it was apparent that the text was a social science or a humanities text type, and
specifically a scholarly/academic text, specialized to cater to academic needs in
translation studies. The text is written in a formal scholarly manner; hence, the target
language (TL) should follow the style of the subject field genre, and the terminological
framework provided in the source text should be reflected in the outcome of the target
text.
After analyzing the nature of the context, keyword terminologies were
highlighted and assembled in a table. The terms were looked up in a comprehensive
and widely used Arabic/English dictionary: Al Mawrid. When differing translations
were found, they were analyzed to reach a final decision. In instances where equivalent
terms were available in the target language, translation methods were used; where they
were not, the term was formed on theoretical and conceptual bases such as the
referential level, cohesion level and adaptation. Finally, after making the decision, the
terms were inserted into the target language text.

4.2 Discussion
The act of translation is a process whereby the translator decodes the
complicated codes of differing languages. Intercultural communication bridges cultures
and societies by connecting cultural thoughts through words, terms, and sentences.
According to Faiq (2004), “intercultural communication involves contact, mostly
through language, between two or more different, even opposing, cultures” (p. 35).
Intercultural communication is a required feature in translation as it is the interface
between the social sciences and humanities discourse. The communication process here
involves transferring culturally specific information that stems from cultural roots and
dates back to cultural histories. This transfer of information is reformulated in the
language of another society that already has an established set of norms.
This complex process of transferring information finds echoes in one of the old
stories conveyed in the Holy Quran, in Surat Al Kahf, verse 93. The verse narrates the
story of “‫”ذو اﻟﻘﺮﻧﯿﻦ‬, “Dhu-al-Qarnain”, the mighty ruler known for his justice and good
deeds. The original Arabic verse is “ ‫ﺣﺘﻰ إذا ﺑﻠﻎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺴﺪﯾﻦ وﺟﺪ ﻣﻦ دوﻧﮭﻤﺎ ﻗﻮﻣﺎً ﻻ ﯾﻜﺎدون ﯾﻔﻘﮭﻮن‬
ً ‫ ”ﻗﻮ‬which translates to English as “Until, when he reached between two mountains, he
‫ﻻ‬
found, before (near) them (those two mountains), a people who scarcely understood a
word” (Abdul Al Rahman, 2009, p. 38). In his interpretation, Shaikh Muhammad ibn
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Al Uthaymeen explains the meaning of the verse as follows: there was a land between
the two mountains, where groups of people were living and reached out to “Dhu-al-
Qarnain” for help. However, “Dhu-al-Qarnain” did not comprehend a word of the
strange language spoken by this group of people. “Dhu-al-Qarnain” was a mighty ruler
with vast resources, so he asked his translators to interpret the messages from the source
language, which was complex to be interpreted into the target language of “Dhu-al-
Qarnain” and his people. At the end of the story, the complicated interpretation process
was successfully accomplished, and “Dhu-al-Qarnain” was able to prevent the disaster
that was threatening to occur in their land.
This story traces the history of translation and interpretation between two
different nations. It demonstrates the complex process of translation as intercultural
communication between different cultures and societies, whereby different languages
carry different codes, grammars, syntaxes, and structures while trying to communicate
a message. It can be construed that translation saved the group of people who were
threatened by Gog and Magog (‫)ﯾﺄﺟﻮج وﻣﺄﺟﻮج‬, who spoiled the earth and spread chaos
and corruption. The group of people wanted an end to this disaster. As Gog and Magog
were on their way to destroy their land, “Dhu-al-Qarnain” ordered his people to build
a dam of iron to trap them where they would never see sunlight. The story concludes
with a positive ending, with their lives being saved. Translating and interpreting their
concern to “Dhu-al-Qarnain” helped protect the group of people from Gog and Magog’s
despoliation.
Referring to the main concern of this thesis, the intention here is to share a
comprehensible translated chapter from which future scholars may benefit in
prospective studies. The selected source text (ST) discusses how translation is a means
of intercultural communication and how cultural implications are imposed on different
languages. The translator can restrict or re-invent a concept to harmonize the content at
hand. This can be deemed a significant exercise as it is hoped that this translated piece
will interest future academics who will have the opportunity of reading about
intercultural communication as a translated piece of the chapter.

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4.3 Translation Methods
“Translation as Intercultural Communication” is divided into eight sections,
some sections of which are further divided into two or three subsections. The title of
the chapter itself is a point of discussion. “Translation as Intercultural Communication”
is complicated, since the term “inter-cultural” does not have an exact equivalent in the
target language. The struggle in translation has always been regarding the choice of
whether to translate literally or freely (Newmark, 1987, p. 45). In this context, the
translation choices vary between literal and free translation. Some might argue that
“literal” translation reflects the absence of any effort from the translator, while “free”
translation is demeaning to the source text writer insofar as it involves recreating the
target text in such a way that the translator becomes the author and not the mediator.
However, I believe there is a middle ground that encompasses the virtues of both
“literal” and “free” translations, where the translated text is neither too literal nor too
free relative to the source text. Regardless of the translation style used, the translated
version should reflect the formality of the style and remain faithful to the original
message.

4.3.1 Semantic translation. (1) The term “inter-cultural” contains the prefix1
“inter”, and the prefix is translated to “‫ ”ﺑﯿﻦ‬to link the words “inter” and “cultural”.
The concept of prefixes does not exist in Arabic, nor does the idea of connecting
words. This might work in some cases, but not in this scenario. Rather, the Arabic
translation used a preposition to connect the term intercultural with communication.
Hence, the translation “‫ ”اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‬for the term in English is economically used
and inserted in sentences. Yet, in Arabic the term has different synonyms, when Al
Mawred dictionary is compared with online dictionaries. In English, concepts can be
described in one word, while in Arabic, in some instances, concepts might use more
than one word to describe an idea. The term is not presented as a compounded term,
but rather as a phrase. The emphasis that the term is trying to reflect is that
“translation” is used as a tool to communicate across cultures and bridges cultures
through language and translation.
This results in the final choice of “‫”اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت‬, to convey the meaning that
translation bridges cultures and is a tool whereby language and culture are exchanged.
The method used here is conceptualizing the term and categorizing the discipline to
describe the concept in a phrase, following Cabre’s analysis of “Conceptualizations of
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Terminology” (Somers, 1996, p. 16). This method of conceptualization would be
closest to Newmark’s (1987 p. 46) semantic translation method, where the translator
wants to convey the emphasis of the SL translation. Semantic translation reflects the
translator’s intuitive understanding and accepts flexibility. In this type of translation,
the translator tries to present the writer’s ideas from the source language to the target
language. We can also say that word order is an evident factor here, where the sequence
of the terms was shifted, and the word “communication” moved to the beginning of the
sentence and “intercultural” moved to the end of the sentence. This obligatory shift had
to occur, as otherwise it would sound as awkward as the word order “communication
intercultural” would sound in English.
(2) A cultural filter is a means of capturing cognitive and socio-cultural
differences to be applied by translators, which for Katan (2009) is more closely related
to the translator’s capacity to mediate.
‫ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻄﺒﻘﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻮن وﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ھﺬا‬- ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ھﻮ وﺳﯿﻠﺔ ﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎط اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت اﻹدراﻛﯿﺔ واﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
.‫اﻷﻣﺮ ﻣﻦ وﺟﮭﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻛﺎﺗﺎن ﺑﻘﺪرة اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﯾﻜﻮن وﺳﯿﻄﺎً ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‬
Another compounded term here is “socio-cultural”. Socio-culture is a branch of
psychology concerned with human behavior and its relation to personality development
(including race, religion, gender, etc.). The term has no equivalence in the target
language dictionary; yet, the terms exist separately as “social” and “culture”. The two
terms are combined in English. In Arabic, the words are not, yet they are linked in the
sentence to express the overall meaning of the sentence. The intention of this translation
is to produce the same meaning intended by the author in the target text. The strategy
used in this case can again be described as semantic translation, as this method allows
flexibility. The ST term was replaced with a similar TT term, but not necessarily a one-
on-one equivalent; it is a reflection of the translator’s intuition to match the original
with a relative reproduction.

4.3.2 Literal translation. Another example from the ST is the term

monocultural, where the term is used in the following context:
(3) “So an attempt to use [monocultural] self as a predictor of shared
assumptions and responses to messages is unlikely to work – because the response, in
our case to a translation, will be ethnocentric.”

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‫"ﻟﺬا ﻓﺈن ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎﻧﺔ ﺑﺸﺨﺼﯿﺔ ]أﺣﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ[ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت واﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﺮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‬
‫ ﺳﺘﻌﺪ ﺿﺮﺑﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺿﺮوب‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﺼﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬،‫ﻻ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺠﺪﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرﺟﺢ – ﻷن اﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ‬
.‫اﻟﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ اﻹﺛﻨﻲ‬
I interpreted this to amount to a claim that a monocultural approach in
translation is of no use when translating between cultures. This simple compounded
word is very rich in meaning. In this context, the term “monocultural” is used to
describe the idea of using one mode to translate different texts. Here, the term reminded
me of the word “monotonous”, which refers to using one tone of voice in expression,
which is ineffective; this implies that one cannot use the same tone for all kinds of
expression. The meaning that “monocultural” implies here is that using the same
translation rhythm does not serve all translation purposes. The prefix “mono”, meaning
“one” or “alone” in Greek, is compounded with the term “cultural”. “Monocultural”
was translated to “‫”أﺣﺎدي اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬, a literal translation of the term in which the grammatical
construction of the term reflects the target language equivalent (Newmark 1987, p. 46).
Al Wajeez’s dictionary suggestion was “‫”اﻟﺰراﻋﺔ اﻷﺣﺎدﯾﺔ‬, which is not appropriate
in this context, so it was literally translated instead of coining a new term. The term
was literally translated to “mono” “‫ ”أﺣﺎدي‬and cultural “‫”ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬. The sentence further
elaborates that monocultural translation leads to an ethnocentric translation. Here, the
statement implies a metaphorical meaning. It is arguing that applying one method
(monocultural) in translation to interpret different text types (ethnocentric) is
inadequate and inefficient.
Being the mediator, the translator decides on the tone and flow of the
translation, and this was the case in the decisions taken in some parts of the translation.
For example, in section 5.2 “Culture as a System of Frames”, three ideas are outlined
to clarify contradicting thoughts on cultural translation, which are “context(ing)”,
“frames”, and “logical typing”. The three ideas were translated by the translator into
Arabic to ،‫ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬،‫ اﻷطﺮ‬،‫اﻷﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬. As for the translations of “context” and “frames”,
the terms exist in the target language dictionary, but there are no direct equivalents for
“logical typing”. Here, the decision-making process must be measured by the situation
given, based on the type of the context and translator’s accumulated knowledge on the
subject. In probing the term “logical typing”, this excerpt from Gregory Bateson’s book
Mind and Nature succinctly explains the processes of the translator’s thought process.
Bateson (1988. p. 20) defines “logical typing”, as coined by Bertrand Russel, as “the
hierarchic structure of thought” that governs a given discursive work. It refers to the
69
phenomena identified by the following considerations:
How do ideas, information, steps of logical or pragmatic consistency, and the
like fit together? How is logic, the classical procedure for making chains of ideas,
related to an outside world of things and creatures, parts and wholes? […] How is the
world of logic, which eschews “circular argument”, related to a world in which circular
trains of causation are the rule rather than the exception? (Bateson, 1988. p. 20)
In the above excerpt, the notion of logical typing is described as the rational,
logical process of thinking. From Bateson’s (1988) philosophical analysis and thoughts,
where he elaborates on the idea, the concept of the term can be formed from the reading
and the closest phrase that can be coined is “‫”أﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬. This term would best
describe the concept of analytical and logical chains of thoughts. Being the translator,
the cognitive processes that I engaged in led me to the domestication technique: a
natural translation was intended to reflect on the target text, where the concept was
foreign and was adapted through using similar terms from the TT familiar word of
reference.
Another important aspect in translation is that the gap of linguistic value cannot
be fulfilled, where value here means the original literal meaning. This authentic
meaning cannot be satisfied in all languages. It is an aspect that translation scholars
have debated repeatedly on different occasions. Translation involves cultural processes
when producing the final piece. From everyday practice, with new terminology
evolving around specialized terms, researching and testing can be one of the most
effective methods for translating new and specialized terminology.
Similarly, when translating specialized terminology in the ST, a similar
rationale was used to make translation decisions. Section 5.2, “Culture as a System of
Frame”, discusses context and word meaning. The aim of this section is to transmit the
core and essential meaning of the paragraphs. Nida, Hall and Malinowski (Munday,
2009) channel their thoughts and ideologies into the concept of “contexting”. The word
“context” was translated to ‫ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬whereby the English–Arabic dictionary translations
offered the following two options: ‫ اﻟﻜﻼم ﺳﯿﺎق‬and ‫ اﻟﻘﺮﯾﻨﺔ‬or ‫ﺑﯿﺌﺔ ﻣﺤﯿﻄﺔ‬. Chapter five clearly
states the direction and the scope of its discussion, and as a non-native speaker of the
language, and being the translator of the chapter, the most suitable choice was the first
option‫ ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻜﻼم‬as it relates to what the paragraph is discussing. Following the concept
of “contexting” is section 5.2.2 which discusses “logical typing”, and as discussed
earlier, logical typing means “that each context represents a “type” (such as the different
70
context types of “situation” and “culture”), and each “type” frames, or logically
informs, the next in a hierarchy of (often paradoxical) types” (Munday, 2009, p. 77).
If, during the translation process, a concept remains vague, it is necessary for
the translator to further research other discourses that explore the concept further.
Therefore, further readings were done to better translate the term, which aided in
understanding the term and identifying the right translation in Arabic. As the term is
not present in either Al Mawred or Al Wajeez Arabic dictionaries, or in general use in
the target language, an exercise of measuring and testing the term was beneficial to
reach a final decision. The first attempt to translate the term used the equivalent “ ‫اﻷﺳﻠﻮب‬
‫”اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬. After a number of trials and closely looking into the lexical meaning of the
term “logical typing”, it actually refers to the type and not to the style. The first
collocation literally translates into “logical style” in the target text. The second attempt
and final decision was “‫”اﻟﻨﻮع اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬, which is a calque translation, with “logical” to
‫ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬and “type” to ‫ ﻧﻮع‬which was rendered to “‫”اﻟﻨﻮع اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬. Due to differences in the
language structures of English and Arabic, the word order was reversed in the Arabic
term to be more idiomatically transparent to the target reader.

4.3.3 Adaptation. (4) “Vinay and Darbelnet offered a plethora of strategies”

.‫وﻗﺪم اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء ﻣﻨﺬ )ﻓﯿﻨﯿﮫ( و )دارﺑﻠﻨﯿﯿﮫ( ﻋﺪدًا ﻻ ﻛﺒﯿﺮًا ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﻟﺘﻌﻮﯾﺾ اﻧﻌﺪام اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬
In section 5.3.1 “Culturemes”, Katan (2009) presents strategies offered by Vinay and
Darbelnet (1995) and describes them as “a plethora of strategies”. The term “plethora”
originally Greek, which means abundance and profusion; and in more common usage
to mean an overabundance or excess (merriam-webster.com). Using the term “plethora”
in an academic text style is categorized as a figure of speech to describe a situation. In
this instance, there would be two options available to the translator of the text: to
introduce the word plethora, which can be classified as foreignization; or to choose a
target language expression to convey the meaning. The second option would involve
rewriting what the source language writer intended to say in a natural way to suit the
target language culture. This is what I did, in a form of adaptation. The fundamental
intention here is to make the text comprehensible for the reader by explaining the term.

4.3.4 Faithful translation. (5) “They are sometimes dressed in cultural

clothes, but that is as far as it goes.”
"‫"وﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺣﯿﺎن ﺗﺘﻨﻜﺮ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﺒﺎس اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
71
 In the discussion regarding translation approaches, Newmark (1987) identifies
two approaches. The first approach is translating sentence by sentence, and the second
is reading the entire body of text two to three times, and then beginning the translation
by identifying the register, and highlighting unfamiliar terms. Depending on the
translator’s intention, he or she and what to opt for during the thinking process. The
translation of this sentence used a faithful translation. The Arabic version reflects the
source language, as in this instance, it aims to transfer and preserve the intention of the
source language writer and express it to the target language reader by maintaining the
figurative expression dressed in cultural clothes with the corresponding translation of
“‫”ﺗﺘﻨﻜﺮ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﺒﺎس اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬.

4.4 Functional equivalence

Following the above, the term “ethnocentric” here refers to a different
conceptualization than what the term originally intended. Here, “ethnocentric” supports
the first part of the claim, that monoculturalism in translation leads to a stagnant style
and implies one type of response. The first portion of the compound term, “ethno”, is
derived from the word “ethnic”, which means a certain group of people that belong to
a population, or a subgroup that shares similar values, religion, and culture, while
“ethnocentric” means evaluating other people and cultures according to the standards
of one’s own culture. Therefore, the meaning here does not pertain to cultural groups,
but cultural responses that result from monocultural translation. The introduction of the
chapter is dense in meaning, and the use of rich terminology generates a profound
explanation. As such, functional equivalence was used as a translation method.
Functional equivalence serves formal translation situations, and this technique also
avoids misunderstandings or loss of meaning. Moreover, the writer’s thoughts were
reflected based on the translator’s conceptualization of the situation.
“Ethnocentric” is compounded term presented in the introductory paragraph.
Ethnocentric is translated in Arabic to “‫”اﻟﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ اﻻﺛﻨﻲ‬, which is a literal translation that
also reflects the actual meaning of the original term. The usage of these terms has
created a metaphorical meaning. In Arabic rhetoric, metaphorical meanings are referred
to as ‫ﺗﺸﺒﯿﮫ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﻲ‬, where an indirect term draws a picture in the mind of the reader to
further elaborate and explain a concept. It is close to what Newmark (1987) has defined
as stock metaphors, where “an established metaphor…in an informal context is an
efficient and concise method of covering a physical and/or mental situation both
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referentially and pragmatically” (Newmark, 1987, p. 108).
Newmark (1987) suggests that the best way to translate a stock metaphor is to
reproduce the same image in the target language, where the metaphors have a
comparable frequency. Newmark further explains that symbols and metonyms can be
clarified in a translation when there is a cultural overlap. The most common way to
achieve this to find an equivalent register that exists in the target language image. This
can be achieved by measuring a “comparable frequency and currency” between the
source language and the target language, or by replacing the same image provided in
the source language with one that is equally frequent in the target language register
(Newmark, 1987).
In section 5.2 of the chapter, the term “membershipping” is used to explain
concepts and theories related to cultural concepts.
(6) “For Hall, this constituted ‘membershipping’. Relevance theory (cf. Chapter
4) operates on the same principle.”
‫ وﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻠﺔ‬.(membershipping) ’‫وھﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ رأي ھﻮل ‘اﻹﺷﺘﺮاك ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬
‫ ﻓﻼ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻓﺘﺮاض أن‬،‫ وﺣﺘﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت‬.‫( وﻓﻖ اﻟﻤﺒﺪأ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‬4 ‫ اﻧﻈﺮ )اﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬، (Relevance theory)
.‫ﻣﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﺘﺼﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع أﻣﺮ ﻋﺎم‬
Membershipping generally implies that a member is being involved in a certain
system. Thus, in this context the term hints at being a member of the same group, but
in a linguistic context. The term was translated to “‫ ”اﻻﺷﺘﺮاك ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬to complete the
pragmatics of the term in the given context. The term “membership” exists in Arabic
as ‫ ﻋﻀﻮﯾﺔ‬and context as ‫اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬. The Arabic translation ‫ ﻋﻀﻮﯾﺔ‬does not satisfy the
intended meaning of the source text. Thus, the synonym ‫ ﻋﻀﻮﯾﺔ‬was replaced with ‫اﺷﺘﺮاك‬.
In addition, the idea of the term is presented in the target text with a linking preposition
‫ﻓﻲ‬. The term ‫ اﺷﺘﺮاك‬on its own is inadequate to convey the meaning in the Arabic
translation. To fulfill the translation, the term ‫ اﺷﺘﺮاك‬was combined with the term ‫ﺳﯿﺎق‬
to complement the concept. In doing so, the term still needed some rendering; hence,
the linking preposition ‫ ﻓﻲ‬was placed to connect the two words, which yielded the final
translation “‫”اﻻﺷﺘﺮاك ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬.
In English, the concept of membershipping is expressed as one word, while in
Arabic the term was translated to three words; it is a functional equivalence where the
generally known concept of membership is included in the term, but in this case implies
a different meaning to the term. To further clarify the term to the target language reader,
the original English term was inserted in the target text translation for the reader to
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establish a link between the source language terms and the target language term.

4.5 Translation Procedures

Translation procedures are concerned with smaller lexical units and focus on
the sentence level, or word for word. In using translation procedures, the translator
analyzes the sentence or word to produce an equivalent sense in the target language,
which is also known as a sense-for-sense translation.

4.5.1 Descriptive equivalence. The descriptive equivalence procedure is

concerned with the description and the function of the term or concept. Translation
procedures deal with the intertextual level and are interested in sentences and smaller
units (Newmark, 1987, p. 81). The following excerpt is an example of how the
descriptive equivalence procedure was used.
(7) “In the first case, translation is seen as a universalist encoding-decoding
linguistic activity, transferring meaning from SL to the TL, using what Reddy
(1973/1993) called the ‘conduit metaphor of language transference’.”
‫ ﯾﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﺸﺎط ﻟﻐﻮي ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺸﻔﺮات وﻓﻜﮭﺎ وﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬،‫ﻓﻔﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ‬
conduit ) "‫( "اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺤﯿﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬1973/1993) ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺪر إﻟﻰ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﮭﺪف ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﯿﮫ رﯾﺪي‬
.‫( أي أن اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎرة ھﻲ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬metaphor
Reddy’s (1973/1993) notion of a “conduit metaphor” is a conceptual metaphor, a
figurative expression that focuses deeply on the process and channels of
communication. Reddy explains that language is a conduit through which thoughts are
transferred from one person to another.
Reading about the conduit metaphor in Reddy’s (1973/1993) original piece
helped in translating the term and understanding the concept. Reddy explains the
concept in detailed steps, and he shares his views about how the conduit metaphor is a
channel that expresses thoughts through certain cognitive processes. As “conduit
metaphor” is a compounded term, it was treated as two separate terms. Looking at the
English dictionary definition, the term “conduit” means a channel conveying water or
some other substance or energy, or a person or organization that acts as a channel for
the transmission of something; and “metaphor” means a figure of speech. Hence,
figurative speech is the channel that transfers information, which leads to the translation
‫ اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﺘﻮﺿﯿﺤﯿﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬to further clarify the concept and to give cues to the TT reader

74
as to what the term is implying. Furthermore, to give the TT reader a reference of the
ST term, the original term was also inserted in the sentence in parenthesis.
The procedure that describes this form of translation is descriptive equivalence.
The intended result is that the TT term aims to reflect the meaning and the function of
the term. Due to the differences in language structure between Arabic and English, the
TT term uses four words to explain the concept of a conduit metaphor; as a result, the
translated term is self-explanatory and conveys the concept of what Reddy is trying to
explain.

4.5.2 Collocations. Collocation deals with individual lexical items.

Translators must pay close attention to TL collocations to ensure that they present a
transparent reproduction of the SL collocations (Newmark, 1987). Certain portions of
text (such as “strong rain”), while grammatically correct, will be unfamiliar to the
reader. However, when such portion of text are replaced with familiarized
collocations (such as “heavy rain”) they are both more familiar and easier to
understand for the reader. In the example below, the TL used one of the forms of
collocations.
(8) “…what Geertz would call ‘thick description’ In translation studies this has now
become popularized by Appiah (1993/2004) and Hermans (2003) as ‘thick
translation’.”
‫ وھﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﺮوج ﻟﮫ اﻵن ﻓﻲ دراﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ أﺑﺎﯾﺎ وھﯿﺮﻣﺎﻧﺰ‬.‫"و ھﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻤﺎه ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺟﯿﺮﺗﺰ اﻟﻮﺻﻒ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻖ‬...
".‫( ﻣﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻘﺔ‬2003) ‫ (وھﯿﺮﻣﺎﻧﺰ‬1993 /2004)
The idea of thick description and thick translation means that layers of meaning
incorporated in the words are weaved into the sentences and smaller lexical units to
create deep meaning and avoid abstractions. The idea of “thickness” in these terms
refers not only to the layers of meaning on a grammatical level, but also in spoken
words (Katan, 2009). To translate the two terms, I first opted for a literal translation
(‫)اﻟﻮﺻﻒ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﻒ‬. However, the collocation of the two words put together did not make
sense within this context, as it refers to physical thickness rather than deepness and
density of meaning, which is what the SL term implies. Therefore, the term was further
rendered to ‫اﻟﻮﺻﻒ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻖ‬. This collocation would be familiar and recognizable to the TT
reader as it adds a more accurate and stronger connotative meaning than that of the
previous translation.

75
 4.5.3 Word order. (9) “….based on neurolinguistic programming (NLP)
theory, each of which is varyingly responsible for orienting or modelling our own
perception, interpretation and evaluation of (to use Goffman, 1974) ‘what it is that is
going on’.”
‫ ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﻣﻦ ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺎت ﻣﺴﺆول ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻮﺟﯿﮫ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺎس ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺼﺒﯿﺔ‬
.(1974 ‫إدراﻛﺎﺗﻨﺎ وﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮاﺗﻨﺎ وﺗﻘﯿﯿﻤﺎﺗﻨﺎ أو ﻗﻮﻟﺒﺘﮭﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ ﯾﺤﺪث )وﻓﻖ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻘﻮﻟﮫ ﺟﻮﻓﻤﺎن‬
The dictionary meaning of “neurolinguistics” is “the branch of linguistics
dealing with the relationship between language and the structure and functioning of the
brain.” The term “neurolinguistic” exists in the target language register as ‫ﻋﻠﻢ أﻋﺼﺎب‬
‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬, which is valid as a translation; yet, when used in the target text the final translation
of the term had to be rendered to “‫”ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﺔ اﻟﻠﻐﻮﯾﺔ‬.
As the linguist Roman Jakobson stated, “Languages differ essentially in what
they must convey and not in what they may convey” (Venuti, 2000, p. 116). The
translation method used in final decision-making should at times reflect the idea of the
source text to introduce and discuss a certain concept. Naturally, depending on the
language that the translator is dealing with, the language and the word order varies
based on linguistics and grammar. In this situation the same methodology was followed
in Arabic, where word order followed an obligatory shift to standardize the term and
convey its concept and to balance lexical items.

4.5.4 Addition. (10) “which includes clichés and proverbs.”

."‫"اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﺼﯿﻎ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺮرة واﻟﺠﺎﻣﺪة واﻟﻤﺤﻔﻮظﺔ‬
The first attempt in this translation was to use “‫”اﻟﺼﯿﻎ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺮرة‬, but after reading
the definition of the word “cliché”, which is originally a French word that refers to an
overused expression that betrays a lack of originality, it became apparent that using the
translation “‫ ”اﻟﺼﯿﻎ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺮرة‬does not fully represent the meaning. This reconsideration
led me to extend the translation to ‫اﻟﺼﯿﻎ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺮرة واﻟﺠﺎﻣﺪة واﻟﻤﺤﻔﻮظﺔ‬. This meaning
emphasizes an overused word that lacks originality, which encouraged elongation of
the term to stress this aspect of the meaning. This method in translation, where the
translator intends to elaborate on the concept, can be referred to as addition, where more
words were added to help the reader understand what the term “cliché” really means.
4.6 Domestication and Foreignization
(11) “Not all allusions have such clear exophoric and exportable referents, but
rather carry with them ‘cultural baggage’, opening up frames or schemata more
76
specifically related to what is appropriate or valued in a particular culture, which we
shall look at now.”
‫ ﺑﻞ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ طﯿﺎﺗﮭﺎ أﯾﻀﺎً "أﻣﺘﻌﺔ‬،‫ﻻ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻹﺷﺎرات ﻣﺜﻞ ھﺬه اﻹﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﻘﺎﻣﯿﺔ واﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ اﻟﻮاﺿﺤﺔ‬
‫ وھﻮ ﻣﺎ‬،‫ﺛﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ" ﺗﻔﺘﺢ ﺑﺪورھﺎ أُطﺮًا أو ﻣﺨﻄﻄﺎت ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪا ﺑﻤﺎ ھﻮ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ أو ذي ﻗﯿﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬
.‫ﺳﻨﻨﺎﻗﺸﮫ اﻵن‬
Foreignization in translation occurs when the translators decide to introduce a
foreign concept and not domesticate it to the cultural and linguistic norms of the target
text readers. In this example, the foreignization technique was used to translate the term
“cultural baggage”. This term involves a person from a certain culture finding it
difficult to interact with a person from another culture, not realizing that the cultural
baggage that the other person is carrying is hindering their interaction. This figure of
speech is not present in the target language culture. The term is a metaphorical meaning
of someone literally carrying baggage; yet, it is intangible baggage, and the meaning
that the author is trying to convey is that the residue of a person’s culture remains in
the subconscious mind and can influence an interaction. The intention was to translate
by paraphrasing and expressing the meaning literally, using foreignization. As there
was no match found in the target language, an explanation of the term was provided in
the form of a footnote.
(12) “The anthropologist Bateson (1972, p. 289) noted that context, if it were to
remain a useful concept, must be subject to what he called ‘logical typing’.”
‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺨﻀﻊ‬،‫ ﻟﻜﻲ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﺎً ﻣﻔﯿﺪًا‬،‫( إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬1972, p. 289) ‫"أﺷﺎر ﻋﺎﻟﻢ اﻻﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ ﺑﺎﺗﯿﺴﻮن‬
‫إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻤﺎه‬
"..‫اﻟﻨﻮع اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ‬
This target text sentence contains a foreignized term, “anthropologist”, which
refers to scientists in the field of anthropology; a field that is related to the study of
humankind. The TT term exists as ‫ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻻﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺎت‬, but as the translator I chose to
foreignize the term and refer to it as ‫ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻻﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‬and then explain it in a footnote
in Arabic. This method gives the reader a hint about the origin of the term and allows
TT readers to look up the field of anthropology. Also, foreignizing the word raises
curiosity, as when reading ‫ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻻﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺎت‬the reader may not find the term as thought
provoking as they would if the term were ‫ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻻﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‬. The intention here was to
create curiosity and introduce a new term in the TT, to encourage the reader to read the
footnote and further research the term.

77
4.7 Textual Levels
The theory of textual levels helps to draw a link between translation theory and
practice (Newmark, 1988, p. 22). When working on the text level the translator
develops an intuitive act and converts the SL grammar to the TL equivalent.

4.7.1 Referential level. The referential level in translation is concerned with

decoding the meaning of the source text and building conceptual representations in the
target text. This level is concerned with the functionality of the encoded word or
sentence.
The concept of logical typing is explained through the idea of “hierarchic
series”. Hierarchy generally means “order”. Therefore, “hierarchic series” in this
context means the order that traces back to the concept of logical typing.
To better translate the term “hierarchic series” into Arabic, the word “hierarch”
in Al Mawrid offers the following meanings"‫ ﻛﺎھﻦ‬،‫ "زﻋﯿﻢ دﯾﻨﻲ‬. The word hierarchy, also
in Al Mawrid dictionary, means "‫ اﻟﮭﺮﻣﯿﺔ أو اﻟﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﮭﺮﻣﻲ‬،‫"ﻣﺮﺗﺒﺔ أو طﺒﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻼﺋﻜﺔ‬
The first meaning is relevant to religion and does not match the source text
referential meaning. The essence of the meaning is still preserved and implied in both
terms; however, the term has to be altered to better position itself in the target text. The
term ‫ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﺔ‬seems reasonable; yet it is inadequate, as the situation requires a term that
expresses the flow of ideas that follows the concept instead of the order of ideas. The
best choice was to insert “‫ ”اﻟﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﮭﺮﻣﻲ‬provided by Al Mawrid, which fits in the text,
and to further explain the concept of logical typing and the other notions that fall under
that umbrella.
(13) “…furthermore, show how the same term can be associated with almost
polar-opposite values and beliefs.”
".‫ﻛﯿﻒ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ واﺣﺪ ﺑﻘﯿﻢ وﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪات ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻘﯿﺾ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‬..."
“Polar-opposite” is a term that stresses the massive difference between two
things and can also be used as an expression. The compounded word is not present in
the target language, but the concept exists. My intention here was to try not to
complicate the translation and find a replacement word, but to keep the text flowing
consistently. Therefore, the term was expressed in Arabic as "‫ "ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻘﯿﺾ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ‬instead of
replacing an equivalent term.

78
 4.7.2 Cohesion level. (14) “Each readership is hence bound to receive the text
according to their own expectations, and translation is necessarily a relativist form of
‘manipulation’ (Hermans, 1985), ‘mediation’ (Katan, 1999, 2004) or ‘refraction’
(Lefevere, 1982, 2004) between two different linguacultures” (Agar, 1994).
‫ ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺮاء ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﺗﺘﻠﻘﻰ اﻟﻨﺺ وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻔﺎوض ﻋﻠﯿﮫ اﻟﻘﺮاء ﻋﺒﺮ ﺳﯿﺎﻗﺎﺗﮭﻢ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫( أو "اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻂ" )ﻛﺎﺗﺎن‬1985 ‫ واﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮورة ﺷﻜﻞ ﻧﺴﺒﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺷﻜﻞ اﻟﺘﻼﻋﺐ "اﻟﺪﻣﺞ" )ھﯿﺮﻣﺎﻧﺰ‬،‫اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ‬
.(1994 ‫( ﺑﯿﻦ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺘﯿﻦ ﻟﻐﻮﯾﺘﯿﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺘﯿﻦ )أﺟﺎر‬1982/2004 ‫( أو "اﻧﺤﺮاف اﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ") ﻟﻮﻓﯿﻔﺮ‬1999/2004
This section is interested in the cohesion level and connectedness in translation.
In some situations, the translator tries to connect the previous ideas with the upcoming
flow of ideas. Whether equivalents exist or not, a word that relates to the intended
meaning is a good alternative. Here, the term “linguacultures” is another compounded
term in English that has no Arabic equivalent in the dictionary. As the chapter focuses
heavily on culture and communication between languages, linguaculture is a term
describing different cultural dimensions of a language. To solve the equation, the
Arabic translation chosen was “‫”ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺘﯿﻦ ﻟﻐﻮﯾﯿﺘﯿﻦ‬. This choice conveys the meaning and
links with the idea of what has been previously presented. The aim of the cohesion level
is to link various parts of the text and help the readers connect the words and sentences,
while allowing them to flow with the mood of the text.

79
 Chapter 5: Conclusion
The general view of translation is transferring information from one language
to another language. However, the in-depth view of translation, in the discourse of
intercultural communication, is transferring information with the addition of conceptual
cultural baggage that includes a set of beliefs, values, norms, history, religion, and other
factors that form a society, community, or a nation. The intercultural communication
analysis presented here reveals that intercultural communication takes place in almost
all translation transactions. The idea of dealing with language “A” and transferring it to
language “B” in any discourse includes the exchange of cultural ideologies from
language “A” to a transparent and natural translation in language “B”. Where language
“A” was written according to a certain linguistic form relating to a specific culture, the
translation to language “B” carried non-existent ideologies to be introduced to language
“B” following its set of linguistic forms. This interpretation of intercultural
communication implies that the translation process includes a major exchange between
two sets of languages, forms and cultures.
Translation for intercultural communication is a dense and rich topic.
Translating concepts and the detailed ideologies, philosophies, and conceptual terms
are challenging, as the translation should be comprehended by the target language
speakers. The challenges faced during the journey of this thesis were twofold:
translating a scholarly/academic text that discusses intercultural theories and
philosophies in translation in such a way as to provide a complete understanding
without confusing the TT reader; and providing the reader with an adequate amount of
knowledge. Thus, two vital elements needed to be considered: firstly, that this area of
study could be new to the TT reader; and secondly, that the translated text can be a
reference to any student interested in intercultural communication and translation. This
area of study is one of the most interesting aspects of translation as it allows translators
to express their thoughts, elaborate on, and provide examples that relate to translation
theories. This translation experience exposed me to various cultural ideologies that
allowed me to develop the ability to translate different terms with confidence. In order
to do this, the translator must evaluate each contextual situation and not take any final
translation for granted from the first trial attempt. Rather, with further discussion,
practice, and in-depth reading, the translator will always find another fulfilling and
approximate translation that will do justice to the target text. The translator’s role is to
articulately portray the final translation and be able to summarize what has been
80
 presented without looking at the original source text. This exercise determines the
translator’s level of understanding of the source text and enhances cognitive and
linguistic proficiency. Procedures that should be taken into consideration before
translating are:
• Reading the source text for the first time to create a sense of understanding
• Reading the source text for the second time to categorize the field of study and be
able to reproduce it in the target language
• Using strategies and theories that justify and relate to the translation choices
By determining the type of text and analyzing it, the translator will be able to interpret
unfamiliar terminologies and rewrite any foreign concepts that are not present in the
target language.
In the translation of “Translation as Intercultural Communication”, chapter five
from The Routledge Companion to Translation, edited by Jeremy Munday, which is
categorized as a scholarly/academic text, the key solution to translate the ST was to
highlight uncommon terminologies and search for the terms or introduce them if they
were non-existent in the target language culture. Furthermore, these terms were inserted
into the target text. When translating to Arabic, cultural nuances or concepts cannot be
rewritten briefly or simplified as they are in the English language. Some concepts
required elaboration, in order to provide an adequate reproduction of the term or
sentence to reflect the original idea from the source text, to convey it to the target text
reader. In some instances, it was helpful to deal with some translations using the
“translator’s intuition” to avoid getting entangled in endless circles. While this has been
a rigorous attempt at translating David Katan’s chapter into Arabic, it must be conceded
that translation gaps might still prevail in the text. However, it is hoped that this
translation will be beneficial for future readers.

81
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 Vita
Isra Al Saabri, holds a Bachelor of Mass Communication with a specialization in
advertising, 2008. She has ten years of communication, marketing and graphic design
experience. She worked as a Marketing and Design Executive at Abu Dhabi
Motorsports Management (ADMM), Senior Marketing and Design Executive, and
currently works as a Photo Editor and Content Editor, at the Ministry of Presidential
Affairs, Abu Dhabi, UAE.

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