Bitumen

Bitumen (UK: /ˈbɪtjʊmɪn/, US: /bɪˈtjuːmən,

baɪ-/)[1] is an immensely viscous
constituent of petroleum. Depending on its
exact composition it can be a sticky, black
liquid or an apparently solid mass that
behaves as a liquid over very large time
scales. In the U.S., the material is
commonly referred to as asphalt. Whether
found in natural deposits or refined from
petroleum, the substance is classed as a
pitch.[2] Prior to the 20th century the term
asphaltum was in general use.[3] The word
derives from the ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος
ásphaltos, which referred to natural
bitumen or pitch. The largest natural
deposit of bitumen in the world, estimated
to contain 10 million tons, is the Pitch Lake
of southwest Trinidad.[4]

Natural bitumen from the Dead Sea

Refined bitumen
 The University of Queensland
pitch drop experiment,
demonstrating the viscosity
of bitumen

70% of annual bitumen production

destined for road construction, its primary
use.[5] In this application bitumen is used
to bind aggregate particles like gravel and
forms a substance referred to as asphalt
concrete, which is colloquially termed
asphalt. Its other main uses lie in
bituminous waterproofing products, such
as roofing felt and roof sealant.[6]
In material sciences and engineering the
terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often
used interchangeably and refer both to
natural and manufactured forms of the
substance, although there is regional
variation as to which term is most
common. Worldwide, geologists tend to
favor the term "bitumen" for the naturally
occurring material. For the manufactured
material, which is a refined residue from
the distillation process of selected crude
oils, "bitumen" is the prevalent term in
much of the world; however, in American
English, "asphalt" is more commonly used.
To help avoid confusion, the phrases
"liquid asphalt", "asphalt binder", or
"asphalt cement" are used in the U.S.
Colloquially, various forms of asphalt are
sometimes referred to as "tar", as in the
name of the La Brea Tar Pits.[7]

Naturally occurring bitumen is sometimes

specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its
viscosity is similar to that of cold
molasses[8][9] while the material obtained
from the fractional distillation of crude oil
boiling at 525 °C (977 °F) is sometimes
referred to as "refined bitumen". The
Canadian province of Alberta has most of
the world's reserves of natural bitumen in
the Athabasca oil sands, which cover
142,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi),
an area larger than England.[10]

Terminology

Etymology

The Latin word traces to the Proto-Indo-

European root *gʷet- "pitch"; see that link
for other cognates.

The expression "bitumen" originated in the

Sanskrit, where we find the words "jatu",
meaning "pitch", and "jatu-krit", meaning
"pitch creating", "pitch producing"
(referring to coniferous or resinous trees).
The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to
be originally "gwitu-men" (pertaining to
pitch), and by others, "pixtumens" (exuding
or bubbling pitch), which was
subsequently shortened to "bitumen",
thence passing via French into English.
From the same root is derived the Anglo
Saxon word "cwidu" (Mastix), the German
word "Kitt" (cement or mastic) and the old
Norse word "kvada".[11]

The word "ašphalt" is claimed to have been

derived from the Accadian term "asphaltu"
or "sphallo," meaning "to split." It was later
adopted by the Homeric Greeks in the
form of the adjective ἄσφαλἤς, ἐς
signifying "firm," "stable," "secure," and the
corresponding verb ἄσφαλίξω, ίσω
meaning "to make firm or stable," "to
secure".[11]

The word "asphalt" is derived from the late

Middle English, in turn from French
asphalte, based on Late Latin asphalton,
asphaltum, which is the latinisation of the
Greek ἄσφαλτος (ásphaltos, ásphalton), a
word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch",[12]
which perhaps derives from ἀ-, "not,
without", i.e. the alpha privative, and
σφάλλειν (sphallein), "to cause to fall,
baffle, (in passive) err, (in passive) be
balked of".[13]
The first use of asphalt by the ancients
was as a cement to secure or join various
objects, and it thus seems likely that the
name itself was expressive of this
application. Specifically, Herodotus
mentioned that bitumen was brought to
Babylon to build its gigantic fortification
wall.[14]

From the Greek, the word passed into late

Latin, and thence into French (asphalte)
and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt"). In
French, the term asphalte is used for
naturally occurring asphalt-soaked
limestone deposits, and for specialised
manufactured products with fewer voids
or greater bitumen content than the
"asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads.

Modern terminology

Bitumen mixed with clay was usually

called "asphaltum", but the term is less
commonly used today.[15]

In American English, "asphalt" is equivalent

to the British "bitumen". However, "asphalt"
is also commonly used as a shortened
form of "asphalt concrete" (therefore
equivalent to the British "asphalt" or
"tarmac").
In Canadian English, the word "bitumen" is
used to refer to the vast Canadian
deposits of extremely heavy crude oil,[16]
while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery
product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with
naphtha to make it flow in pipelines) is
known as "dilbit" in the Canadian
petroleum industry, while bitumen
"upgraded" to synthetic crude oil is known
as "syncrude", and syncrude blended with
bitumen is called "synbit".[17]

"Bitumen" is still the preferred geological

term for naturally occurring deposits of the
solid or semi-solid form of petroleum.
"Bituminous rock" is a form of sandstone
impregnated with bitumen. The oil sands
of Alberta, Canada are a similar material.

Neither of the terms "asphalt" or "bitumen"

should be confused with tar or coal tars.
Tar is the thick liquid product of the dry
distillation and pyrolysis of organic
hydrocarbons primarily sourced from
vegetation masses, whether fossilized as
with coal, or freshly harvested. The
majority of bitumen, on the other hand,
was formed naturally when vast quantities
of organic animal materials were
deposited by water and buried hundreds of
metres deep at the diagenetic point, where
the disorganized fatty hydrocarbon
molecules joined in long chains in the
absence of oxygen. Bitumen occurs as a
solid or highly viscous liquid. It may even
be mixed in with coal deposits. Bitumen,
and coal using the Bergius process, can be
refined into petrols such as gasoline, and
bitumen may be distilled into tar, not the
other way around.

Composition

Normal composition

The components of bitumen include four

main classes of compounds:
 Naphthene aromatics (naphthalene),
consisting of partially hydrogenated
polycyclic aromatic compounds
Polar aromatics, consisting of high
molecular weight phenols and
carboxylic acids produced by partial
oxidation of the material
Saturated hydrocarbons; the percentage
of saturated compounds in asphalt
correlates with its softening point
Asphaltenes, consisting of high
molecular weight phenols and
heterocyclic compounds

Bitumen typically contains, elementally

80% by weight of carbon; 10% hydrogen;
up to 6% sulfur; and molecularly, between
5 and 25% by weight of asphaltenes
dispersed in 90% to 65% maltenes.[18]
Most natural bitumens also contain
organosulfur compounds, Nickel and
vanadium are found at <10 parts per
million, as is typical of some petroleum.[6]
The substance is soluble in carbon
disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a
colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed
phase and maltenes as the continuous
phase.[19] "It is almost impossible to
separate and identify all the different
molecules of bitumen, because the
number of molecules with different
chemical structure is extremely large".[20]
Asphalt may be confused with coal tar,
which is a visually similar black,
thermoplastic material produced by the
destructive distillation of coal. During the
early and mid-20th century, when town gas
was produced, coal tar was a readily
available byproduct and extensively used
as the binder for road aggregates. The
addition of coal tar to macadam roads led
to the word "tarmac", which is now used in
common parlance to refer to road-making
materials. However, since the 1970s, when
natural gas succeeded town gas, bitumen
has completely overtaken the use of coal
tar in these applications. Other examples
of this confusion include La Brea Tar Pits
and the Canadian oil sands, both of which
actually contain natural bitumen rather
than tar. "Pitch" is another term sometimes
informally used at times to refer to
asphalt, as in Pitch Lake.

Additives, mixtures and contaminants

For economic and other reasons, bitumen

is sometimes sold combined with other
materials, often without being labeled as
anything other than simply "bitumen".[21]

Of particular note is the use of re-refined

engine oil bottoms – "REOB" or "REOBs" –
the residue of recycled automotive engine
oil collected from the bottoms of re-
refining vacuum distillation towers, in the
manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains
various elements and compounds found in
recycled engine oil: additives to the
original oil and materials accumulating
from its circulation in the engine (typically
iron and copper). Some research has
indicated a correlation between this
adulteration of bitumen and poorer-
performing pavement.[21]

Occurrence
 Bituminous outcrop of the
Puy de la Poix, Clermont-
Ferrand, France

The majority of bitumen used

commercially is obtained from
petroleum.[22] Nonetheless, large amounts
of bitumen occur in concentrated form in
nature. Naturally occurring deposits of
bitumen are formed from the remains of
ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and
other once-living things. These natural
deposits of bitumen have been formed
during the Carboniferous period, when
giant swamp forests dominated many
parts of the Earth.[23] They were deposited
in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or
lake where the organisms lived. Under the
heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial
deep in the earth, the remains were
transformed into materials such as
bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum.

Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes

such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and
Tobago and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela.
Natural seeps occur in the La Brea Tar Pits
and the McKittrick Tar Pits in California, as
well as in the Dead Sea.
Bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated
sandstones known as "oil sands" in
Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar
sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province
of Alberta has most of the world's
reserves, in three huge deposits covering
142,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi),
an area larger than England or New York
state. These bituminous sands contain
166 billion barrels (26.4 ×109 m3) of
commercially established oil reserves,
giving Canada the third largest oil reserves
in the world. Although historically it was
used without refining to pave roads, nearly
all of the output is now used as raw
material for oil refineries in Canada and
the United States.[10]

The world's largest deposit of natural

bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil
sands, is located in the McMurray
Formation of Northern Alberta. This
formation is from the early Cretaceous,
and is composed of numerous lenses of
oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil.[24]
Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to
be about 110 million years old.[25] Two
smaller but still very large formations
occur in the Peace River oil sands and the
Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and
southeast of the Athabasca oil sands,
respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only
parts of the Athabasca oil sands are
shallow enough to be suitable for surface
mining. The other 80% has to be produced
by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery
techniques like steam-assisted gravity
drainage.[26]

Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen

deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in
Utah, US. The Tar Sand Triangle deposit,
for example, is roughly 6% bitumen.[24]

Bitumen may occur in hydrothermal veins.

An example of this is within the Uinta
Basin of Utah, in the US, where there is a
swarm of laterally and vertically extensive
veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon
termed Gilsonite. These veins formed by
the polymerization and solidification of
hydrocarbons that were mobilized from
the deeper oil shales of the Green River
Formation during burial and diagenesis.[27]

Bitumen is similar to the organic matter in

carbonaceous meteorites.[28] However,
detailed studies have shown these
materials to be distinct.[29] The vast
Alberta bitumen resources are considered
to have started out as living material from
marine plants and animals, mainly algae,
that died millions of years ago when an
ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were
covered by mud, buried deeply over time,
and gently cooked into oil by geothermal
heat at a temperature of 50 to 150 °C (120
to 300 °F). Due to pressure from the rising
of the Rocky Mountains in southwestern
Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil
was driven northeast hundreds of
kilometres and trapped into underground
sand deposits left behind by ancient river
beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the
oil sands.[26]

History

Paleolithic times
The earliest estimated use of bitumen
dates back 40,000 years to the paleolithic
age in which Bitumen was used to adhere
handles onto primitive stone tools.[30]

Ancient times

The use of natural bitumen for

waterproofing, and as an adhesive dates
at least to the fifth millennium BC, with a
crop storage basket discovered in
Mehrgarh, of the Indus Valley civilization,
lined with it.[31] By the 3rd millennium BC
refined rock asphalt was in use in the
region, and was used to waterproof the
Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro.[32]
In the ancient Near East, the Sumerians
used natural bitumen deposits for mortar
between bricks and stones, to cement
parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place,
for ship caulking, and for waterproofing.[3]
The Greek historian Herodotus said hot
bitumen was used as mortar in the walls
of Babylon.[33]

The 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long Euphrates

Tunnel beneath the river Euphrates at
Babylon in the time of Queen Semiramis
(c. 800 BC) was reportedly constructed of
burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a
waterproofing agent.[3]
Bitumen was used by ancient Egyptians to
embalm mummies.[3][34] The Persian word
for asphalt is moom, which is related to
the English word mummy. The Egyptians'
primary source of bitumen was the Dead
Sea, which the Romans knew as Palus
Asphaltites (Asphalt Lake).

In approximately 40 AD, Dioscorides

described the Dead Sea material as
Judaicum bitumen, and noted other places
in the region where it could be found.[35]
The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to
material found at Hasbeya in Lebanon.[36]
Pliny also refers to bitumen being found in
Epirus. Bitumen was a valuable strategic
resource. It was the object of the first
known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit –
between the Seleucids and the Nabateans
in 312 BC.[37]

In the ancient Far East, natural bitumen

was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher
fractions, leaving a thermoplastic material
of higher molecular weight that, when
layered on objects, became hard upon
cooling. This was used to cover objects
that needed waterproofing,[3] such as
scabbards and other items. Statuettes of
household deities were also cast with this
type of material in Japan, and probably
also in China.
In North America, archaeological recovery
has indicated that bitumen was
sometimes used to adhere stone projectile
points to wooden shafts.[38] In Canada,
aboriginal people used bitumen seeping
out of the banks of the Athabasca and
other rivers to waterproof birch bark
canoes, and also heated it in smudge pots
to ward off mosquitoes in the summer.[26]

Continental Europe

In 1553, Pierre Belon described in his work

Observations that pissasphalto, a mixture
of pitch and bitumen, was used in the
Republic of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik,
Croatia) for tarring of ships.[39]

An 1838 edition of Mechanics Magazine

cites an early use of asphalt in France. A
pamphlet dated 1621, by "a certain
Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had
discovered the existence (of asphaltum) in
large quantities in the vicinity of
Neufchatel", and that he proposed to use it
in a variety of ways – "principally in the
construction of air-proof granaries, and in
protecting, by means of the arches, the
water-courses in the city of Paris from the
intrusion of dirt and filth", which at that
time made the water unusable. "He
expatiates also on the excellence of this
material for forming level and durable
terraces" in palaces, "the notion of forming
such terraces in the streets not one likely
to cross the brain of a Parisian of that
generation".[40]

But the substance was generally neglected

in France until the revolution of 1830. In
the 1830s there was a surge of interest,
and asphalt became widely used "for
pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of
cisterns, and in England, some use of it
had been made of it for similar purposes".
Its rise in Europe was "a sudden
phenomenon", after natural deposits were
found "in France at Osbann (Bas-Rhin), the
Parc (Ain) and the Puy-de-la-Poix (Puy-de-
Dôme)", although it could also be made
artificially.[41] One of the earliest uses in
France was the laying of about 24,000
square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the
Place de la Concorde in 1835.[42]

United Kingdom

Among the earlier uses of bitumen in the

United Kingdom was for etching. William
Salmon's Polygraphice (1673) provides a
recipe for varnish used in etching,
consisting of three ounces of virgin wax,
two ounces of mastic, and one ounce of
asphaltum.[43] By the fifth edition in 1685,
he had included more asphaltum recipes
from other sources.[44]

The first British patent for the use of

asphalt was "Cassell's patent asphalte or
bitumen" in 1834.[41] Then on 25
November 1837, Richard Tappin Claridge
patented the use of Seyssel asphalt
(patent #7849), for use in asphalte
pavement,[45][46] having seen it employed
in France and Belgium when visiting with
Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with
him on the introduction of asphalt to
Britain.[47][48] Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes
that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a
friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental
in introducing the asphalte pavement (in
1836)".[49]

Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland on

27 March 1838, and obtained a patent in
Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851,
extensions for the 1837 patent and for
both 1838 patents were sought by the
trustees of a company previously formed
by Claridge.[41][50][51][52] Claridge's Patent
Asphalte Company – formed in 1838 for
the purpose of introducing to Britain
"Asphalte in its natural state from the mine
at Pyrimont Seysell in France",[53] – "laid
one of the first asphalt pavements in
Whitehall".[54] Trials were made of the
pavement in 1838 on the footway in
Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge
Barracks,[53][55] "and subsequently on the
space at the bottom of the steps leading
from Waterloo Place to St. James
Park".[55] "The formation in 1838 of
Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with
a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons,
and Marc and Isambard Brunel as,
respectively, a trustee and consulting
engineer), gave an enormous impetus to
the development of a British asphalt
industry".[51] "By the end of 1838, at least
two other companies, Robinson's and the
Bastenne company, were in production",[56]
with asphalt being laid as paving at
Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury,
Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor
area in Bunhill-row, while meantime
Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue(d) in
good order".[57] The Bonnington Chemical
Works manufactured asphalt using coal
tar and by 1839 had installed it in
Bonnington.[58]

In 1838, there was a flurry of

entrepreneurial activity involving bitumen,
which had uses beyond paving. For
example, bitumen could also be used for
flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and
for waterproofing of various types of pools
and baths, both of which were also
proliferating in the 19th century.[3][41][59]
One of the earliest surviving examples of
its use can be seen at Highgate Cemetery
where it was used in 1839 to seal the roof
of the terrace catacombs. On the London
stockmarket, there were various claims as
to the exclusivity of bitumen quality from
France, Germany and England. And
numerous patents were granted in France,
with similar numbers of patent
applications being denied in England due
to their similarity to each other. In England,
"Claridge's was the type most used in the
1840s and 50s".[56]
In 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a
joint venture to produce tar-bound
macadam,[60] with materials manufactured
through a subsidiary company called
Clarmac Roads Ltd.[61] Two products
resulted, namely Clarmac, and Clarphalte,
with the former being manufactured by
Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's
Patent Asphalte Co., although Clarmac
was more widely used.[62][note 1] However,
the First World War ruined the Clarmac
Company, which entered into liquidation in
1915.[64][65] The failure of Clarmac Roads
Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's
Company, which was itself compulsorily
wound up,[66] ceasing operations in
1917,[67][68] having invested a substantial
amount of funds into the new venture,
both at the outset[66] and in a subsequent
attempt to save the Clarmac Company.[64]

Bitumen was thought in 19th century

Britain to contain chemicals with
medicinal properties. Extracts from
bitumen were used to treat catarrh and
some forms of asthma and as a remedy
against worms, especially the
tapeworm.[69]

United States
The first use of bitumen in the New World
was by aboriginal peoples. On the west
coast, as early as the 13th century, the
Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples
collected the naturally occurring bitumen
that seeped to the surface above
underlying petroleum deposits. All three
groups used the substance as an
adhesive. It is found on many different
artifacts of tools and ceremonial items.
For example, it was used on rattles to
adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle
handles. It was also used in decorations.
Small round shell beads were often set in
asphaltum to provide decorations. It was
used as a sealant on baskets to make
them watertight for carrying water,
possibly poisoning those who drank the
water.[70] Asphalt was used also to seal
the planks on ocean-going canoes.

Asphalt was first used to pave streets in

the 1870s. At first naturally occurring
"bituminous rock" was used, such as at
Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie
County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873.
In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to
pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington
DC, in time for the celebration of the
national centennial.[71]
In the horse-drawn era, US streets were
mostly unpaved and covered with dirt or
gravel. Especially where mud or trenching
often made streets difficult to pass,
pavements were sometimes made of
diverse materials including wooden
planks, cobble stones or other stone
blocks, or bricks. Unpaved roads produced
uneven wear and hazards for pedestrians.
In the late 19th century with the rise of the
popular bicycle, bicycle clubs were
important in pushing for more general
pavement of streets.[72] Advocacy for
pavement increased in the early 20th
century with the rise of the automobile.
Asphalt gradually became an ever more
common method of paving. St. Charles
Avenue in New Orleans was paved its
whole length with asphalt by 1889.[73]

In 1900, Manhattan alone had 130,000

horses, pulling streetcars, wagons, and
carriages, and leaving their waste behind.
They were not fast, and pedestrians could
dodge and scramble their way across the
crowded streets. Small towns continued to
rely on dirt and gravel, but larger cities
wanted much better streets. They looked
to wood or granite blocks by the 1850s.[74]
In 1890, a third of Chicago's 2000 miles of
streets were paved, chiefly with wooden
blocks, which gave better traction than
mud. Brick surfacing was a good
compromise, but even better was asphalt
paving, which was easy to install and to
cut through to get at sewers. With London
and Paris serving as models, Washington
laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt
paving by 1882; it became the model for
Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By
the end of the century, American cities
boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt
paving, well ahead of brick.[75] The streets
became faster and more dangerous so
electric traffic lights were installed. Electric
trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the
main transportation service for middle
class shoppers and office workers until
they bought automobiles after 1945 and
commuted from more distant suburbs in
privacy and comfort on asphalt
highways.[76]

Canada

Canada has the world's largest deposit of

natural bitumen in the Athabasca oil
sands, and Canadian First Nations along
the Athabasca River had long used it to
waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a Cree
named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for
trade to Henry Kelsey of the Hudson's Bay
Company, who was the first recorded
European to see it. However, it wasn't until
1787 that fur trader and explorer
Alexander MacKenzie saw the Athabasca
oil sands and said, "At about 24 miles from
the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater
Rivers) are some bituminous fountains
into which a pole of 20 feet long may be
inserted without the least resistance."[26]

The value of the deposit was obvious from

the start, but the means of extracting the
bitumen was not. The nearest town, Fort
McMurray, Alberta, was a small fur trading
post, other markets were far away, and
transportation costs were too high to ship
the raw bituminous sand for paving. In
1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines
Branch experimented with separation
techniques and used the product to pave
600 feet of road in Edmonton, Alberta.
Other roads in Alberta were paved with
material extracted from oil sands, but it
was generally not economic. During the
1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta
Research Council patented a hot water oil
separation process and entrepreneur
Robert C. Fitzsimmons[77] built the
Bitumount oil separation plant, which
between 1925 and 1958 produced up to
300 barrels (50 m3) per day of bitumen
using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the
bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs,
but other uses included fuels, lubrication
oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-
proof paints, fireproof roofing, street
paving, patent leather, and fence post
preservatives.[26] Eventually Fitzsimmons
ran out of money and the plant was taken
over by the Alberta government. Today the
Bitumount plant is a Provincial Historic
Site.[78]

Photography and art

Bitumen was used in early photographic

technology. In 1826, or 1827, it was used
by French scientist Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce to make the oldest surviving
photograph from nature. The bitumen was
thinly coated onto a pewter plate which
was then exposed in a camera. Exposure
to light hardened the bitumen and made it
insoluble, so that when it was
subsequently rinsed with a solvent only
the sufficiently light-struck areas
remained. Many hours of exposure in the
camera were required, making bitumen
impractical for ordinary photography, but
from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in
common use as a photoresist in the
production of printing plates for various
photomechanical printing processes.[79][80]

Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists

during the 19th century. Although widely
used for a time, it ultimately proved
unstable for use in oil painting, especially
when mixed with the most common
diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and
turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted,
bitumen never fully solidifies and will in
time corrupt the other pigments with
which it comes into contact. The use of
bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or
mixed with other colors to render a darker
tone resulted in the eventual deterioration
of many paintings, for instance those of
Delacroix. Perhaps the most famous
example of the destructiveness of bitumen
is Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa
(1818–1819), where his use of bitumen
caused the brilliant colors to degenerate
into dark greens and blacks and the paint
and canvas to buckle.[81]

Modern use

Global use

The vast majority of refined bitumen is

used in construction: primarily as a
constituent of products used in paving and
roofing applications. According to the
requirements of the end use, bitumen is
produced to specification. This is achieved
either by refining or blending. It is
estimated that the current world use of
bitumen is approximately 102 million
tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all
the bitumen produced is used as the
binder in asphalt concrete for roads. It is
also used in other paved areas such as
airport runways, car parks and footways.
Typically, the production of asphalt
concrete involves mixing fine and coarse
aggregates such as sand, gravel and
crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as
the binding agent. Other materials, such as
recycled polymers (e.g., rubber tyres), may
be added to the bitumen to modify its
properties according to the application for
which the bitumen is ultimately intended.
A further 10% of global bitumen
production is used in roofing applications,
where its waterproofing qualities are
invaluable. The remaining 5% of bitumen is
used mainly for sealing and insulating
purposes in a variety of building materials,
such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing
and paint. Bitumen is applied in the
construction and maintenance of many
structures, systems, and components,
such as the following:

Highways
Airport runways
Footways and pedestrian ways
Car parks
Racetracks
Tennis courts
Roofing
Damp proofing
Dams
Reservoir and pool linings
Soundproofing
Pipe coatings
Cable coatings
Paints
Building water proofing
Tile underlying waterproofing
Newspaper ink production
and many other applications
Rolled asphalt concrete

The largest use of bitumen is for making

asphalt concrete for road surfaces; this
accounts for approximately 85% of the
bitumen consumed in the United States.
There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete
mixing plants in the US, and a similar
number in Europe.[82]

Asphalt concrete is usually placed on

top in a road.

Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are

typically composed of 5% bitumen (known
as asphalt cement in the US) and 95%
aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due
to its highly viscous nature, bitumen must
be heated so it can be mixed with the
aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility.
The temperature required varies
depending upon characteristics of the
bitumen and the aggregates, but warm-mix
asphalt technologies allow producers to
reduce the temperature required.[82][21]

The weight of an asphalt pavement

depends upon the aggregate type, the
bitumen, and the air void content. An
average example in the United States is
about 112 pounds per square yard, per
inch of pavement thickness.[21]
When maintenance is performed on
asphalt pavements, such as milling to
remove a worn or damaged surface, the
removed material can be returned to a
facility for processing into new pavement
mixtures. The bitumen in the removed
material can be reactivated and put back
to use in new pavement mixes.[83] With
some 95% of paved roads being
constructed of or surfaced with asphalt,[84]
a substantial amount of asphalt pavement
material is reclaimed each year. According
to industry surveys conducted annually by
the Federal Highway Administration and
the National Asphalt Pavement
Association, more than 99% of the
bitumen removed each year from road
surfaces during widening and resurfacing
projects is reused as part of new
pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and
embankments or stockpiled for future
use.[85]

Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in

airports around the world. Due to the
sturdiness and ability to be repaired
quickly, it is widely used for runways.

Mastic asphalt

Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt that

differs from dense graded asphalt (asphalt
concrete) in that it has a higher bitumen
(binder) content, usually around 7–10% of
the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to
rolled asphalt concrete, which has only
around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic
substance is widely used in the building
industry for waterproofing flat roofs and
tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is
heated to a temperature of 210 °C (410 °F)
and is spread in layers to form an
impervious barrier about 20 millimeters
(0.8 inches) thick.

Bitumen emulsion
 Volume-weighted particle size
distribution of 2 different asphalt
emulsions determined by laser
diffraction

Bitumen emulsions are colloidal mixtures

of bitumen and water. Due to the different
surface tensions of the two liquids, stable
emulsions cannot be created simply by
mixing. Therefore, various emulsifiers and
stabilizers are added. Emulsifiers are
amphiphilic molecules that differ in the
charge of their polar head group. They
reduce the surface tension of the emulsion
and thus prevent bitumen particles from
fusing. The emulsifier charge defines the
type of emulsion: anionic (negatively
charged) and cationic (positively
charged).[86] The concentration of an
emulsifier is a critical parameter affecting
the size of the bitumen particles—higher
concentrations lead to smaller bitumen
particles.[86] Thus, emulsifiers have a great
impact on the stability, viscosity, breaking
strength, and adhesion of the bitumen
emulsion.[86] The size of bitumen particles
is usually between 0.1 and 50 µm with a
main fraction between 1 µm and 10 µm.
Laser diffraction techniques can be used
to determine the particle size distribution
quickly and easily.[86][87] Cationic
emulsifiers primarily include long-chain
amines such as imidazolines, amido-
amines, and diamines, which acquire a
positive charge when an acid is added.[86]
Anionic emulsifiers are often fatty acids
extracted from lignin, tall oil, or tree resin
saponified with bases such as NaOH,
which creates a negative charge.[86]

During the storage of bitumen emulsions,

bitumen particles sediment, agglomerate
(flocculation), or fuse (coagulation), which
leads to a certain instability of the bitumen
emulsion. How fast this process occurs
depends on the formulation of the bitumen
emulsion but also storage conditions such
as temperature and humidity. When
emulsified bitumen gets into contact with
aggregates, emulsifiers lose their
effectiveness, the emulsion breaks down,
and an adhering bitumen film is formed
referred to as 'breaking'. Bitumen particles
almost instantly create a continuous
bitumen film by coagulating and
separating from water which evaporates.
Not each asphalt emulsion reacts as fast
as the other when it gets into contact with
aggregates. That enables a classification
into Rapid-setting (R), Slow-setting (SS),
and Medium-setting (MS) emulsions, but
also an individual, application-specific
optimization of the formulation and a wide
field of application[86] (1). For example,
Slow-breaking emulsions ensure a longer
processing time which is particularly
advantageous for fine aggregates[86] (1).

Adhesion problems are reported for

anionic emulsions in contact with quartz-
rich aggregates. They are substituted by
cationic emulsions achieving better
adhesion. The extensive range of bitumen
emulsions is covered insufficiently by
standardization. DIN EN 13808 for cationic
asphalt emulsions has been existing since
July 2005. Here, a classification of
bitumen emulsions based on letters and
numbers is described, considering
charges, viscosities, and the type of
bitumen.[86] The production process of
bitumen emulsions is very complex. Two
methods are commonly used, the "Colloid
mill" method and the "High Internal Phase
Ratio (HIPR)" method.[86] In the "Colloid
mill" method, a rotor moves at high speed
within a stator by adding bitumen and a
water-emulsifier mixture. The resulting
shear forces generate bitumen particles
between 5 µm and 10 µm coated with
emulsifiers.[86] The "High Internal Phase
Ratio (HIPR)" method is used for creating
smaller bitumen particles, monomodal,
narrow particle size distributions, and very
high bitumen concentrations. Here, a
highly concentrated bitumen emulsion is
produced first by moderate stirring and
diluted afterward. In contrast to the
"Colloid-Mill" method, the aqueous phase
is introduced into hot bitumen, enabling
very high bitumen concentrations.[86]

T The "High Internal Phase Ratio (HIPR)"

method is used for creating smaller
bitumen particles, monomodal, narrow
particle size distributions, and very high
bitumen concentrations. Here, a highly
concentrated bitumen emulsion is
produced first by moderate stirring and
diluted afterward. In contrast to the
"Colloid-Mill" method, the aqueous phase
is introduced into hot bitumen, enabling
very high bitumen concentrations (1).he
"High Internal Phase Ratio (HIPR)" method
is used for creating smaller bitumen
particles, monomodal, narrow particle size
distributions, and very high bitumen
concentrations. Here, a highly
concentrated bitumen emulsion is
produced first by moderate stirring and
diluted afterward. In contrast to the
"Colloid-Mill" method, the aqueous phase
is introduced into hot bitumen, enabling
very high bitumen concentrations (1).

Bitumen emulsions are used in a wide

variety of applications. They are used in
road construction and building protection
and primarily include the application in
cold recycling mixtures, adhesive coating,
and surface treatment (1). Due to the
lower viscosity in comparison to hot
bitumen, processing requires less energy
and is associated with significantly less
risk of fire and burns.[86] Chipseal involves
spraying the road surface with bitumen
emulsion followed by a layer of crushed
rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal is
a mixture of bitumen emulsion and fine
crushed aggregate that is spread on the
surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can
also be made from bitumen emulsion to
create pavements similar to hot-mixed
asphalt, several inches in depth, and
bitumen emulsions are also blended into
recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-
cost pavements. Bitumen emulsion based
techniques are known to be useful for all
classes of roads, their use may also be
possible in the following applications: 1.
Asphalts for heavily trafficked roads
(based on the use of polymer modified
emulsions) 2. Warm emulsion based
mixtures, to improve both their maturation
time and mechanical properties 3. Half-
warm technology, in which aggregates are
heated up to 100 degrees, producing
mixtures with similar properties to those
of hot asphalts 4. High performance
surface dressing.[88]
Synthetic crude oil

Synthetic crude oil, also known as

syncrude, is the output from a bitumen
upgrader facility used in connection with
oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous
sands are mined using enormous (100-ton
capacity) power shovels and loaded into
even larger (400-ton capacity) dump
trucks for movement to an upgrading
facility. The process used to extract the
bitumen from the sand is a hot water
process originally developed by Dr. Karl
Clark of the University of Alberta during
the 1920s. After extraction from the sand,
the bitumen is fed into a bitumen upgrader
which converts it into a light crude oil
equivalent. This synthetic substance is
fluid enough to be transferred through
conventional oil pipelines and can be fed
into conventional oil refineries without any
further treatment. By 2015 Canadian
bitumen upgraders were producing over 1
million barrels (160 ×103 m3) per day of
synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was
exported to oil refineries in the United
States.[89]

In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce

synthetic crude oil and a variety of other
products: The Suncor Energy upgrader
near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces
synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the
Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural
Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort
McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and
the Shell Scotford Upgrader near
Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil
plus an intermediate feedstock for the
nearby Shell Oil Refinery.[90] A sixth
upgrader, under construction in 2015 near
Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its
crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with
the remainder of the output being sold as
feedstock to nearby oil refineries and
petrochemical plants.[91]
Non-upgraded crude bitumen

Canadian bitumen does not differ

substantially from oils such as Venezuelan
extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in
chemical composition, and the real
difficulty is moving the extremely viscous
bitumen through oil pipelines to the
refinery. Many modern oil refineries are
extremely sophisticated and can process
non-upgraded bitumen directly into
products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and
refined asphalt without any preprocessing.
This is particularly common in areas such
as the US Gulf coast, where refineries were
designed to process Venezuelan and
Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US
Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to
process heavy oil as domestic light oil
production declined. Given the choice,
such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to
buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil
because the cost is lower, and in some
cases because they prefer to produce
more diesel fuel and less gasoline.[90] By
2015 Canadian production and exports of
non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of
synthetic crude oil at over 1.3 million
barrels (210 ×103 m3) per day, of which
about 65% was exported to the United
States.[89]
Because of the difficulty of moving crude
bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded
bitumen is usually diluted with natural-gas
condensate in a form called dilbit or with
synthetic crude oil, called synbit. However,
to meet international competition, much
non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a
blend of multiple grades of bitumen,
conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil,
and condensate in a standardized
benchmark product such as Western
Canadian Select. This sour, heavy crude oil
blend is designed to have uniform refining
characteristics to compete with
internationally marketed heavy oils such
as Mexican Mayan or Arabian Dubai
Crude.[90]

Radioactive waste encapsulation

matrix

Bitumen was used starting in the 1960s as

a hydrophobic matrix aiming to
encapsulate radioactive waste such as
medium-activity salts (mainly soluble
sodium nitrate and sodium sulfate)
produced by the reprocessing of spent
nuclear fuels or radioactive sludges from
sedimentation ponds.[92][93] Bituminised
radioactive waste containing highly
radiotoxic alpha-emitting transuranic
elements from nuclear reprocessing
plants have been produced at industrial
scale in France, Belgium and Japan, but
this type of waste conditioning has been
abandoned because operational safety
issues (risks of fire, as occurred in a
bituminisation plant at Tokai Works in
Japan)[94][95] and long-term stability
problems related to their geological
disposal in deep rock formations. One of
the main problems is the swelling of
bitumen exposed to radiation and to water.
Bitumen swelling is first induced by
radiation because of the presence of
hydrogen gas bubbles generated by alpha
and gamma radiolysis.[96][97] A second
mechanism is the matrix swelling when
the encapsulated hygroscopic salts
exposed to water or moisture start to
rehydrate and to dissolve. The high
concentration of salt in the pore solution
inside the bituminised matrix is then
responsible for osmotic effects inside the
bituminised matrix. The water moves in
the direction of the concentrated salts, the
bitumen acting as a semi-permeable
membrane. This also causes the matrix to
swell. The swelling pressure due to
osmotic effect under constant volume can
be as high as 200 bar. If not properly
managed, this high pressure can cause
fractures in the near field of a disposal
gallery of bituminised medium-level waste.
When the bituminised matrix has been
altered by swelling, encapsulated
radionuclides are easily leached by the
contact of ground water and released in
the geosphere. The high ionic strength of
the concentrated saline solution also
favours the migration of radionuclides in
clay host rocks. The presence of
chemically reactive nitrate can also affect
the redox conditions prevailing in the host
rock by establishing oxidizing conditions,
preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive
radionuclides. Under their higher valences,
radionuclides of elements such as
selenium, technetium, uranium, neptunium
and plutonium have a higher solubility and
are also often present in water as non-
retarded anions. This makes the disposal
of medium-level bituminised waste very
challenging.

Different types of bitumen have been used:

blown bitumen (partly oxidized with air
oxygen at high temperature after
distillation, and harder) and direct
distillation bitumen (softer). Blown
bitumens like Mexphalte, with a high
content of saturated hydrocarbons, are
more easily biodegraded by
microorganisms than direct distillation
bitumen, with a low content of saturated
hydrocarbons and a high content of
aromatic hydrocarbons.[98]

Concrete encapsulation of radwaste is

presently considered a safer alternative by
the nuclear industry and the waste
management organisations.

Other uses

Roofing shingles and roll roofing account

for most of the remaining bitumen
consumption. Other uses include cattle
sprays, fence-post treatments, and
waterproofing for fabrics. Bitumen is used
to make Japan black, a lacquer known
especially for its use on iron and steel, and
it is also used in paint and marker inks by
some exterior paint supply companies to
increase the weather resistance and
permanence of the paint or ink, and to
make the color darker. Bitumen is also
used to seal some alkaline batteries
during the manufacturing process.

Production

Typical asphalt plant for making

asphalt
About 40,000,000 tons were produced in
1984. It is obtained as the "heavy" (i.e.,
difficult to distill) fraction. Material with a
boiling point greater than around 500 °C is
considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation
separates it from the other components in
crude oil (such as naphtha, gasoline and
diesel). The resulting material is typically
further treated to extract small but
valuable amounts of lubricants and to
adjust the properties of the material to suit
applications. In a de-asphalting unit, the
crude bitumen is treated with either
propane or butane in a supercritical phase
to extract the lighter molecules, which are
then separated. Further processing is
possible by "blowing" the product: namely
reacting it with oxygen. This step makes
the product harder and more viscous.[6]

NYC Internet Provider, Stealth

Communications, Laying Down
Asphalt over Fiber-Optic Trench

Bitumen is typically stored and transported

at temperatures around 150 °C (302 °F).
Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are
mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity;
upon delivery, these lighter materials are
separated out of the mixture. This mixture
is often called "bitumen feedstock", or
BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot
engine exhaust through pipes in the dump
body to keep the material warm. The
backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well
as some handling equipment, are also
commonly sprayed with a releasing agent
before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no
longer used as a release agent due to
environmental concerns.

Oil sands

Naturally occurring crude bitumen

impregnated in sedimentary rock is the
prime feed stock for petroleum production
from "oil sands", currently under
development in Alberta, Canada. Canada
has most of the world's supply of natural
bitumen, covering 140,000 square
kilometres[16] (an area larger than
England), giving it the second-largest
proven oil reserves in the world. The
Athabasca oil sands are the largest
bitumen deposit in Canada and the only
one accessible to surface mining, although
recent technological breakthroughs have
resulted in deeper deposits becoming
producible by in situ methods. Because of
oil price increases after 2003, producing
bitumen became highly profitable, but as a
result of the decline after 2014 it became
uneconomic to build new plants again. By
2014, Canadian crude bitumen production
averaged about 2.3 million barrels
(370,000 m3) per day and was projected to
rise to 4.4 million barrels (700,000 m3) per
day by 2020.[17] The total amount of crude
bitumen in Alberta that could be extracted
is estimated to be about 310 billion barrels
(50 ×109 m3),[10] which at a rate of
4,400,000 barrels per day (700,000 m3/d)
would last about 200 years.

Alternatives and bioasphalt

Although uncompetitive economically,

bitumen can be made from nonpetroleum-
based renewable resources such as sugar,
molasses and rice, corn and potato
starches. Bitumen can also be made from
waste material by fractional distillation of
used motor oil, which is sometimes
otherwise disposed of by burning or
dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil
may cause premature cracking in colder
climates, resulting in roads that need to be
repaved more frequently.[99]

Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can

be made light-colored. Lighter-colored
roads absorb less heat from solar
radiation, reducing their contribution to the
urban heat island effect.[100] Parking lots
that use bitumen alternatives are called
green parking lots.
Albanian deposits

Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid

hydrocarbon bitumen found in native
deposits in Selenice, in Albania, the only
European asphalt mine still in use. The
bitumen is found in the form of veins,
filling cracks in a more or less horizontal
direction. The bitumen content varies from
83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide),
with a penetration value near to zero and a
softening point (ring and ball) around
120 °C. The insoluble matter, consisting
mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to
17%.
Albanian bitumen extraction has a long
history and was practiced in an organized
way by the Romans. After centuries of
silence, the first mentions of Albanian
bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the
Frenchman Coquand published the first
geological description of the deposits of
Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation
rights were granted to the Ottoman
government and in 1912, they were
transferred to the Italian company Simsa.
Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the
Albanian government and from 2001 to
date, the management passed to a French
company, which organized the mining
process for the manufacture of the natural
bitumen on an industrial scale.[101]

Today the mine is predominantly exploited

in an open pit quarry but several of the
many underground mines (deep and
extending over several km) still remain
viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in
granular form, after melting the bitumen
pieces selected in the mine.

Selenizza[102] is mainly used as an additive

in the road construction sector. It is mixed
with traditional bitumen to improve both
the viscoelastic properties and the
resistance to ageing. It may be blended
with the hot bitumen in tanks, but its
granular form allows it to be fed in the
mixer or in the recycling ring of normal
asphalt plants. Other typical applications
include the production of mastic asphalts
for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban
roads as well as drilling fluid additives for
the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is
available in powder or in granular material
of various particle sizes and is packaged
in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene
bags.

A life-cycle assessment study of the

natural selenizza compared with
petroleum bitumen has shown that the
environmental impact of the selenizza is
about half the impact of the road asphalt
produced in oil refineries in terms of
carbon dioxide emission.[103]

Recycling
Bitumen is a commonly recycled material
in the construction industry. The two most
common recycled materials that contain
bitumen are reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP) and reclaimed asphalt shingles
(RAS). RAP is recycled at a greater rate
than any other material in the United
States,[104] and typically contains
approximately 5–6% bitumen binder.
Asphalt shingles typically contain 20–40%
bitumen binder.[105]

Bitumen naturally becomes stiffer over

time due to oxidation, evaporation,
exudation, and physical hardening.[106] For
this reason, recycled asphalt is typically
combined with virgin asphalt, softening
agents, and/or rejuvenating additives to
restore its physical and chemical
properties.[107]

Economics
Although bitumen typically makes up only
4 to 5 percent (by weight) of the pavement
mixture, as the pavement's binder, it is also
the most expensive part of the cost of the
road-paving material.[21]

During bitumen's early use in modern

paving, oil refiners gave it away. However,
bitumen is a highly traded commodity
today. Its prices increased substantially in
the early 21st Century. A U.S. government
report states:

"In 2002, asphalt sold for approximately

$160 per ton. By the end of 2006, the
cost had doubled to approximately $320
per ton, and then it almost doubled
again in 2012 to approximately $610 per
ton."[21]
The report indicates that an "average" 1-
mile (1.6-kilometer)-long, four-lane
highway would include "300 tons of
asphalt," which, "in 2002 would have cost
around $48,000. By 2006 this would have
increased to $96,000 and by 2012 to
$183,000... an increase of about $135,000
for every mile of highway in just 10
years."[21]

Health and safety

An asphalt mixing plant for hot

aggregate
People can be exposed to bitumen in the
workplace by breathing in fumes or skin
absorption. The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
has set a recommended exposure limit of
5 mg/m3 over a 15-minute period.[108]

Bitumen is basically an inert material that

must be heated or diluted to a point where
it becomes workable for the production of
materials for paving, roofing, and other
applications. In examining the potential
health hazards associated with bitumen,
the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) determined that it is the
application parameters, predominantly
temperature, that affect occupational
exposure and the potential bioavailable
carcinogenic hazard/risk of the bitumen
emissions.[109] In particular, temperatures
greater than 199 °C (390 °F), were shown
to produce a greater exposure risk than
when bitumen was heated to lower
temperatures, such as those typically used
in asphalt pavement mix production and
placement.[110] IARC has classified paving
asphalt fumes as a Class 2B possible
carcinogen, indicating inadequate
evidence of carcinogenicity in humans.[109]

In 2020, scientists reported that bitumen

currently is a significant and largely
overlooked source of air pollution in urban
areas, especially during hot and sunny
periods.[111][112]

A bitumen-like substance found in the

Himalayas and known as shilajit is
sometimes used as an Ayurveda medicine,
but is not in fact a tar, resin or bitumen.[113]

See also
Asphalt plant
Asphaltene
Bioasphalt
Bitumen-based fuel
Bituminous rocks
 Blacktop
Cariphalte
Duxit
Macadam
Oil sands
Pitch drop experiment
Pitch (resin)
Road surface
Tar
Tarmac
Sealcoat
Stamped asphalt

Notes
 1. The Building News and Engineering Journal
contains photographs of the following
roads where Clarmac was used, being
"some amongst many laid with 'Clarmac' ":
Scott's Lane, Beckenham; Dorset Street,
Marylebone; Lordswood Road, Birmingham;
Hearsall Lane, Coventry; Valkyrie Avenue,
Westcliff-on-Sea; and Lennard Road,
Penge.[63]

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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Asphalt.
Look up asphalt in Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
Redwood, Boverton (1911). "Asphalt" (h
ttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Ency
clop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Asphalt) .
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2
(11th ed.). p. 768.
"Bitumen" (https://en.wikisource.org/wi
ki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C
3%A6dia/Bitumen) . New International
Encyclopedia. 1905.
International Chemical Safety Card 0612
(https://www.ilo.org/dyn/icsc/showcar
d.display?p_lang=en&p_card_id=0612&p
_version=2)
Pavement Interactive – Asphalt (http://p
avementinteractive.org/index.php?title=
Asphalt)
CSU Sacramento, The World Famous
Asphalt Museum! (http://ecs.csus.edu/
 ~gordonvs/asphalt/asphalt.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0070529224506/http://ecs.csus.edu/~g
ordonvs/asphalt/asphalt.html) 29 May
2007 at the Wayback Machine
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health – Asphalt Fumes (htt
ps://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/asphal
t/)
Scientific American, "Asphalt (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=YIE9AQAAIA
AJ&q=carbonic+oxide) ", 20-Aug-1881,
pp. 121

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