Class Notes 29309

Chemical Bonding | Chemistry | Visionlearning 6/11/21, 12:35 AM
Polarity and dipoles in

covalent molecules
Most covalent bonds are formed between atoms of
di!ering electronegativity , meaning that the shared
electrons are attracted to one atom within the bond
more than the other. As a result, the electrons tend to
spend more time at one end of the bond than the other.
This sets up what is known as a dipole , literally meaning
‘two poles’. One end of the bond is relatively positive
(less attraction for electrons), and one end of the bond
is relatively negative (more attraction for electrons). If
https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Chemistry/1/Chemical-Bonding/55 Page 15 of 21
this di!erence in electron a#nity exists across the

molecule , then the molecule is said to be polar –
meaning that it will have two di!erent, and opposite,
partial charges at either end. Water (H2O) is an
excellent example of a polar molecule . Electrons are
not shared evenly since hydrogen and oxygen have
di!erent electronegativities. This creates dipoles in each
H-O bond, and these dipoles do not cancel each other
out, leaving the water molecule polar overall (Figure 7).
(Read more about these bonds in our module
Properties of Liquids.)
"
Figure 7: In panel A, a molecule of water, H2O, is shown with

uneven electron sharing resulting in a partial negative charge
around the oxygen atom and partial positive charges around
the hydrogen atoms. In panel B, three H2O molecules interact
favorably, forming a dipole-dipole interaction between the
partial charges.
When the electrons in a bond are perfectly shared,

there is no dipole , and neither end of the bond carries
any partial charge . When no such overall charge exists,
the molecule is said to be non-polar. An example of
such a non-polar molecule is hydrogen, H2. In larger
molecules with multiple covalent bonds , each bond will
have either no dipole or a dipole with varying degrees of
partial charge. When all of these dipoles are taken into

consideration in three dimensions, the uneven
distribution of charge caused by the dipoles may cancel
out, making the molecule non-polar.
Alternatively, there may be a partial electrical charge

across the molecule , making it a polar molecule. An
example of a multiple atom non-polar molecule is
carbon dioxide. Electrons are not shared evenly across
the C=O bonds since carbon and oxygen have di!erent
electronegativities. This creates dipoles in each C=O
bond, but because these are aligned oppositely across a
linear molecule, with the oxygen atoms on either side of
the carbon atom, they cancel via symmetry to leave the
carbon dioxide molecule non-polar (Figure 8).
"
Figure 8: Electrons are not shared evenly across the C=O bonds
in CO2 and thus it contains two dipoles. Since these two dipoles
are opposite to one another across a linear molecule, they
cancel via symmetry to leave the carbon dioxide molecule non-
polar.
image © Molecule: FrankRamspott/iStockphoto
Other types of bonding and

the future
We have limited our discussion to ionic and covalent
bonding and the sliding scale of bond type that exists
between them. However, many other types of
interactions and bonds between atoms exist, notably
metallic bonding (the attractions that hold metal atoms
together in metallic elements), and intermolecular
forces (the interactions that exist between, rather than
within, covalently bonded molecules). These each
involve similar electrostatic interactions to the ones
described in ionic and covalent bonds , but even those
extensions are far from the end of the bonding story.
In 2014, researchers found the "rst experimental

evidence for a new type of interaction between atoms
that had been predicted in the 1980s (Fleming et al.,
2014). Named a "vibrational bond," the theory
describes a lightweight element (in this case, an
isotope of hydrogen) oscillating or "bouncing" between
two much heavier atoms (in this case, bromine) and
e!ectively holding the larger atoms together. Donald
Fleming, a chemist based at the University of British
Columbia in Canada, described the new bond as being
"like a Ping Pong ball bouncing between two bowling
balls." As research continues, we can expect to
understand interactions at the molecular level with
increasing sophistication, and with it, a greater
understanding of what we call chemical bonding.
Summary
The millions of di!erent chemical compounds that

make up everything on Earth are composed of 118
elements that bond together in di!erent ways. This
module explores two common types of chemical bonds:
covalent and ionic. The module presents chemical
bonding on a sliding scale from pure covalent to pure
ionic, depending on di!erences in the electronegativity
of the bonding atoms. Highlights from three centuries
of scienti"c inquiry into chemical bonding include Isaac
Newton’s ‘forces’, Gilbert Lewis’s dot structures, and
Linus Pauling’s application of the principles of quantum
mechanics.
Key Concepts
When a force holds atoms together long enough to

create a stable, independent entity, that force can be
described as a chemical bond.
The 118 known chemical elements interact with one

another via chemical bonds, to create brand new,
unique compounds that have entirely di!erent
chemical and physical properties than the elements
that make them up.
It is helpful to think of chemical bonding as being on

a sliding scale, where at one extreme there is pure
covalent bonding, and at the other there is pure ionic
bonding. Most chemical bonds lie somewhere
between those two extremes.
When a chemical bond is formed between two

elements, the di!erences in the electronegativity of
the atoms determine where on the sliding scale the
bond falls. Large di!erences in electronegativity
favor ionic bonds, no di!erence creates non-polar
covalent bonds, and relatively small di!erences
cause the formation of polar-covalent bonds.
NGSS
HS-C4.3, HS-C6.2, HS-PS1.A3, HS-PS1.B1
Further Reading
The Periodic Table of Elements

Chemical Reactions
Chemical Equations
References
Fleming, D.G., Manz, J., Sato, K., and Takayanagi,

T. (2014). Fundamental change in the nature of
chemical bonding by isotopic substitution.
Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 53(50):
13706–13709.
Frankland, E. (1852). On a new series of organic

bodies containing metals. Philosophical
Transactions, 417: 417-444. Retrieved from
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/142/417.full.pdf+html
Langmuir, I. (1919). The arrangement of electrons
in atoms and molecules. Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 41(6): 868-934.
Lewis, G.N. (1916). The atom and the molecule.
Journal of the American Chemical Society, 38(4):
762-786.
Newton, I. (1704). Opticks: or, a treatise of the
re!exions, refractions, in!exions and colours of light.
Pauling, L. (1931). The nature of the chemical
bond. Application of results obtained from the
quantum mechanics and from a theory of
paramagnetic susceptibility to the structure of

molecules. Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 53(4): 1367-1400.
Anthony Carpi, Ph.D., Adrian Dingle, B.Sc. “Chemical

Bonding” Visionlearning Vol. CHE-1 (7), 2003.
Precipitation (chemistry) - Wikipedia 6/11/21, 12:38 AM
Precipitation (chemistry)
In aqueous solution, precipitation is the process of
transforming a dissolved substance into an insoluble solid from a
super-saturated solution.[1][2] The solid formed is called the
precipitate.[3] In case of an inorganic chemical reaction leading
to precipitation, the chemical reagent causing the solid to form is
called the precipitant.[4]
The clear liquid remaining above the precipitated or the

centrifuged solid phase is the 'supernate' or 'supernatant'.
The notion of precipitation can also be extended to other domains

of chemistry (organic chemistry and biochemistry) and even be Principle of chemical precipitation in
applied to the solid phases (e.g., metallurgy and alloys) when aqueous solution
solid impurities segregate from a solid phase.
Contents
Supersaturation
Nucleation
Inorganic chemistry
Precipitation in aqueous solution
Reductive precipitation
Precipitate colors
Anion/cation qualitative analysis
Colloidal suspensions
Digestion and precipitates ageing
Organic chemistry
Biochemistry
Metallurgy and alloys
Industrial processes
History
See also
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry) Page 1 of 7
Additional reading
External links
Supersaturation
The precipitation of a compound may occur when its concentration exceeds its solubility. This can be
due to temperature changes, solvent evaporation, or by mixing solvents. Precipitation occurs more
rapidly from a strongly supersaturated solution.
The formation of a precipitate can be caused by a chemical reaction. When a barium chloride solution
reacts with sulphuric acid, a white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed. When a potassium iodide
solution reacts with a lead(II) nitrate solution, a yellow precipitate of lead(II) iodide is formed.
Nucleation
An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of nucleation. The creation of a solid
particle implies the formation of an interface with the solution. This involves energy changes
depending on the dissolution reaction free energy (endothermic or exothermic process accompanied
by an entropy increase) and the relative surface energy developed between the solid and the solution.
If energy changes are not favorable, or without suitable nucleation sites, no precipitation occurs and
the solution remain supersaturated.
Inorganic chemistry
Precipitation in aqueous solution

A common example of precipitation reaction in aqueous solution is that of silver chloride. When silver
nitrate (AgNO3) is added to a solution of potassium chloride (KCl) the precipitation of a white solid
(AgCl) is observed.[5][6]
The ionic equation allows to write this reaction by detailing the dissociated ions present in aqueous
solution.
Reductive precipitation
The Walden reductor is an illustration of a reduction reaction directly accompanied by the

precipitation of a less soluble compound because of its lower
chemical valence:
The Walden reductor made of tiny silver crystals obtained by the

immersion of a copper wire into a solution of silver nitrate is used
to reduce to their lower valence any metallic ion located above the
silver couple (Ag+ + 1 e– → Ag) in the redox potential scale.
Illustration of the Walden reductor.
Copper from a wire is displaced by
Precipitate colors silver from a silver nitrate solution it
is dipped into, and metallic silver
Many compounds containing metal ions produce precipitates crystals precipitate onto the copper
with distinctive colors. The following are some typical colors for wire.
various metals. However, many of these compounds can produce
colors very different from those listed.
Metal Color
Chromium Blue, deep green, murky green, orange, yellow, brown
Cobalt Pink (when hydrated)
Copper Blue
Iron (II) Green pale
Iron (III) Reddish brown
Manganese Pale pink (Mn2+)
Nickel Green
Many compounds often form white precipitates.
Anion/cation qualitative analysis Reddish brown stains on a limestone

core sample, corresponding to
Precipitate formation is useful in the detection of the type of precipitates of oxides/hydroxides of
cation in a salt. To do this, an alkali first reacts with the unknown 3+
Fe .
salt to produce a precipitate that is the hydroxide of the unknown
salt. To identify the cation, the color of the precipitate and its
solubility in excess are noted. Similar processes are often used in sequence – for example, a barium
nitrate solution will react with sulfate ions to form a solid barium sulfate precipitate, indicating that it
is likely that sulfate ions are present.
Water (previous version) | Chemistry | Visionlearning 6/11/21, 12:43 AM
Water as a solvent
The partial charge that develops across the water
molecule helps make it an excellent solvent . Water
dissolves many substances by surrounding charged
https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Chemistry/1/Water/57 Page 4 of 6
particles and "pulling" them into solution . For example,

common table salt , sodium chloride, is an ionic
substance that contains alternating sodium and chlorine
ions (see Figure 3).
Figure 3:
Sodium
chloride
contains Na+
and Cl- ions.
When table salt is added to water, the partial charges

on the water molecule are attracted to the Na+ and Cl-
ions . The water molecules work their way into the
crystal structure and between the individual ions ,
surrounding them and slowly dissolving the salt. The
water molecules will actually line up di$erently
depending on which ions are being pulled into
solution . The negative oxygen ends of water molecules
will surround the positive sodium ions; the positive
hydrogen ends will surround the negative chlorine ions,
as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Table salt dissolving in water.
In a similar fashion, any substance that carries a net
electrical charge , including both ionic compounds and

polar covalent molecules (those that have a dipole),
can dissolve in water. This idea also explains why some
substances do not dissolve in water. Oil, for example, is
a nonpolar molecule . Because there is no net
electrical charge across an oil molecule, it is not
attracted to water molecules and therefore does not
dissolve in water.
Summary
Water, critical to our survival, behaves di$erently from

any other substance on Earth. The unique chemical
properties of water are presented in this module. The
module explains how the dipole across the water
molecule leads to hydrogen bonding, making water
molecules act like little magnets. Also explored are
surface tension and water’s properties as a solvent.
NGSS
HS-C6.2, HS-PS1.A3
Further Reading
Chemical Bonding
Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. “Water (previous version)”

Visionlearning Vol. CHE-2 (1), 2003.
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Chemical Bonding | Chemistry | Visionlearning 6/11/21, 12:35 AM

Polarity and dipoles in

this di!erence in electron a#nity exists across the

Figure 7: In panel A, a molecule of water, H2O, is shown with

When the electrons in a bond are perfectly shared,

partial charge. When all of these dipoles are taken into

Alternatively, there may be a partial electrical charge

Other types of bonding and

In 2014, researchers found the "rst experimental

The millions of di!erent chemical compounds that

When a force holds atoms together long enough to

The 118 known chemical elements interact with one

It is helpful to think of chemical bonding as being on

When a chemical bond is formed between two

cause the formation of polar-covalent bonds.

HS-C4.3, HS-C6.2, HS-PS1.A3, HS-PS1.B1

The Periodic Table of Elements

Fleming, D.G., Manz, J., Sato, K., and Takayanagi,

Frankland, E. (1852). On a new series of organic

paramagnetic susceptibility to the structure of

Anthony Carpi, Ph.D., Adrian Dingle, B.Sc. “Chemical

The clear liquid remaining above the precipitated or the

The notion of precipitation can also be extended to other domains

Precipitation in aqueous solution

The Walden reductor is an illustration of a reduction reaction directly accompanied by the

The Walden reductor made of tiny silver crystals obtained by the

Chromium Blue, deep green, murky green, orange, yellow, brown

Cobalt Pink (when hydrated)

Iron (II) Green pale

Iron (III) Reddish brown

Manganese Pale pink (Mn2+)

Many compounds often form white precipitates.

Anion/cation qualitative analysis Reddish brown stains on a limestone

particles and "pulling" them into solution . For example,

When table salt is added to water, the partial charges

Figure 4: Table salt dissolving in water.

In a similar fashion, any substance that carries a net

electrical charge , including both ionic compounds and

Water, critical to our survival, behaves di$erently from

Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. “Water (previous version)”

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