PROTECTIVE RELAY BASICS

PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

A critical factor in the success of an industry or commercial endeavor is electric power.
Providing, operating and maintaining an effective power system is an important challenge.
One key element to be considered in power system design is system protection. System
protection is accomplished via the coordinated application of protective devices including
fuses, circuit breakers and relays. Protective relays are devices that monitor power system
conditions and operate to quickly and accurately isolate faults or dangerous conditions. A
well-designed protective system can limit damage to equipment and minimize the extent
of associated service interruptions.

Many factors influence design of a protective system including economics, experience and
industry standards.

ECONOMICS
The cost of installation, operation and maintenance of the protective system must be
weighed against potential losses due to equipment damage or service interruption.

EXPERIENCE
Those problems that experience has shown to be most likely to occur are given highest
priority. Larger, critical systems are protected from less probable events.

INDUSTRY STANDARDS
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) provides industry standards
through ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and IEEE publications. These in-
clude specific standards for many applications. The primary sources regarding protection
are:

ANSI C37.90 Relays and Relay Systems Associated with Electric Power Apparatus

IEEE STD 242 “Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems”

IEEE Standard 141 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Indus-
trial Plants”

A listing of several helpful sources can be found in Appendix I.

SENSITIVITY
The minimum signal required to produce an output. A more sensitive relay will be able to
discern a “smaller” condition. Sensitivity is particularly important when the input quantities
are very small.

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SELECTIVITY
The ability of the relay to recognize a fault or abnormal system condition, and to discrimi-
nate between those upon which it should and should not operate.

RELIABILITY
The level of assurance that the relay will function as intended. Reliability is considered in
two parts, Dependability and Security.

DEPENDABILITY
The ability of the relay to trip for all faults and conditions for which tripping is desired.

SECURITY
The ability of the relay to NOT trip for any fault or condition for which tripping is undesired.

ANSI/IEEE DEVICE NUMBERS

Protective relays are generally referred to by standard device numbers. For example, a
time overcurrent relay is designated a 51 device, while an instantaneous overcurrent is a
50 device. Multifunction relays have combinations of device numbers. A 27/59 device, for
example, is a combination under/over voltage relay. Letters can be added to clarify appli-
cation (87T for transformer differential, 59G for ground overvoltage). This is a partial list of
the device numbers commonly used. For a complete listing, refer to ANSI/IEEE C37.2.

DEVICE NUMBER FUNCTION

21 DISTANCE RELAY - Functions when the circuit impedance, or a component of
impedance, increases or decreases beyond predetermined limits.
24 OVEREXCITATION RELAY - Functions with time delay (inverse, step or definite time) for
overexcitation conditions as evidenced by Volts/Hertz.
25 SYNC-CHECK RELAY - Functions when two ac circuits are within desired limits of
frequency, phase angle and voltage to permit the paralleling of these two circuits.
25A AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZING RELAY - Acts to bring two ac circuits within desired
limits of frequency, phase angle and voltage, then initiates the paralleling of these two
circuits.
27 UNDERVOLTAGE RELAY - Functions on a given value of undervoltage.
27N GROUND FAULT UNDERVOLTAGE RELAY - Functions on a given value of third
harmonic undervoltage.
32 POWER RELAY - Functions on a desired value of power flow in a given direction.
37 UNDERCURRENT RELAY - Functions on a given value of undercurrent.
40 LOSS OF FIELD RELAY - Functions on a given value of dc field current.
41 FIELD BREAKER - A device used to apply and remove the field excitation of a machine.
43 MANUAL SELECTOR SWITCH - Used to control circuit operation.
46 PHASE BALANCE CURRENT RELAY - Functions on a given degree of unbalance
between the polyphase currents.
46N NEGATIVE SEQUENCE OVERCURRENT - Functions when the polyphase currents
contain negative sequence components above a given value.
47 PHASE SEQUENCE VOLTAGE RELAY - Functions on a given value of polyphase
voltage in the desired phase sequence.

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47N NEGATIVE SEQUENCE VOLTAGE RELAY - Functions on a given value of the negative
sequence component of the polyphase voltage.
49 THERMAL RELAY - Functions when the temperature of a machine, transformer or other
load-carrying winding exceeds a given value.
50 INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAY - Functions without intentional time delay
when the current exceeds a given value.
50BF BREAKER FAILURE RELAY - Functions when current continues to flow after the
monitored breaker should have interrupted a fault.
51 TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY - Functions with a definite or inverse time characteristic
when the current exceeds a given value.
51/27C VOLTAGE CONTROLLED TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY - A time overcurrent relay
whose pickup is adjusted by an undervoltage function.
51/27R VOLTAGE RESTRAINED TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY - A time overcurrent relay
whose pickup is adjusted by an undervoltage function.
52 AC CIRCUIT BREAKER - A device used to close and interrupt an ac power circuit.
55 POWER FACTOR RELAY - Functions when the power factor falls below a given value.
59 OVERVOLTAGE RELAY - Functions as a given value of overvoltage.
59N GROUND FAULT OVERVOLTAGE RELAY - Functions on a given value of overvoltage
at the fundamental frequency.
60 VOLTAGE BALANCE RELAY - Functions on a quantitative voltage difference between
two circuits.
63 PRESSURE SWITCH - Operates on given values, or on a given rate of change, of
pressure.
64 GROUND PROTECTIVE RELAY - Functions on failure of the insulation of a machine,
transformer, or of other apparatus to ground, or on flashover of a dc machine to ground.
67 AC DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY - Functions on a desired value of ac
overcurrent flowing in a predetermined direction.
76 DC OVERCURRENT RELAY - Functions when the current in a dc circuit exceeds a given
value.
79 AC RECLOSING RELAY - Controls the automatic reclosing and locking out of an ac
circuit interrupter.
81 FREQUENCY RELAY - Functions on a predetermined value of frequency (either under or
over or on normal system frequency) or rate of change of frequency.
87 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIVE RELAY - Functions on a percentage or phase angle or
other quantitative difference of two currents or of some other electrical quantities.
91 VOLTAGE DIRECTIONAL RELAY - Operates when the voltage across an open circuit
breaker or contactor exceeds a given value in a given direction.
92 VOLTAGE AND POWER DIRECTIONAL RELAY - Permits or causes the connection of two
circuits when the voltage difference between them exceeds a given value in a
predetermined direction and causes these two circuits to be disconnected from each
other when the power flowing between them exceeds a given value in the opposite
direction.

FAULTS VERSUS CONDITIONS

One important concept in protective relaying is the difference between faults and abnormal
conditions. Faults are short circuits or arcs: actual system failures. Abnormal conditions are
such as overvoltage, undervoltage or overexcitation. Abnormal conditions are undesirable

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events and can often lead to faults or equipment failure. Most relays are applied to protect
either faults or conditions. This will govern the philosophy of the protection.

SINGLE LINE PROTECTION DIAGRAMS

The single line protection diagram gives an overall picture of location of instrument transform-
ers, zones of protection and type of relays used. AC schematics give specific details of three
phase AC connection. DC schematics show the details of the trip, close and control circuits.

A key element often taken for granted is the battery system. Without it, none of the control
system will operate, yet there is seldom a backup system for the battery except in ex-
tremely large substations.

Figure 1: Typical single-line AC connections of a protective relay

with DC trip schematic

ZONES OF PROTECTION
Relay schemes are designed to protect specific areas or equipment. The electric grid is
divided into zones that can be isolated via circuit breakers or fuses. Each zone is individu-
ally protected and is defined as a Zone of Protection. Protective relay schemes are de-
signed to isolate a given zone for any tripping condition. This minimizes or prevents equip-
ment damage, thus permitting more rapid restoration of the system, and minimizes the
extent and duration of the interference with the operation of the whole system (overtrip).

Zones are established encompassing certain system elements such as generators, bus-
ses, transformers and lines. This allows protective relaying schemes to be tailored to the
requirements of a specific element. When a fault occurs, the zone including the failed
equipment is isolated from the rest of the system.

The boundaries of the zones of protection are defined by the current and voltage transform-
ers that provide the system information to the relays. Each zone of protection includes the
isolating circuit breakers and the protected equipment. Each zone overlaps the adjacent

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zone, and the circuit breaker will be in two zones. This is necessary to ensure that “blind
spots” cannot exist and that all portions of the power system are protected. A fault in the
overlap area will trip both zones. This is especially desirable in the case of a circuit breaker
failure.

Figure 2: Typical relay primary protection zones

Zones are generally defined by the location of the CTs. Apparatus with CTs on both sides of
the equipment should be protected by overlapping the two protection zones. The breaker
in Figure 3 will be protected by both zones. If we did not overlap, the breaker will not be
protected by either zone.

Figure 3: Overlapping protection zones for dead-tank breakers

Live tank breakers and switch gear have CTs that are located on one side of the breaker
only as shown in Figure 4, and zones should still be overlapped. If they are not over-
lapped, the unprotected area will be the short piece of bus or bushing between the CTs.

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 Figure 4: Overlapping protection zones for live-tank breakers and switch gear

APPLICATION INFORMATION
Before applying relays to the power system, the following information should be gathered:
1. One line and three line diagrams showing the system configuration
2. System data such as impedance, transformer connections and nameplate data,
system frequency, generator nameplate data, system bus voltages and phasing,
and grounding details
3. Existing protective relays and their settings
4. Operating procedures and practices
5. Degree of protection required and protection philosophy, which is more important,
the system or the process?
6. System fault study
7. Maximum loads and system swing limits from a stability study
8. Current and voltage transformer locations, connections, ratings and ratios
9. Future expansion plans of the system
10. Instruction manuals for all power equipment and protective relays.

ELECTROMECHANICAL VS. SOLID STATE VS. MICROPROCESSOR

A glossary of terms shown in UPPERCASE LETTERS can be found in Appendix II.
Three generations of protective relays have been used to protect the power system,
ELECTROMECHANICAL, SOLID STATE, and MICROPROCESSOR.

The original ELECTROMECHANICAL designs consist of coils, contacts, magnets, plungers,

induction discs, motors, solenoids, etc. These devices are well-proven; however, they lack
the advanced features of today’s relays and must be constantly maintained and calibrated.

SOLID STATE RELAYS began replacing some of the electromechanical designs in the
1960s. These relays were usually designed to duplicate the function of the electromechani-
cal by using diodes, transistors, operational amplifiers, hex inverters and other semi-
conductor devices.

In the 1980s, the MICROPROCESSOR was used to build a new generation of relays based
on a full DIGITAL system. The heart of these relays is a mini-computer CHIP, similar to those
found in Personal Computers.

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In terms of functionality, there is little difference in the Electromechanical and Solid State
relay. Solid state generally offered more speed, but reliability of the electronic circuits was
often questionable in the early years. At the time, there were few standards governing the
manufacture, noise immunity and transient immunity of static relays.

Today, however, we have excellent standards that make relays with electronic components
“hardened” with respect to their environment. U.S. manufactured relays should be tested in
accordance with IEEE Standard Surge Withstand Capability (SWC); this covers oscillatory
and fast transient wave shapes. These tests ensure that the relay will not fail or operate
incorrectly with spikes, noisy signals or transients. Relays should also pass the IEEE Stan-
dard Withstand Capability to Radiated Electromagnetic Interference from Transceivers.
This test ensures that relays will not operate incorrectly when someone is operating a
walkie-talkie near the relay.

Solid State relays make their relaying decisions the same way as electromechanical relays,
except by using solid state components. Figure 5 shows a functional block diagram for a
SOLID STATE over/under voltage relay. The relay is a solid state design, and the circuits
are said to be ANALOG. That is, the circuits use voltage signals to make measurements
and comparisons. The voltage is scaled down to useable values, but they stay ANALOG
signals. The low level voltage is filtered and full wave rectified. The output is fed to a com-
parator circuit where the DC level of the bridge is compared to a predetermined level (the
relay setting). When compared to the electromechanical relay, we have improved accuracy,
speed, and greatly reduced burden, which improves CT performance. In general, the
number of relays required to protect the system with solid state relays is less than with
electromechanical. With modern solid state relays, there is some reduction in size and
some combination of functions, such as combining all three phases of protection into one
unit, etc. Solid state systems are usually smaller, lighter, and generate less heat than their
electromechanical counterparts. Adjustment and calibration is usually more precise and
will maintain its setting with minimal drifting. Maintenance is still recommended on this
type relay.

Figure 5: Analog voltage relay

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The protective functions of the microprocessor-based relay are performed by executing an
ALGORITHM. The algorithm allows the micro to process all of the protective functions as
one process, rather than having one circuit for every protective combination (one for each
phase, zone, function etc.). The micro handles all protective functions by executing one
protective algorithm. From a maintenance standpoint, this simplifies things. With electro-
mechanical and static, we have one circuit, or card, for each function (zone, phase A, phase
fault, ground fault, etc.), and we must test each to know the whole relay is working. With
microprocessor relays, there is only one algorithm; if it is working for one function, it is
working for everything. There is less emphasis on testing and maintenance with micropro-
cessor relays.

Figure 6 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor-based relay. The first significant

difference is the way the input signals are used. The currents are processed by a Filter and
A-D CONVERTER. This converter changes the signal from Analog to Digital. Digital signals
consist of voltages that can be recognized by the computer as ones or zeros, the basis of
digital signal processing.

Figure 6: Microprocessor 4elay

The entire relay now takes on the architecture of a modern mini-computer with data busses,
address busses, control busses, time clocks, keyboards, displays, communication ports,
power supplies, memory, software, etc. The microprocessor relay is now making its com-
putations using digital information, so these types of relays are frequently referred to as
NUMERICAL RELAYS. The mini-computer is able to process information at extremely high
rates; therefore, it can typically perform other nonessential functions without sacrificing
performance. Because we now have a digital method of capturing and storing data, it is a
simple task to calculate, store, time-tag, or display, metering values or values present
during faults. However, if we ask the mini-computer to perform too many functions, it could
slow down the protective functions. To avoid this, a second microprocessor can be in-
stalled merely to process the data signal.

The capability of storing and retrieving data has revolutionized the tools available for the
protection engineer. At one time, only expensive Fault Recorders could supply information

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about a fault condition after the fact. With microprocessor relays, data can be stored, within
the limits of available memory, and retrieved at a later date for analysis. Generally, data is
presented in two formats: EVENT DATA and OSCILLOGRAPHIC data. Event data gives the
time, date and basic information about the current and voltage. Oscillographic data at-
tempts to reconstruct voltage and current waveforms and digital inputs such as breaker
contacts. SAMPLING RATES are much lower than stand alone Fault Recorders, but as
memory becomes cheaper, sampling rates for metering and oscillography will increase.

Communications is also a big change for the micro-based relays. The user can communi-
cate with the relay by connecting directly or accessing it over telephone lines with the use
of a MODEM and Personal Computer. Communication allows the user to access metering
information, settings, fault data, and, with the proper password, changes can be made to
the relay's settings.

Microprocessor-based relays also have the capability to self-monitor their performance.

The micro has a built in WATCHDOG TIMER that checks the processor periodically and can
also check power supply voltages, the status of memory, settings, metering, and report
back with an alarm to alert the user of any malfunction. There is a distinct advantage in
knowing immediately when a relay has a problem, rather than waiting for periodic mainte-
nance to find it. Studies indicate that modern microprocessor relays with self-check capa-
bility have better on-line availability than conventional electromechanical relays. Failures
can be repaired in hours or days and can often be repaired before a malfunction can occur.
With electromechanical relays, we must wait for a misoperation to alert us, or for periodic
maintenance to be performed, which may be years in some cases. Many users are not
maintaining microprocessor relays; instead, they occasionally monitor the tripping activity,
metering and status as an indication of a healthy relay.

There are several other observations concerning digital relays:

• The cost of electromechanical relays continues to increase while the cost of
microprocessor declines. The engineer no longer has to justify additional features. He or
she generally gets the additional features for the same or less cost than electromecha-
nical.
• Micro-based relays can have several functions combined into one package known as
MULTI-FUNCTION. Instead of having separate relays for each phase, ground, and
reclosing, they can be combined into one package for greater economic advantage and
panel space requirements.
• There are generally no adjustments made to micro-based relays. Settings are pro-
grammed into memory with the front panel, or Personal Computer, but because the
relay is digital, no calibration is required. Therefore, the setting cannot drift or change
value.
• Solid state and digital relays are very low burden devices. This keeps the CTs from
saturating too quickly during fault conditions.
• Microprocessor relays frequently contain more than one group of settings per relay. This
allows the relay to adapt to its conditions by changing settings as needed for cold load
pickup, emergency loading, line switching, etc.
• Micro-based relays can be built with more functions, characteristics and flexibility than
their counterparts. Many relays allow complete programming flexibility of the relay
elements and logic elements to give the relay engineer total control of relay function.
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• Digital relays give metering information that can sometimes eliminate panel meters and
transducers for additional cost savings.
• Some digital relays can be configured with additional “protocols” that allow them to
communicate directly with SCADA in addition to communication with a PC.
• Special functions required by the user can be added easily by changing the firmware
chips. We have arrived at a point where microprocessor relays have the advantages of
speed, size, low cost, multi-function, flexibility, low burden and so on, without the user
paying a penalty. Electromechanical relays will always be with us, but they are rapidly
becoming the last choice.

PHASORS AND POLARITY

A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. A phasor is a vector that is con-
stantly changing with respect to time. Electrical phasors are constantly rotating at synchro-
nous speed.

Figure 7 shows a phasor on the cartesian coordinate system in polar form as some magni-
tude C with an angle of phi from the x axis. This same phasor can be broken down into its x
and y components and put in rectangular form x+y.

Figure 7: Cartesian x-y coordinates for phasor quantities

In Figure 8 phasors A and B can be added graphically by picking up phasor B and drop-
ping it on phasor A head to tail. The resultant phasor is A+B. Subtracting can be done by
inverting B to make it -B (just rotate it 180 degrees) then add the two phasors. The resultant
phasor is A-B. We can also subtract A from B by inverting A and adding. The resultant
phasor is B-A.

What is the practical application of adding phasors in the power system? Ground relays
sometimes measure the residual current of all three phase currents, which is nothing more
than adding all three phase currents. Also, differential relays sometimes combine two or
more currents, using graphical or mathematical methods will help predict what currents
should appear in the relay during commissioning.
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 Figure 8: Adding phasors graphically

The impedance plane can also be demonstrated with the cartesian coordinates shown in
Figure 9. This is commonly referred to as the RX diagram. The x axis is resistance and the
y axis is reactance. The resultant phasor is impedance stated as R+jX or Impedance Z at
some angle. -R indicates current in the reverse direction through the resistance and not
negative resistance.

Figure 9: Impedance phase axes for phasor quantities

The power plane can also be demonstrated on cartesian coordinates shown in Figure 10. The
x axis is real power and the y axis is imaginary power. A resultant phasor of these two quanti-
ties is apparent power or MVA.

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 Figure 10: Power phase axes for phasor quantities

In Figure 11, the phasor diagram on the left shows us what phasor we have when the sine
wave at the right is sampled at 60 degree intervals. The sinewave is a continuous smooth
curve that is continuously changing with respect to time. The phasor diagram is also rotat-
ing continuously, but for us to use it we must take a snapshot in time and compare it with
some reference phasor.

The sampling technique of digital relays uses a similar concept by taking samples of the
sinewave inputs at certain time intervals. The digital device is then able to reconstruct the
analog signals from sampled data.

Figure 11: Sine wave created by rotation of phasor (p)

In Figure 12 phasors can be demonstrated with a simple series circuit containing resis-
tance, capacitance and inductance. The current is the same in all three components. The
voltage subscript notation is used to indicate the direction of the voltage drop, Vab is the
voltage drop from point a to point b on the circuit; the voltage drop across the inductor.

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 Figure 12: Location and assumed directions of current and voltage drops

The open system of phasors, as shown in Figure 13, uses the origin o as a starting point for
the tail of all phasors. The currents are shown as all in phase with one another and the
voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current. The voltage across the inductor,
Vab, is leading the current by 90 degrees and the voltage across the capacitor, Vcd, is
lagging the current by 90 degrees.

NOTE THAT ALL PHASOR DIAGRAMS ARE ASSUMED TO HAVE THE PHASORS ROTAT-
ING IN A COUNTER CLOCKWISE DIRECTION.

Figure 13: Current and voltage magnitudes and phase relations

The closed system of phasors shown in Figure 14 can be used to show the same circuit by
adding the voltage drops across each circuit component to the preceding one to get the
voltage drop across the entire circuit, Vad. The phasor relationships remain the same, but
the method of displaying them has changed.

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 Figure 14: Current and voltage magnitudes and phase relations

The three phase AC diagram in Figure 15 gives additional details not available on single
line diagrams such as phase rotation, grounding details and transformer physical connec-
tions. Symmetrical conditions are assumed in this drawing; therefore, no currents are
flowing in the neutrals and all quantities are equal in magnitude and 120 degrees apart.
Notation for system quantities is shown using the double-subscript method. Vag is the A to
ground voltage drop, Vbc is the B to C phase voltage drop and so on. Phase to ground
and phase to phase currents can be noted in a similar fashion.

Figure 15: Typical three-phase circuit with balanced or symmetrical quantities

Figure 16 is the open system of phasors for the circuit diagram of Figure 15. We are assum-
ing balanced conditions and unity power factor. Shows all phase to phase and phase to
ground voltage and currents possible in the three phase balanced system.

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 Figure 16: Typical three-phase circuit phasor diagrams - open type

The closed system of phasors is shown in Figure 17, again assuming balanced conditions
and unity power factor. Shows all phase to phase and phase to ground voltage and cur-
rents possible in the three phase balanced system. The open or closed system of repre-
senting phasors show the same quantities. The choice of which system to use is personal
preference. The difficulty in using the closed system is being able to visualize the a, b, and
c quantities within the closed triangle.

Figure 17: Typical three-phase circuit phasor diagrams - closed type

The direction of current flow is important in relaying to determine the direction of a fault or
power flow condition. Instrument transformers establish this direction by means of their
polarity. Transformers can either be additive polarity or subtractive polarity. As shown in
Figure 18, current flowing in at polarity of one winding, flows out of polarity on the other

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winding. Both currents are substantially in phase. Voltage drop from polarity to nonpolarity
across one winding is essentially in phase with the voltage drop from polarity to
nonpolarity across the other winding. Subtractive transformers have their polarity marks
directly opposite one another. This type transformer is most common for power transform-
ers. Occasionally additive voltage transformers (200KVA or less) may have voltage ele-
ments connected to them.

Figure 18: Subtractive polarity, 200kVA and above, single phase

The additive polarity transformer as shown in Figure 19, current flowing in at polarity of one
winding, flows out of polarity on the other winding. Both currents are substantially in phase.
Voltage drop from polarity to nonpolarity across one winding is essentially in phase with
the voltage drop from polarity to nonpolarity across the other winding. Additive polarity
transformers do not have their polarities on adjacent terminals across from one another.
Station service transformers may be of this type. Polarity should be noted and used care-
fully any time connections are made to relays or meters, especially those with directional or
polarizing capability.

Figure 19: Added polarity, below 200kVA, single phase

Voltage and power transformers have one winding for primary and one for secondary. As
shown in Figure 20, CTs are often of the busbar type or bushing type that has only a sec-
ondary winding. The bushing or busbar passing through the secondary windings forms a
one turn primary. Left CT: current into polarity on the primary creates current flow out of

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polarity on the secondary. Right CT: current out of polarity on the primary creates current
flow into polarity of the secondary. We could say that, for an assumed direction of current
flow in the primary, the secondary current will flow in the same direction in the secondary.
Therefore, we sometimes connect polarity of the CT to polarity of the relay and sometimes
vice versa depending on the location of the CT in the apparatus and the required connec-
tion for direction of tripping by the relay manufacturer.

Figure 20: Polarity markings for current transformers

Figure 21 shows an ANSI standard three phase Power Transformer. There are two possible
delta winding combinations; this is H1-H2. If you stand facing the high side, the H1 bush-
ing will be on the right hand side. Also, the high side voltage A-N always leads the low
side voltage A-N by 30 degrees. The transformer winding connections and the phasor
diagrams will always be shown on the transformer nameplate. Always consult the trans-
former nameplate during design and construction to determine proper phasing and con-
nection of relays. There are two different winding combinations; this one is a delta-wye, the
other is a wye-delta. Notice we have not shown any phasing or phase sequence because
this is the PHYSICAL connection of the transformer windings and its phasor relationships
cannot be changed. Phasing will be determined when we apply assumed voltages to one
side of the transformer.

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 Figure 21: ANSI standard 3 phase transformer, H1-H2

Figure 22 is the second ANSI standard winding arrangement for three phase transformers.
It is wye-delta with the delta connected X1-X3. On any ANSI standard three phase Power
Transformer, if you stand facing the high side, the H1 bushing will be on the right hand
side. Also, the high side voltage A-N always leads the low side voltage A-N by 30 degrees.
The transformer winding connections and the phasor diagrams will always be shown on
the transformer nameplate. Always consult the transformer nameplate during design and
construction to determine proper phasing and connection of relays.

Notice we have not shown any phasing or phase sequence because this is the PHYSICAL
connection of the transformer windings and its phasor relationship cannot be changed.
Phasing will be determined when we apply assumed voltages to one side of the trans-
former.

Figure 22: ANSI standard 3 phase transformer, X1-X3

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INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Most protective relays on the power system receive either a current, a voltage, or both.
Usually potential and current transformers are used to insulate against the high voltage of
the power circuit and also to supply the relays with quantities proportional to the power
circuit, but reduced in magnitude so that the relays can be made relatively small and
inexpensive. The standard instrument transformers have a common secondary output so
relays can be standardized. Most U.S. protective relays are rated continuously to withstand
5 amps and 120 volts at 60 cycles. European versions are rated at 1 amp and 120 volts
and 50 cycles.

The instrument transformer is important to the protective relay. Without the proper inputs
from the instrument transformer, the relay will not have the opportunity to operate properly.
Unfortunately, it must supply an accurate secondary signal to the relay during fault condi-
tions when it is most difficult to maintain an accurate and true waveform of the primary
quantities. Proper instrument transformer performance is paramount to proper protective
relay performance.

A potential transformer, sometimes called a voltage transformer, is designed to reduce the

primary voltages used in substations to secondary levels in the 120 volt range so they will
be usable by relay and meter circuits. These devices are frequently abbreviated PT and
VT. Each transformer has a specific transformation ratio associated with it. For example, a
VT intended for use on distribution may have a rating of 7200 volts primary and 120 volts
secondary. This may be stated as “7200 to 120” for operating voltage, or simply 60 to 1,
(60:1) which is the turns ratio. VTs also have a nameplate volt-ampere rating. This is the
amount of load or “burden” that can be placed on the VT without affecting accuracy. Each
meter or relay added to the potential circuit adds some additional burden the VT must
supply. If too much burden is placed on the VT, the voltage can drop below tolerance and
the thermal capability of the VT may be exceeded.

A current transformer is designed to take large values of primary current and convert them
to usable levels for relays and meters. The marked ratio of a current transformer is the ratio
of primary current to secondary current. These are given in terms of maximum continuous
current rating. For example, a marked ratio of 1200:5 means that with 1200 amps in the
primary we will have 5 amps in the secondary. These are also the maximum continuous
ratings for the transformer.

Current transformer performance is one of the most important issues the relay engineer
faces. It is determined by:
• CT accuracy class
• Connected burden
• Primary current

As we shall see, when current levels are normal, CT performance is quite accurate. How-
ever, at high fault current levels CTs can saturate, causing the secondary current to be so
low the relay will not operate. Figure 23 shows the secondary excitation characteristics for a
600:5 multi ratio CT class C100. The class of the CT gives us a measure of the quality of the
CT and its ability to perform. CTs operating left of the “knee” of the curve are producing

19
accurate signals. When the CT is operating to the right of the knee, the CT is said to be
saturated because the secondary excitation current will be very large, grossly distorting the
accuracy of the CT. A saturated CT will always produce less secondary current than ex-
pected and, in some cases, may be low enough to cause the relay to not operate for a
legitimate fault.

Figure 23: Typical excitation curves for a 600:5 multiratio

Class C100 current transformer

C100 means the CT is capable of producing 100 volts at 20 times tap (100 amps) with an
error of 10% or less. A C400 CT would be able to produce 400 volts at 20 times tap (100
amps) with an error of 10% or less, and so on. The higher the class of CT, the less chance
there is of saturation. Because the higher quality CT is more expensive, we may not always
be able to have the highest possible quality.

Calculations should be performed to determine if a CT is of sufficient quality for the appli-

cation. In Figure 24 we show a CT wired to a single coil of a relay. For now we will assume
we are using the 100:5 tap of the CT in Figure 23. If the primary current is 100 amps, there
will be 5 amps in the secondary. This current must flow through the relay, the wiring, and
the CT, which all have some small amount of resistance. When current flows through a
resistance, there will be a voltage drop. If the voltage exceeds the capability of the CT, it
will go into saturation and will not be able to produce the secondary current as required.

20
 Figure 24: Relay diagram

At 5 amps secondary, we have the following values:

Relay burden = 0.106 ohms
Lead resistance = 0.40 ohms
CT secondary resistance= 0.082 ohms
Total on CT secondary = 0.588 ohms

The voltage required to drive 5 amps through the secondary is 5 X 0.588 = 2.94 volts. As
we can see from Figure 23, the CT is capable of producing 12-15 volts before saturation is
reached, so performance is fine at load current of 5 amps.

Now, let’s consider performance at a fault current level of 2500 amps. Secondary current
will now be 125 amps. Secondary burden will be:
Relay burden = 0.058 ohms
Lead resistance = 0.40 ohms
CT secondary resistance = 0.082 ohms
Total secondary resistance = 0.540 ohms

The voltage required to pass 125 amps through the relay would be 125 X .54 = 67.5 volts.
We can see from Figure 23 that our CT will be well into saturation. This is not an acceptable
combination for a protective relay.

The problems may be remedied by:

• selecting a different CT ratio
• a higher quality CT
• reducing the burden by using static relays

The burden of electromechanical relays is often a significant factor, especially at higher

current levels. Current circuits with two or three relays in the same circuit compound the
problem. Static relays have very low burden and are a practical solution to many CT satura-
tion problems.

21
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
One of the basic steps in applying protective relaying is calculation of fault currents. When
balanced loads or balanced faults are assumed, calculations are relatively straightforward.
However, most faults are unbalanced phase to phase or phase to ground type faults mak-
ing the calculations complex. Symmetrical components is a mathematical technique of
analyzing currents on three phase power systems. Many relays are designed to detect
symmetrical sequence quantities because they only occur during certain fault conditions.

Symmetrical components helps us describe voltages and currents that are unbalanced by
breaking the quantities into 3 balanced component parts. Analyzing these balanced parts
individually is a much easier task.

For three phase systems, there are three distinct sets of components: positive sequence,
negative sequence, and zero sequence. On a balanced three phase system, the currents
and voltages are equal and 120 degrees apart with a phase sequence of 123. In this case,
the current is all positive sequence as shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25: Balanced three phase system

With unbalanced load or fault conditions there are negative and zero sequence currents as
well as positive sequence currents. The negative sequence set is shown in Figure 26.
Notice that the currents are 120 degrees apart, equal in magnitude, but the phase se-
quence is 321. Negative sequence currents can be harmful to rotating machinery. Since
these currents normally do not appear in healthy systems, relays can be made to detect
these unwanted currents and take appropriate actions.

22
 Figure 26: Negative sequence set

The last set of currents is zero sequence currents. We normally refer to these currents as
ground or neutral currents in wye systems. Figure 27 shows that the zero sequence cur-
rents are all in phase and equal in magnitude to each other. Relays used for ground pro-
tection measure zero sequence currents. In balanced systems, the current is all positive
sequence. When the system is unbalanced, all three sequence currents are present.

Figure 27: Zero sequence currents

23
APPENDIX I

HELPFUL SOURCES
ANSI C37.90-1989, Relays, and Relay Systems Associated with Electric Power
Apparatus. New York: IEEE 1989.
ANSI C50.13-1977, Requirements for Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generators.
New York: IEEE, 1977.
IEEE STD 141-1976, Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants. New York: IEEE, 1976. “The Red Book.”
IEEE STD 242-1975, Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. New York: IEEE, 1987. “The Buff
Book.”
IEEE STD 446-1987, IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power
for Industrial and Commercial Applications. New York: IEEE, 1987. “The Orange
Book.”
J. L. Blackburn, “Protective Relaying Principles and Applications”. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, 1987.
A. E. Fitzgerald, Ckingsley, A Kuska, “Electric Machinery”. McGraw Hill, New York, 1961.
L. W. Matsch, “Electromagnetic and Electromechanical Machines”. IEP, New York, 1977.
W. D. Stevenson, Jr., “Elements of Power System Analysis”. McGraw Hill, New York,
1975.

APPENDIX II

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A/D CONVERTER - Analog to Digital Converter. Changes a signal from an analog quantity
(i.e. 35 volts) to a digital quantity the computer can recognize (ones and zeros).
ADMITTANCE (Y) - The reciprocal of impedance. The ratio of voltage to current measured
in siemens and expressed as a complex number, the real part of which is conductance
and the imaginary part susceptance.
ALGORITHM - A mathematical formula continually executed by the microprocessor. In
protective relays there is usually one algorithm for all protective functions.
ANALOG - Pertaining to the representation of physical quantities by continually variable
parameters such as voltage. Used to describe circuits consisting primarily of op amps,
resistors and/or capacitors. See DIGITAL. Also, Scalar and Phasor quantities such as 35
Volts, 100 Watts, 50 Amps, 15 seconds, etc.
ANSI/IEEE - American National Standards Institute/Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Pertains to standards accepted by a consensus of professional engineers
substantially concerned with the scope and provisions therein.
BACKUP - An alternate means of accomplishing a task intended to be performed by other
means. Usually involves a larger portion of the system or a larger period of time or both.
See REDUNDANCY.
BUS - (Bus Bar) A conducting bar, or group of bars, that carries heavy currents to supply
several electric circuits.
CAPACITY - (1) A measure of the electric output of a generator. (2) The combined electrical
output of all sources of generation in the system network, system capacity.

24
CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM - (Rectilinear Coordinate System) A two dimen-
sional system with mutually perpendicular axes, the vertical axis designated ordinate and
the horizontal, abscissa.
CHARACTERISTIC - An inherently distinctive quality or attribute.
CHIP - An integrated circuit or microprocessor component.
COMPLEX NUMBER - A number of the form a + bj, where a and b are real numbers and
J2 = -1.
CONDUCTANCE (g) - The reciprocal of resistance. The number by which the rms voltage
must be multiplied to find the resistive power loss. Measured in mho’s.
COORDINATION - To arrange in the proper relative position. Often involves the arrange-
ment of characteristic time-current curves of multiple time overcurrent relays, and/or fuses
and CBs, to permit the device nearest to the fault to operate first.
CURRENT (I) - The amount of electric charge flowing past a specific point per unit time.
Measured in amperes (A).
CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT) - A transformer that steps down line currents for: (1)
convenient measurement of large currents, standard 5 ampere secondary, (2) isolation of
relays, or other instruments, from high voltage circuits. Operates with the primary in series
with the line with few (generally one), primary turns. The current ratio is the inverse of the
turns ratio. Uses a high permeability core with a small cross section normally operated with
very low flux density. See ANSI C57.13 Instrument Transformers.
DEAD - Lacking connection to a source of emf. Not energized.
DEFINITE-TIME DELAY - A purposely introduced time delay that remains substantially
constant regardless of the magnitude of the initiating quantity. See INVERSE-TIME DELAY.
DEPENDABILITY - The measure or degree of certainty that the device will function when
the correct information is supplied.
DEVICE NUMBER - Designation of devices, used in system protection, according to the
functions they perform. This system is used as a convention throughout the industry in
diagrams, instruction manuals and specifications. A list of the device numbers used in this
paper can be found on pages 2 and 3. For a complete listing refer to ANSI/IEEE C37.2-
1979.
DIELECTRIC - A nonconductor of electricity. Insulation. A substance with electrical conduc-
tivity less than a millionth (10-6) of an mho.
DIGITAL - Pertaining to the representation of physical quantities by discrete values such as
zero and one. Used to describe circuits consisting primarily of logic gates, flip-flops,
counters and timers. See ANALOG. Also, quantities the computer can recognize; ones and
zeroes or some voltage that can be defined as ones and zeroes (for example +12 volts
and zero volts).
DISCRIMINATION - The ability to make an active distinction between two parameters (i.e.,
to act or not to act).
DISTANCE - Analogous with impedance with regard to lines due to the constant resistivity.
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Frequently used to
store information or software; can be reprogrammed.
ELECTROMECHANICAL - Pertaining to the conversion of electrical forces into mechanical
forces. Electromechanical relays generally have one of five devices:
(1) solenoids with plungers,
(2) balance beams,
(3) polar elements,

25
(4) armatures or clappers, or
(5) induction disks or cups.
ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS - Relays that consist of plungers, induction discs, or
cup units. They typically pose a high burden to the instrument transformers and are subject
to drift and high maintenance requirements.
ELEMENT - A fundamental irreducible constituent of a composite entity (e.g., transformers,
busses, lines and machines)
EMF (Electromotive Force) - Voltage (V). Potential difference. The force that causes the
flow of electric charge.
ENERGIZED - Having a source of voltage and/or current.
EVENT RECORDS - Information collected by the microprocessor during a fault or relay
operation; date, time, current, voltage, output status, input status, etc.
FAULT - A defect in a circuit caused by imperfect connections, poor insulation, grounding
or shorting. Often used as short circuit.
FIRMWARE - Performs the same function as software, but the instructions are pro-
grammed to a chip that is installed in a socket in the computer.
FLASHOVER - An unintended electric arc, as between two pieces of an apparatus.
FREQUENCY (f) - The number of repetitions per unit time of a complete waveform such as
current or voltage. One-half the number of zero crossings per unit time for voltage and
current. The reciprocal of the period (f = 1 /P).
GENERATOR - A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
GROUND - (Earth esp. British) (1) The position or portion of an electric circuit that is at zero
potential with respect to the earth. (2) A conduction connection to such a position or to the
earth.
HARDWARE - The physical portion of a computing system; keyboards, screens, circuit
boards, hard drives, power supplies, etc.
HARMONIC - A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave, having a frequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency, (e.g., a component the frequency of which
is twice the fundamental frequency, is called the second harmonic).
IEC - International Electromechanical Commission. Pertains to internationally accepted
standards of performance.
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IMPEDANCE (Z) - The measure of total opposition to current flow in an ac circuit, equal to
the ratio of voltage to current, expressed as a complex number, Z = R + jX, where R is the
ohmic resistance and X the reactance.
INDUCTION - The generation of electromotive force in a closed circuit by a varying mag-
netic flux through the circuit.
INVERSE-TIME DELAY - A purposely introduced time delay that decreases as the magni-
tude of the initiating quantity increases. See DEFINITE TIME DELAY.
KILO (k) - Prefix used to indicate a multiple of 103 .
LINE - An electric power transmission cable.
LIVE - Energized. Connected to a source of emf.
MAGNITUDE - A property that can be quantitatively described (e.g., the length of a vector).
MEGA (M) - Prefix used to indicate a multiple of 106 .
MICROPROCESSOR RELAY - Relays that use a Central Processing Unit (CPU) to perform
their functions. These microprocessors are similar to those used in Personal Computers
and Laptop Computers.

26
MODEM - Abbreviation for MOdulator DEModulator. A communications device used to
send data between two computers.
MULTIFUNCTION RELAY - A relay that contains functions found in more than one electro-
mechanical or solid state relay such as overcurrent, reclosing, and breaker failure in one
package or reclosing and synch-checking in one package.
OSCILLOGRAPHY - A reproduction of the current or voltage waveforms at the time of fault
or time of event capture. Digital channels such as input or output contact states may some-
times be viewed as well.
PHASE ROTATION –PHASE SEQUENCE - The order in which the individual phases of a
polyphase system reach their positive peaks. Typically A-B-C.
PHASOR - A polar form vector used to represent electrical quantities in circuit analysis.
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (PT) - (Voltage transformer (VT) esp. British) Transformers
that step down line voltages for: (1) convenient measurement of large voltages, standard
120 volt secondary, (2) isolation of relays, and other instruments, from high voltage circuits.
Similar to power transformers, designed for optimum performances with high impedance
secondary loads operated with high flux density in the core. See ANSI C57.13 Instrument
Transformers.
POWER - The product of the effective voltage and current in an ac circuit.
PRIMARY - (1) That part or portion of a circuit or transformer that induces a voltage (which
may drive a current) upon another part or portion. See SECONDARY. (2) The first or princi-
pal - See BACKUP.
PRINCIPLE - (1) A basic or essential quality determining intrinsic nature or characteristic
behavior. (2) A rule or law concerning the functioning of mechanical and/or electrical pro-
cesses.
RAM - Random Access Memory. Computer can store or retrieve information from this area.
REACTANCE (X) - The imaginary component of impedance. Involves inductance and
capacitance.
REACTIVE POWER (Q) - The imaginary part of the complex expression for total power.
Measured in volt amperes reactive (vars).
REDUNDANCY - Duplication or repetition of components to provide alternate functional
channels in case of failure. See BACKUP.
RELAY - An electric device designed to respond to input conditions in a prescribed man-
ner and after specified conditions are met to cause contact operation or similar abrupt
change in associated electric control circuits.
RELIABILITY - The level of assurance that a device will function properly and not improp-
erly. Often considered in two parts: Dependability and Security (q.v.).
RESISTANCE (R) - The real part of impedance. Measured in ohms. The factor by which
the effective current is multiplied to derive the real power loss for that element or circuit.
ROM - Read Only Memory. Used by the computer to read information, cannot store infor-
mation here.
RS232 - A communications protocol allowing serial data to be ex-changed with only the
relay it is connected to.
RS485 - A communications protocol allowing serial data to be ex-changed with one of
many addressable relays on an loop.
RUNAWAY - An out-of-control overspeed condition for a machine.
SAMPLE RATE - Number of times per cycle the voltage or current is measured in a micro-
processor relay.

27
SCADA - Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SECONDARY - That part or portion of a circuit or transformer upon which a voltage is
induced. See PRIMARY.
SECURITY - The measure or degree of certainty that a device will not function when erro-
neous information is supplied.
SELECTIVITY - The ability of a device to recognize a fault or other abnormal system condi-
tion, and discriminate between those upon which it should and should not act.
SENSITIVITY - The minimum signal required by a device to produce a specific output
signal.
SOFTWARE - Instructions used by a Central Processing Unit of a computer to perform the
desired operation of the software. Software is stored on a Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Tape, or
CD ROM.
SOLID STATE - Based on, or consisting chiefly of, semiconductor components.
SOLID STATE RELAYS - Relays that use electronic or semiconductor components such as
diodes, transistors, operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits.
STATIC RELAY - Same as Solid State Relay.
STEADY STATE - A condition wherein no transients are present.
SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCE (X”) - The reactance of a generator at the initiation of a
fault used for the calculation of the initial symmetrical fault current. The current continuously
decreases, but it is assumed to be steady at this value for approximately 0.05 seconds
immediately following a suddenly applied fault.
SURGE - A sudden, transient increase in voltage or current.
SUSCEPTANCE (B) - The imaginary component of admittance.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS - Pertains to a method of polyphase circuit analysis
where an unbalanced system of n related phasors is resolved into n systems of balanced
phasors called the Symmetrical Components of the original phasors.
SYNCHRONISM (SYNC) - Having identical periods (frequency) and phase. Often in-
cludes the same potential.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE - An electric machine having a speed directly proportional to
the frequency of the current supplied to or by the machine.
TRANSFORMER - A device used to transfer electric energy from one part or portion of a
circuit to another, especially by use of inductively coupled windings that effect a transfer
with a change in voltage, current or other electric characteristic.
TRANSIENT - A temporary oscillation that occurs in a circuit because of a sudden change
in voltage or load.
TRANSIENT REACTANCE (X’) - The reactance of a generator between the subtransient
(c.f.) and synchronous states used for the calculation of the symmetrical fault current during
this period. The current continuously decreases but is assumed to be steady at this value
for approximately 0.25 seconds.
TRIP - To cause the operation of a relay or circuit breaker especially to interrupt, disconnect
or disable.
VOLTAGE (V or E) - Electromotive force. Potential difference. Expressed in volts.
WATCHDOG TIMER - A function internal to the microprocessor that continually checks to
make sure the processor is working normally. Part of the “self check” features of a micro-
processor relay.
WINDINGS - Wire wound into a coil utilized for the transfer of electric energy by induc-
tance.

28
ZONE - A designated area or section of the system established to distinguish it from other
similar areas or sections for specific protection requirements.

29