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Indoor Positioning Using Visible LED Lights: A Survey
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Indoor Positioning Using Visible LED Lights: A Survey
NAVEED UL HASSAN, AQSA NAEEM, MUHAMMAD ADEEL PASHA, TARIQ JADOON,
Electrical Engineering Department, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore
CHAU YUEN, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore
Visible light LEDs, due to their numerous advantages are expected to become the dominant indoor light-
ing technology. These lights can also be switched ON/OFF at high frequency, enabling their additional use
for wireless communication and indoor positioning. In this paper, visible LED lights based Indoor Position-
ing Systems (IPS) are surveyed and classified into two broad categories based on the receiver structure.
The basic principle and architecture of each design category along with various position computation algo-
rithms are discussed and compared. Finally several new research, implementation, commercialization and
standardization challenges are identified and highlighted for this relatively novel and interesting indoor
localization technology.
Categories and Subject Descriptors: C.2.m [Computer-Communication Networks]: Wireless Communi-
cations
General Terms: Design, Algorithms, Performance
Additional Key Words and Phrases: Indoor Positioning Systems, Localization algorithms, Light Emitting
Diodes, Photodiodes, Cameras
ACM Reference Format:
Naveed Ul Hassan, Aqsa Naeem, Muhammad Adeel Pasha, Tariq Jadoon, and Chau Yuen , 2015. A Survey
on the Design of Visible LED Lights Based Indoor Positioning System. ACM Comput. Surv. V, N, Article A
(October 2015), 30 pages.
DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/0000000.0000000
1. INTRODUCTION
Positioning systems enable the computation of location coordinates of a receiver with
the purpose of providing location based services. For instance, Global Positioning Sys-
tem (GPS) makes outdoor navigation fairly reliable and ubiquitous. However, the sit-
uation is entirely different for indoor locations, since satellite signals are significantly
degraded due to obstacles such as walls and ceilings. Indoor environment is challeng-
ing, localization requirements are diverse and application scenarios are numerous.
For instance, the difference between the actual and estimated position of a robot nav-
igating inside a warehouse should be relatively small as compared to a human being
navigating inside shopping malls and museums.
Indoor Positioning System (IPS) design technologies are diverse and several systems
have been proposed using radio frequency (typically Wi-Fi, GSM, satellite signals),
This work was supported in part by the Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) Research
Startup Grant, LUMS Faculty Initiative Fund and Temasek Lab.
Author’s addresses: Naveed Ul Hassan, Aqsa Naeem, Muhammad Adeel Pasha and Tariq Jadoon are with
Electrical Engineering Department, Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS), Lahore, Pakistan
while Chau Yuen is with Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), Singapore.
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DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/0000000.0000000
ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. V, No. N, Article A, Publication date: October 2015.
A:2 Naveed Ul Hassan et al.
Table I. Comparison of Indoor Positioning System (IPS) Design Technologies
IPS Design Positioning Complexity Robustness Cost Re-use of

Technology Error (m) Infrastructure
Wi-Fi Technology 1-7 Medium Performance depends Low Uses already
[Gallagher et al. 2010], [Schulcz et al. 2010], on the positioning installed Wi-fi
[Xiang et al. 2004], [Kwon et al. 2004], algorithm and infrastructure
[Kaemarungsi and Krishnamurthy 2004], fingerprinting database
[Giustiniano and Mangold 2011],
[Xiong and Jamieson 2012]
GSM Technology 5 Medium Signals from several Low Uses existing
[Otsason et al. 2005] base stations and base stations
fingerprinting database
required for accuracy
GPS Technology 5 - 10 Low Poor accuracy due to Low Requires
[K. Ozsoy and Tekin 2013]; [M. Petovello 2009] signal attenuation GPS repeaters
Bluetooth Technology 2-5 Medium Performance is affected Medium Requires
[Di Flora et al. 2005], [Baniukevic et al. 2011], by the obstacles bluetooth tags,
[Jevring et al. 2008], [Anastasi et al. 2003], location server
[Vandikas et al. 2007], [Wang et al. 2013],
[Bargh and de Groote 2008]
Zigbee Technology 3-5 Low Susceptible to Low Requires Zigbee
[Hu et al. 2011], [Fernandez et al. 2011] interference module
Earth’s Magnetic Field Technology <1 Medium Performance is affected Medium Requires
[Chung et al. 2011] by metallic objects magnetic
compass
Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) Technology 0.1 - 0.3 Medium Susceptible to multi-path High Requires UWB
[Gholami et al. 2010], and interference from wave generator
[Ingram et al. 2004],[Waldmann et al. 2012] reflected UWB signals and receivers
Ultrasound Technology 0.1 - 1 Medium Performance is affected High Requires
[Holm 2012] by other reflected waves ultrasound
emitters
Audible sound Technology 0.4 Low Influenced by sound noise Low Requires
[Peng et al. 2007], [Priyantha et al. 2000], in the surroundings acoustic
[Mandal et al. 2005] sensors
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 1-2 Medium Accuracy depends on Low Requires
Technology [Werb and Lanzl 1998], number and type of tags RFID tags
[Saad and Nakad 2011], and receivers
[Schoenegger et al. 2008]
Infrared LED lights Technology 0.1 Low Required number of Low Requires
[Hijikata et al. 2009],[Want et al. 1992], LEDs is at least IR LEDs
[Vegni and Biagi 2012] half the number of
unknown parameters
Visible LED Lights Technology 0.01 - 0.35 Low Restriction on the Low Uses existing
[Zhou et al. 2012], [Vongkulbhisal et al. 2012], number of LEDs LED lighting
[Jung et al. 2013; 2012; 2011], (minimum 3 in most infrastructure
[Kim et al. 2011; 2013], [Hann et al. 2010], cases for 3D
[Jeong et al. 2013], [Won et al. 2013], localization)
[Zhang and Kavehrad 2012],
[Yang et al. 2013; 2013, 2012],
[Prince and Little 2012], [Nadeem et al. 2014],
[Rahman et al. 2011b; 2011a],
[Zheng et al. 2011], [Yoshino et al. 2008],
[Tanaka and Haruyama 2009],
[Taparugssanagorn et al. 2013],
[Panta and Armstrong 2012],[Do et al. 2013]
Indoor Positioning Using Visible LED Lights: A Survey A:3
earth’s magnetic field, ultrasound signals, etc. A broad comparison of these technolo-
gies based on factors such as cost, positioning error, complexity and re-use potential
of available infrastructure is provided in Table I. This table clearly demonstrates that
some IPS technologies e.g., Wi-Fi [Gallagher et al. 2010; Schulcz et al. 2010; Xiang
et al. 2004; Kwon et al. 2004; Kaemarungsi and Krishnamurthy 2004] and GSM [Ot-
sason et al. 2005], can re-use already available infrastructure, such as Wi-Fi Access
Points (APs) and base stations, respectively. Generally, low positioning error means
high localization accuracy, which is a desirable attribute of IPS designs. Positioning
error provided by Wi-Fi technology is lower as compared to GSM and GPS based tech-
niques. In order to use GPS technology for indoor locations, GPS repeaters are required
to boost the reception of GPS signals [K. Ozsoy and Tekin 2013; M. Petovello 2009]. The
main motivation of using GPS technology for indoor localization lies in its simplicity
and re-use of existing infrastructure. In these solutions, satellite signals received by an
outdoor antenna are amplified and re-radiated by indoor antenna, thereby providing
live GPS signals indoors. Various positioning algorithms are then developed to deter-
mine the location of indoor receivers with the help of these signals. Unfortunately, in-
door positioning error is never less than outdoor positioning error, which is several me-
ters. Bluetooth [Di Flora et al. 2005; Baniukevic et al. 2011; Vandikas et al. 2007; Wang
et al. 2013; Anastasi et al. 2003] and Zigbee [Hu et al. 2011; Fernandez et al. 2011]
based designs have also been developed but they require additional infrastructure and
cannot provide a low positioning error. The earth’s magnetic field [Chung et al. 2011],
Ultra Wide Band (UWB) [Gholami et al. 2010; Ingram et al. 2004; Waldmann et al.
2012] and ultrasound [Holm 2012] technologies can be used to develop highly accu-
rate IPS designs. However, the cost and complexity of these systems is also high since
they require additional hardware. IPS designs, which use audible sound [Mandal et al.
2005; Peng et al. 2007; Priyantha et al. 2000] require acoustic sensors and can be eas-
ily implemented with low complexity to provide moderate localization accuracy. Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) techniques [Werb and Lanzl 1998; Saad and Nakad
2011; Schoenegger et al. 2008] proposed for positioning purposes require additional
tags that increase their overall cost and complexity. Infrared (IR) LED lights based
designs [Vegni and Biagi 2012; Hijikata et al. 2009] can provide high localization ac-
curacy but require special purpose IR LED lights. Finally visible LED lights based
designs [Zhou et al. 2012], [Vongkulbhisal et al. 2012], [Jung et al. 2013; 2012; 2011],
[Kim et al. 2011; 2013], [Hann et al. 2010], [Jeong et al. 2013],[Won et al. 2013], [Zhang
and Kavehrad 2012], [Yang et al. 2013; 2013, 2012], [Prince and Little 2012], [Nadeem
et al. 2014], [Rahman et al. 2011b; 2011a], [Zheng et al. 2011], [Yoshino et al. 2008],
[Tanaka and Haruyama 2009], [Do et al. 2013], [Taparugssanagorn et al. 2013],[Panta
and Armstrong 2012], which are also the topic of this survey can provide high local-
ization accuracy (extremely low positioning errors) whilst utilizing the indoor lighting
infrastructure. There are also some systems, which integrate two or more localization
techniques in order to devise an accurate IPS design [Azizyan et al. 2009], [Nandaku-
mar et al. 2012]. The authors in [Azizyan et al. 2009] use a mobile phone to form a
database of physical parameters, such as ambient light, colour and sound at different
positions, which is later used during the online stage to determine the receiver coor-
dinates. Similarly in [Nandakumar et al. 2012], Wi-Fi technology is integrated with
acoustic technique to localize wide range of devices in an office environment.
For indoor localization, Wi-Fi technology is a more popular choice since Wi-Fi based
IPS designs can exploit available APs and can also provide localization accuracy up to
few meters at moderate cost and complexity [Yang et al. 2013]. However, neither Wi-Fi
nor any other IPS design technology can be regarded as a clear cut favorite since each
technology has its own merits, limitations, and trade-offs. In recent years, Visible Light
Communication (VLC) systems have gained a lot of research and development inter-
est since visible light spectrum (380nm-780nm) is freely available and does not fall
under spectrum regulations. Some VLC based applications include car to car commu-
nication systems, vehicle to infrastructure communication systems, underwater com-
munication systems and indoor positioning systems. The transmitter in VLC systems
is normally an LED, which is leveraged to perform some additional functions beside
its primary use as a lighting source. LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semi-
conducting materials doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. In LEDs, current
flows from the p-side to the n-side, to produce light energy. The wavelength of emitted
light depends on the materials used to form the p-n junction. There are currently two
types of visible LED lights [O’brien et al. 2008; Xu and Sadler 2008]. The first type
provides a higher bandwidth and produces white light by combining signals from red,
green and blue LED lights. The second type has relatively lower cost and it uses only a
blue colored LED coated with phosphorus to produce white light. Many advantages of
VLC systems are primarily derived from recent advances and characteristics of LED
technology, such as:
— Data Modulation: LEDs can be switched ON and OFF at high frequencies, which
allows data modulation and thus support wireless communication.
— Energy efficiency: LED lighting infrastructure can save up to 85% energy compared
to the incandescent lamps and 60% energy compared to fluorescent lamps, while
providing similar brightness and illumination.
— Longer life expectancy: LED lights are expected to last several years.
— Harmless: Unlike IR and lasers, visible light is harmless to humans. It also does not
interfere with other electronic devices.
— Environment Friendly: Green technology since less CO2 emissions, no mercury or
other toxic elements.
— Cost Effective: Due to high energy efficiency and longer life expectancy, additional
cost to include extra features are small and benefits last longer.
— Use at restricted places: Can be used at several restricted places e.g., hospitals, air-
planes etc., without any fear of electromagnetic interference.
— Security: Communication is more secure and confined as light cannot penetrate thick
walls. Independent systems in different rooms can be provided without any interfer-
ence.
Since LEDs are rapidly replacing traditional lighting sources inside buildings, there
is a huge opportunity of realizing the dream of a ubiquitous, reliable and cost effec-
tive IPS design technology through the dual use of these lights for indoor localization.
This realization has sparked significant research interest in visible LED lights based
IPS designs in the last few years. Some relevant international standards have also
been proposed by Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Associa-
tion (JEITA) [Jeita 2007;2013], [Haruyama 2007]. JEITA CP-1222, published in 2007,
describes a protocol for transmission of identification signals from LEDs [Haruyama
2007], while JEITA CP-1223, published in 2013, stipulates a communication method
and a frame structure of single directional visible light beacon [Jeita 2013]. A good
review on international standardization of visible LED lights based IPS designs and
future road-map is provided in [Armstrong et al. 2013].
In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey on IPS designs using visible LED
lights. We classify IPS designs proposed in the literature into two broad categories,
i.e., photodiode and camera based. The basic principle and architecture of each design
category along with various position determination algorithms are discussed. Photodi-
ode based designs are further classified using the characteristics of the received optical
signals, which include,
— Received Signal Strength (RSS)

— Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA)
— Angle of Arrival (AOA)
Camera based designs are classified based on the type and nature of auxiliary equip-
ment, such as accelerometers or additional sensors used in conjunction with LED
lights. We compare and provide useful insights and discussions on the positioning er-
ror, complexity, robustness and cost of various visible LED lights based IPS designs.
We also identify and discuss several new research, implementation, commercialization
and standardization challenges. We hope that this article will provide stimulus for fur-
ther research and development in visible LED lights based IPS designs and will also
be helpful in future standardization efforts.
The remaining paper is arranged as follows. In Section II, we discuss some appli-
cations and provide a broad system overview by discussing the major building blocks
required on the transmitter and receiver sides of any visible LED lights based IPS de-
sign. In Section III, we classify the designs based on receiver structure and positioning
algorithms. In Section IV, we provide comparisons, insights and discussion on various
designs in terms of their localization accuracy, cost, complexity, and robustness. In sec-
tion V we identify challenges and future directions. Finally the paper is concluded in
Section VI.
2. APPLICATION SCENARIOS AND SYSTEM OVERVIEW
2.1. Applications
Visible LED lights based IPS design can provide indoor localization with the help of
ceiling LED lamps acting as reference anchors (interchangeably called transmitters).
There can be numerous location based applications for shopping malls, industries, of-
fices, etc., which can be developed using these systems as discussed below.1
— Industries, Warehouses and Public places
In industries and warehouses, location based services could be required for robot nav-
igation, locating a tagged object or worker, monitoring of assets, detection of products
and inventory management. Figure 1-(a), shows a robot using optical signals trans-
mitted by ceiling LED lights for localization and navigation inside a building. Lo-
cating a vacant space in a large and enclosed car parking area or finding the nearest
empty table in a restaurant could also be facilitated by using visible LED lights based
IPS designs. Navigation services in public buildings can also be provided. Such sys-
tems can also be helpful during emergency or rescue situations to locate and track
persons and objects.
— Museums
Location aware services can also be provided in museums to deliver information
about the nearest artifact to the visitor and navigating them through different gal-
leries and exhibitions. One such application is shown in Figure 1-(b), where the vis-
itor is shown using the personal smart device, e.g. smart phone or tablet, communi-
cating with the LED transmitters for enhanced viewing and location based services.
— Shopping Malls
Provision of location based services and advertisements to the shoppers can bene-
fit not only the retailers but also the buyers. Targeted offers regarding products or
brands can be delivered to customers. Likewise, a shopper can use location aware
search to find the nearby shops or products inside a shopping mall. The customer’s
1 Itshould be noted that visible LED lights based IPS designs have a great potential to revolutionize indoor
location based application market. There may be many other possible applications in future, all of which
cannot be predicted in advance.
mobile device would detect the visible light signals transmitted by the LEDs to de-
termine its location, which would then be transmitted to the retailer’s network using
Bluetooth or Wi-Fi technology. The network would then respond by providing location
based services to the shopper e.g., the exact location of the desired product.
— Offices, Schools and Universities
Some office applications, include tracking a person inside a building, checking the
identity of an individual in a conference, monitoring the activity or movements of
the office bearers and detecting an unauthorized access to a certain area. Finding
an unoccupied workstation in a school or university laboratory can be assisted by
using a location aware service. LED based IPS would detect the position of a vacant
computer and information regarding it would be communicated to the next person
who enters the room. Similarly, location based services could also be provided inside
libraries to locate books and in hallways to notify whether a class is being held in the
nearest auditorium or not.
— Hospitals
LED based transmitters will not create interference to medical devices in hospitals.
Such systems can be used for the navigation of the wheelchairs or patients. This can
be done by locating the position of the receiving device on the wheelchairs or any
wearable detection device on patients and then transmitting location coordinates to
the central computer using Wi-Fi. Elderly, handicapped or visually impaired people
can also benefit from such systems by tracking their movements to avoid falls or
collisions with other objects.
— Transport Stations
Passengers can be guided to the desired airport terminals, train platforms etc., by
determining their current position. Interactive maps showing nearest shops, dining
areas or rest rooms can also be displayed on their smart devices.
The localization accuracy requirements would be different for each application. For
example, tracking and navigational applications have higher localization accuracy re-
quirements compared to some other applications like monitoring unauthorized access
or finding the airport or train terminals.
2.2. System Overview

We consider a generalized indoor environment (e.g., a building) divided into distinct
regions, where each region is assumed to be fitted with multiple LEDs for lighting pur-
poses. For example, in a shopping mall, the regions might represent product sections,
in a hospital, patient wards, private rooms, hallways etc. In the rest of the paper, we
will term any region of our generalized indoor environment as a “room” and model it as
shown in Figure 2. Receiver position inside the room with respect to the origin labeled
“O” will be termed as “local position” (or simply receiver position later on in the paper),
while its position in the entire building will be termed as “global position”. Each LED
light is given a unique ‘address’, which corresponds to its location coordinates (x, y, z)
with respect to the origin “O” and a unique global identification (ID) number. LED lo-
cation coordinates allow the receiver to determine its local position in the room, which
is a major challenge. Once the local position is known, the receiver can transmit the
LED IDs and its local position coordinates to a centralized server, which can compute
the global coordinates.
In order to encode addresses and IDs into bits, a processor is required at each LED
light. For example, the location coordinates of LED B, in meters, might be (3, 1, 3),
which can be encoded into a bit sequence 110111 (in this example, we have used 2
bits to encode each coordinate). A driver circuit then switches LEDs into an ON/OFF
(High/Low) state according to some modulation scheme. The easiest and common
D E

Fig. 1. Visible LED lights based IPS Applications
method to modulate data is On-Off Keying (OOK). Information bits thus modulate
the intensity of the light being transmitted by each LED giving it the appropriate
name “Intensity Modulation” (IM) [Yang et al. 2013; Yang et al. 2013]. When there are
multiple LEDs in a room, a multiplexing protocol (medium access control technique or
transmission protocol) such as Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) or Time Divi-
sion Multiplexing (TDM) is also required in order to ensure that signals from different
LEDs can be differentiated at the receiver in order to recover the respective LED an-
chor location coordinates. Various circuit elements, such as amplifiers, timing circuits,
etc., are also required to physically connect LEDs with the data being carried on buses
or wires, while simultaneously ensuring that the desired light intensity and brightness
is not affected.
The receiver is assumed to have the necessary decoding capabilities to determine the
LED location coordinates and IDs.2 The main challenge for the receiver, however, is the
determination of its own position coordinates from the received optical signals (since
knowing only the LED location coordinates is not enough). Any visible LED lights
based IPS receiver, therefore, either exploits received signal characteristics (such as
RSS, TDOA or AOA) using photodiodes or employs image sensors (cameras). An ap-
propriate positioning algorithm based on the measured signal characteristics is also
needed in order to determine unknown location coordinates in photodiode based de-
signs. For example, a system of simultaneous equations based on RSS values can be
developed and solved, triangulation or trilateration techniques can be used, a finger-
printing database which stores some signal attribute at various reference locations can
be developed and employed for position determination. Photodiode based designs gen-
erally require a multiplexing protocol to differentiate signals arriving from different
LEDs. In camera based designs, LEDs are distinguished by taking successive images
at high frequency. An image transformation technique is generally employed to de-
2 We do not discuss encoder/decoder designs since our focus in not on VLC.


Fig. 2. Visible LED lights based IPS inside a typical room
Transmitter Receiver
DƵůƚŝƉůĞǆŝŶŐ RSS/Kͬ
Protocols TDOA
TDM/FDM Positioning
Photodiode based Algorithm
LED Driver LED Array
TDM
Circuit Array ĚĞŵƵůƚŝƉůĞǆŝŶŐ
Optical LED
FDM Wireless Coordinates
Channel
Fig. 3. Generic Transmitter and Receiver Module in a visible LED lights based IPS design employing Pho-
todiodes
termine the receiver position. Additional information from auxiliary devices, such as,
accelerometers or additional sensors and lenses can be used to reduce the complex-
ity of image transformation algorithms. Generic transmitter and receiver modules of
a visible LED lights based IPS designs employing photodiodes and image sensors are
shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF VISIBLE LED LIGHTS BASED IPS DESIGNS

We broadly classify visible LED lights based IPS designs into two categories, i.e., pho-
todiode based and camera based. This classification is shown in Figure 5. These IPS
designs are mainly concerned with the determination of the local position of the re-
Transmitter Receiver
LED Image
Information
Camera or
Image
LED Driver LED Array Sensor Positioning
Processor ^ŝŐŶĂů
Circuit LED Algorithm
Processing Coordinates
Optical
Wireless
Channel
Auxiliary
Devices
Auxiliary
Information
Fig. 4. Generic Transmitter and Receiver Module in a visible LED lights based IPS design employing Image
Sensors (cameras)
ceiver with respect to origin “O” inside the room.3 In the following we will explain
these designs and various position determination algorithms.
3.1. Photodiode Based Designs
Visible light radiated from an LED transmitter undergoes intensity and phase varia-
tions as it propagates in an optical wireless channel. A photodiode is a solid state de-
vice, which can sense incident light and converts it into an electrical current. The cur-
rent produced by the photodiode is directly proportional to the incident optical power.
Received signals obtained from each LED (where different LEDs are distinguished
through their unique code and multiplexing protocol) are further processed. Photo-
diode based designs mainly exploit RSS, TDOA or AOA information of the received
optical signals. Based on the signal characteristics a positioning algorithm is designed
to localize the receiver.
In the literature, while designing a photodiode based IPS, the LED is usually as-
sumed to be a Lambertian source such that it emits light uniformly in all directions
and the received intensity remains the same regardless of the receiver’s angle of view.
Furthermore, if the distance between transmitter and receiver is much greater than
the dimensions of the receiver, the received signal strength is assumed to be constant
and the optical wireless channel between i-th LED and receiver is approximated by
[Zhou et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2012],
n+1 Ri
cosn (φi ) cos(θi )δ(t −

hi (t) =
A
2πRi2 R c ) θi ≤ F oV
(1)
0 θi > F oV
where, the radiation lobe’s mode number is denoted by n, θi is the angle that the re-
ceived signal makes with receiver’s orientation vector, φi is the angle that the trans-
mitted signal makes with the source orientation vector, AR is defined as the surface
area of the receiver, c is light speed, Ri is distance between i-th LED and receiver, and
F oV denotes receiver’s field-of-view. The F oV value depends on the type and quality
3 The main challenge is the determination of local position of the receiver inside the room using optical
signals. Global position can be determined by the centralized server once the local position of the receiver
and LED IDs are known.
RSS based
techniques
AOA based
Photodiode techniques
TDOA based
techniques
Visible LED based IPS
Image
Transformations using
a camera only
Camera
Image Transformations
using auxiliary
equipments
Fig. 5. Broad Classification of Visible LED lights based IPS Designs

Fig. 6. Angles φ and θ to compute channel impulse response where n̂T and n̂R are transmitter and receiver
orientation vectors respectively
of photodiode and it is generally required that at all locations, light from a sufficient
number of LEDs is incident on the receiver at an angle less than that of its field-of-
view in order to get accurate position estimates from the positioning module. Angles φ
and θ required to compute channel impulse response are shown in Figure 6. From this
figure, we can observe that φ and θ are equal to each other under the assumption that
the receiving plane is parallel to the transmitting plane, which further simplifies the
analysis.
Let si (t) denote the transmitted signal from the i-th LED, then the received signal
at the photodiode receiver is given as [Zhou et al. 2012],
N
X
r(t) = G si (t) ⊗ hi (t) + n(t) (2)
i=1
where, N denotes total LED transmitters in the IPS design, n(t) is Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN) noise that is added at the receiver, G is a constant that de-
notes the responsiveness of the photodiode, and ⊗ denotes the convolution operation.
RSS based designs usually employ Direct Detection (DD) at the receiver. It is a type
of non-coherent detection, which determines the presence or absence of energy with-
out recovering phase information. Since signal power varies with the distance between
LEDs and the receiver, the receiver position can be estimated by using the intensities
of the received signals. In RSS based DD receivers, if PT is the average power of trans-
mitted signal from each LED, then the received power or signal intensity from i-th
LED at the photodiode receiver located at distance Ri is given as,
n+1
Pri = AR cosn (φi )cos(θi )PT (3)
2πRi2
In (3), the distance Ri is a function of signal intensity. Generally, RSS based designs
require simple hardware structure and are thus, easier to implement.
TDOA based designs determine the phase delay information from the received sig-
nals. A phase detector (e.g., Hilbert transform or quadrature phase detector) is re-
quired to estimate the phase delay, which is usually measured with respect to the
phase of some reference signal. Phase delay information is then converted into TDOA
information. The received signal is processed such that distance information is con-
tained in the phase. The received signal after some signal processing can be expressed
as [Nadeem et al. 2014],

Ri
s̃i (t) = K̃ cos 2πfi (t − ) (4)
c
where, K̃ = K̂Hi (0)Pt2 and Hi (0) is the DC component of the channel, K̂ denotes a
constant that depends on signal processing at the receiver, and fi denotes the switching
frequency of the i-th LED transmitter [Nadeem et al. 2014]. The receiver structure of
TDOA based design is more complex in comparison with an RSS based design.
AOA based designs are particularly useful when the optical signal transmitted by
the LED reaches the receiver from a dominant Line Of Sight (LOS) path. These designs
exploit the fact that receive power is also a function of the angles φi and θi ; the angles
at which the light is radiated from LED and the angle at which it is incident on the
photodiode as evident from (3) and Figure 6. These angles are decided by the location
coordinates of the LEDs and the receiver, which can be determined using trigonometric
relations. The layout of the optical transceiver grid is critical for AOA positioning, and
its effects on localization accuracy are quantified by way of the dilution of precision
(DOP). A thorough mathematical treatment of DOP for two dimensional positioning is
provided in [Dempster2006].
Once RSS, TDOA or AOA information is obtained, various positioning algorithms
can then be employed. Below we briefly describe these algorithms. We will assume
that (x, y, z) denotes location coordinates of the receiver and (xi , yi , zi ) denotes location
Simultaneous Equations
[Zhou et al. 2012], [Jung et al. 2013]
Fingerprinting Algorithm
[Vongkulbhisal et al. 2012], [Jung et al.
2012], [Hann et al. 2010], [Won et al. 2013],
[Yang et al. 2012; 2013]
RSS based Correlation Sum Ratios

techniques [Jung et al. 2012], [Hann et al. 2010]
Extinction Ratio Distribution
Algorithm [Won et al. 2013], [Yang et al.
2012; 2013]
Trilateration [Yang et al. 2013a],

[Jeong et al. 2013], [Kim et al. 2011;2013]
Triangulation [Zhang and Kavehrad

2012], [Prince and Little 2012]
Trilateration
Visible LED Lights [Jeong et al. 2013]
AOA based
based IPS using techniques
photodiode Triangulation [Prince and Little
2012], [Arafa et al. 2012; 2013]
Simultaneous Equations
[Nadeem et al. 2014]
Predetermined phase variation

TDOA based method [Panta and Armstrong 2012]
techniques
Trilateration
[Jung et al. 2011]
Multi-lateration [Do et al. 2013],

[Taparugssanagorn et al. 2013]
Fig. 7. Classification Tree for Visible LED based IPS designs using Photodiodes
coordinates of the i-th LED with respect to the origin “O” as shown in Figure 2. A
classification tree for these algorithms is given in Figure 7.4
3.1.1. Solving a System of Simultaneous Equations. [Zhou et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2013;
Nadeem et al. 2014] This technique for position determination can be used with any
measured signal characteristics. The distance Ri between i-th LED and receiver can
be expressed in Cartesian coordinates as,
p
Ri = (xi − x)2 + (yi − y)2 + (zi − z)2 (5)
4 Thisclassification tree shows the combinations of signal characteristics and positioning algorithms based
on the literature survey. However, it should be noted that some positioning algorithms e.g., simultaneous
equations, triangulation etc., are quite generic, which can be used with any type of signal characteristics
(RSS, TDOA, AOA).
Therefore, assuming that the LED location coordinates are successfully recovered from
the modulated information (using the appropriate multiplexing protocol), the unknown
location coordinates (x, y, z) can be determined by solving at least three appropriate
independent equations either using the RSS or TDOA based signal processing. This
localization technique requires at least four LED transmitters in order to determine
the unknown location coordinates if RSS based equations are employed [Zhou et al.
2012; Jung et al. 2013]. On the other hand, if a TDOA based receiver is used, five
LED transmitters are required since a reference signal from an additional LED is also
needed to compute the phase differences and TDOA information [Nadeem et al. 2014].
3.1.2. Fingerprinting Algorithms. [Vongkulbhisal et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2012; Won et al.
2013; Yang et al. 2012; 2013] Positioning algorithms based on fingerprinting technique
require a training stage before the real time estimation of the receiver position in on-
line stage. In the training stage, the indoor location is divided into a grid of several
points. At each point on the grid, some signal attribute(s) e.g. received power, Correla-
tion Sum Ratios (CSR) values, Extinction Ratio (ER) values etc., are measured through
field trials or simulations to form a database. Once the database is populated, the po-
sition of the receiver is estimated by comparing the stored values with the measured
ones at an unknown location. The coordinates of the closest match according to some
predefined criterion are returned as the estimated receiver position. The complexity of
this algorithm lies in developing a fingerprinting database, which is a labor intensive
task. Moreover, the localization algorithm requires matching measured values with
stored values and plays an important role in defining the localization accuracy of the
overall design. In visible LED lights based IPS designs, fingerprinting technique has
so far been used with RSS based measurements. However, the use of fingerprinting
with TDOA and AOA techniques is also possible.
3.1.3. Correlation Sum Ratios (CSR). [Jung et al. 2012; Hann et al. 2010] This algorithm
is used with RSS based IPS designs. In this algorithm, each LED is allocated a unique
address. The correlation of received data and LED addresses then enables the deter-
mination of receiver position. To obtain receiver coordinates in 2-D, CSR is defined for
x-axis and y-axis as [Jung et al. 2012],
CR̂A + CR̂C
CSRX = (6)
CR̂A + CR̂B + CR̂C + CR̂D
CR̂A + CR̂B
CSRY = (7)
CR̂A + CR̂B + CR̂C + CR̂D
where, CR̂A , CR̂B , CR̂C and CR̂D denote the inner product between the received data
and each address (in this notation subscript R̂ denotes receiver while subscripts A,
B, C and D denote the labels of LED transmitters as shown in Figure 2). In (6), the
CSRX value does not depend on y-axis coordinate, while in (7), the CSRY value does
not depend on x-axis coordinate. This positioning technique provides 2-D localization
and requires a minimum of at least four LEDs with a further restriction that two of
these LEDs must have the same x or y coordinates. Moreover, length of code sequence
used as an address for each LED should be equal to the number of LEDs. At every
x and y coordinate of the room, CSR values are calculated and stored in a database.
The CSR values obtained at unknown locations of the receiver are then matched with
the database and the location coordinates of the best match are returned as the es-
timated receiver location. Since a fingerprinting database of CSR values is required,
this algorithm is essentially a fingerprinting algorithm.
3.1.4. Extinction Ratio (ER) Distribution Algorithm. [Won et al. 2013; Yang et al. 2012; 2013]
In intensity modulated signals using OOK, there are two transmit power levels (and
corresponding voltage levels) associated with the ON (digital 1) and OFF (digital 0)
state of the LED transmitter respectively. If P1 and P0 denote the intensity levels
associated with ON and OFF states then ER denoted by Ẽ is defined as the ratio of
these two levels, i.e.,

P1 V1
Ẽ = 10 log10 = 20 log10 (8)
P0 V0
where, V1 and V0 denote the corresponding high and low voltage levels associated with
ON and OFF states. In this technique, a reference plane equation is formed for each
LED by measuring ER values at three different locations or reference coordinates,
which should not be collinear. The reference planar equation to determine receiver
position is given as,
Ai x + Bi y + Ci Ẽ + Di = 0 (9)
where, Ai , Bi , Ci and Di are constants defined by the reference coordinates and the cor-
responding ER values at these coordinates from the i-th LED, x and y are the unknown
location coordinates of receiver, while Ẽ is the ER value at the unknown coordinates.
Since the receiver knows the reference plane equation (using the reference values that
are stored in a database), after measuring the ER value at its current location from
i
the i-th LED, which is denoted by ẼR , (9) reduces into a line equation of the form,
1
y=− Ai x + C̃ (10)
Bi
i
where, C̃ = Ci ẼR +Di is a constant. Intersection points are obtained from the lines, e.g.,
(xij , yij ) denote the x and y coordinates of the intersection point of the lines obtained
respectively from the i-th and j-th LEDs. The estimated position of the receiver is then
determined by taking the average of the intersection points. Since this technique also
requires a database to store reference ER coordinate values, hence we also classify this
algorithm as a fingerprinting algorithm.
3.1.5. Predetermined phase variation method. [Panta and Armstrong 2012] This technique
determines the TDOA information using predetermined phase variations of sinusoidal
signals transmitted from a pair of LEDs. In-phase signals provide a maximum value
due to constructive addition of signals. Similarly, the amplitude is minimum when the
signals are out of phase and they interfere destructively. An example of peak to peak
amplitude variations by introducing phase offset in one signal relative to the other is
shown in Figure 8.
The receiver measures the phase delay difference of two interfering signals by de-
tecting the zero amplitude points. Phase delay difference is then converted into TDOA
by using a known modulation frequency and speed of light. Finally, the obtained in-
formation from several LED pairs is combined and receiver location coordinates are
estimated.
3.1.6. Trilateration. [Yang et al. 2013; Jeong et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2011; Kim et al. 2013;
Jung et al. 2011] Trilateration is a generic method to determine the unknown receiver
location by making simultaneous measurements from at least three transmitters with
known location coordinates. Once the distance of receiver from each LED is known,
circles or spheres of constant radius are drawn and several algorithms exist in the
literature, e.g. [Yang et al. 2013; Manolakis 1996], to find the intersection points (of
circles or spheres), which determine the unknown location of the receiver. It should be

Fig. 8. Peak-to-peak amplitude variations versus phase offset between two signals

Fig. 9. Example of 2-D localization using Trilateration
noted that the greater the number of LEDs used in trilateration, the more accurate will
be the position estimation. An example of this method, where three LED transmitters
are used for 2-D localization, is shown in Figure 9. This method can be used with any
type of signal measurements (RSS, TDOA or AOA). For instance, in [Jeong et al. 2013],
it has been used with AOA and RSS measurements to determine the position of the
receiver and the effect of receiver’s orientation on the localization accuracy. A method
for minimizing the error introduced due to tilted plane of the receiver has also been
presented and demonstrated with simulations and experiments.
3.1.7. Triangulation. [Zhang and Kavehrad 2012; Prince and Little 2012; Arafa et al.
2012] In triangulation technique, arrival angles are determined between each LED
transmitter and receiver in a simplified plane and trigonometric equations are em-
ployed to determine the location coordinates of receiver using these angles. In conven-
tional triangulation technique there is a possibility of obtaining numerically ill-defined
solutions. To avoid such solutions, the authors in [Prince and Little 2012] adopt a two
phase approach. In the first phase, based only on RSS information a coarse estimate
of receiver location is made. In the second phase, azimuth and elevation angles are de-
termined to establish a fine estimate of receiver location. Thus in the worst case when
triangulation fails, the algorithm still provides a coarse estimate of receiver position
based on RSS information. The effects of DOP for an optical transceiver grid with pho-
Hyperboloid
LED Panel
Receiver
8
6
Height [m]
-2 5
5
4
4
3
3
2 2
Length [m] Width [m]
1 1
0 0
Fig. 10. Example of a Hyperboloid used in Multi-lateration technique
todiode based receiver are quantified in [Arafa et al. 2012], while [Arafa et al. 2013]
quantifies the effects of DOP for an optical transceiver grid with image sensor based
positioning. Triangulation along AOA vectors that are roughly orthogonal has a low
DOP, and thus results in a small positioning error, while triangulation along AOA vec-
tors that are roughly parallel has a high DOP, and thus results in a high positioning
error.
3.1.8. Multi-lateration. [Do et al. 2013; Taparugssanagorn et al. 2013] Multi-lateration
has been used so far with TDOA based IPS designs. In this technique, by using time
difference measurements, the distance difference from the receiver to any two LEDs
is determined. The distance difference along with the location coordinates of any two
LEDs define a set of points which generate a hyperboloid as shown in Figure 10. If
receiver height is known, then the intersection of the z-plane with the hyperboloid
results in a conic. This resulting 2-D plane contains the receiver. To achieve higher
accuracy, more than two time differences can be used to draw multiple conics, which
are bound to contain the receiver. The intersection of these conics provides the solution
set of location coordinates of the receiver.
In photodiode based IPS designs, multiplexing protocol for medium access control
is also required to differentiate the transmitted signals from various LEDs at the
receiver. In the following we briefly discuss protocols that have been used so far with
visible LED lights based IPS designs.
Multiplexing Protocols: In the literature, two commonly used multiplexing pro-

tocols are TDM and FDM. In TDM protocol, transmission time is divided into frames
and each frame is divided into several time slots as shown in Figure 11. The duration
of each frame can be controlled. Each LED transmits its unique code sequence only
during its specified time slot, while all the remaining LEDs remain ON in order to
maintain their primary function as a light source. TDM protocol therefore, requires
LED$ position
data
LED$ High High High
LED% position
data
LED% High High High
LED& position
data
LED& High High High
LED' position
data
LED' High High High
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4
Fig. 11. TDM protocol for an IPS comprising of 4 LED transmitters using OOK
strict timing synchronization amongst transmitters. This protocol has been used in
designs proposed in [Zhou et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2012; Zhang and Kavehrad 2012;
Panta and Armstrong 2012; Yang et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2013; Do et al. 2013; Won
et al. 2013; Yang et al. 2013; Hann et al. 2010; Prince and Little 2012].
In FDM protocol, each LED is assigned a unique switching frequency, which allows
all the LEDs in the system to simultaneously transmit their location coordinates to
the receiver over the optical wireless channel as shown in Figure 12. LED location co-
ordinates can then be extracted at the receiver without interference provided there is
sufficient spacing in transmitted frequencies. A crystal oscillator is used at the trans-
mitter to generate the desired switching frequency for the driver circuit. When FDM
protocol is used, the switching frequencies for transmission should always be above
200 Hz in order to achieve a flicker-free (undetectable to human eyes) operation of
LEDs [Yang et al. 2009]. A filter bank is normally required at the receiver to differen-
tiate the incoming signals at different frequencies. FDM protocol is used in the designs
proposed in [Yang et al. 2013; Nadeem et al. 2014; Jung et al. 2011; Jeong et al. 2013;
Vongkulbhisal et al. 2012; Taparugssanagorn et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2013].
The relative performance of IPS designs using TDM and FDM protocols is studied in
[Nadeem et al. 2015]. In general, IPS designs using TDM protocol with strict synchro-
nization outperforms IPS designs using FDM protocol. However, TDM based designs
are more sensitive to timing synchronization errors between the transmission times of
various LED lights. The authors show that asynchronous FDM based designs provide
a lower positioning error as compared to non-synchronized TDM based designs.
It should be noted that several other multiplexing protocols e.g., Orthogonal Fre-
quency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), Code Division Multiplexing (CDMA), Multiple-
Input Multiple-Output (MIMO), etc., have not so far been used in any visible LED
lights based IPS designs. In VLC systems, these protocols have been used to multi-
plex and schedule transmissions from various LED transmitters to achieve high data
rates. Interested readers are referred to [Ren et al. 2013; Schenk et al. 2009; Liu et al.
LED$ position data
LED$
LED% position data
LED%
LED& position data
LED&
LED' position data
LED'
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4
Fig. 12. FDM protocol for an IPS comprising of 4 LED transmitters using OOK
2011; Hashemi et al. 2008; Ding and Ji 2012; Wang et al. 2011] for further information
about these protocols and their use in VLC systems. Since the data rate requirements
for indoor positioning applications are very low (each LED is only required to transmit
its location coordinates and ID), therefore, these protocols can increase the cost and
complexity of the design without providing any additional advantage. Such sophisti-
cated protocols nonetheless will only be justified for IPS designs if visible LED lighting
infrastructure is simultaneously used for positioning as well as data rate communica-
tion. The design of multiplexing protocols and appropriate frame structures for such
hybrid systems then becomes an interesting challenge, which remains as yet unex-
plored.
3.2. Camera Based Designs

Camera based designs constitute the second broad class of visible LED lights based
IPS designs. The receiver is equipped with a camera also known as an image sensor,
which takes images of LED transmitters. The position of LED in the image defines
its location in the camera or image coordinate system (where the center of the lens is
considered as the origin). The LED location coordinates in the world coordinate system
(where its origin,“O”, is as shown in Figure 2) can be determined by taking successive
images. The number of images which are required to identify and determine the LED
location coordinates depends on the switching frequency and the length of the code
sequence transmitted by each LED. For example, if an LED transmits its location
coordinates using OOK, a series of images taken by the camera are examined using
pixel detection, edge detection or center of color balance algorithms to determine the
ON or OFF status in order to extract the code sequence and hence the LED location
coordinates. Once LED location coordinates are known in both the camera and world
coordinate systems, image transformation methods [Yoshino et al. 2008] are used to
find the orientation and location of the camera in the world coordinate system. Image
transformation is a function that defines a relationship between each point in the input
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Fig. 13. Classification tree of Visible LED lights based IPS using Camera
and output images. By defining an appropriate image transformation matrix based on

the information of LED coordinates in the camera and world coordinate systems, the
unknown receiver location can be ascertained.
The complexity of image transformation technique can be reduced if some un-
known variables can be determined using auxiliary equipment, for example accelerom-
eters [Tanaka and Haruyama 2009] or additional sensors and lenses [Rahman et al.
2011b; Rahman et al. 2011a]. The use of additional sensors and lenses helps in forming
additional independent equations which are easier and quicker to solve. The use of an
accelerometer facilitates the determination of the camera inclination angles, thereby
reducing complexity. The use of auxiliary devices, however, increases the overall cost of
the system. Another method to reduce the complexity of image transformations tech-
niques is developing a database of images acquired at different known positions and
then comparing captured images with stored images. The classification tree of camera
based designs is given in Figure 13. Below we briefly describe the image transforma-
tion method and reduction in complexity offered by auxiliary devices and databases.
3.2.1. Image Transformation Method. [Yoshino et al. 2008] We explain the image trans-
formation method with the help of Figure 14. In this figure, variables (xw , yw , zw ) de-
note the world coordinate system (Cartesian coordinates), (xc , yc , zc ) denote the camera
coordinate system and the location of i-th LED in world coordinate system is denoted
by variables (xi , yi , zi ). The yc -axis correspond to the optical axis of the camera. In the
Cartesian coordinates system, the unknown location coordinates of the receiver (or
camera) and its orientation are denoted by (x, y, z) and (α, β, θ) respectively.
Using this geometry, appropriate rotation matrices Qα , Qβ and Qθ are defined as
follows [Hijikata et al. 2009],
1 0 0 cos β 0 sin β cos θ − sin θ 0

" # " # " #
Qα = 0 cos α − sin α ; Qβ = 0 1 0 ; Qθ = sin θ cos θ 0
0 sin α cos α − sin β 0 cos β 0 0 1

Fig. 14. Figure to explain image transformations method
where, Qα can be used to rotate vectors by an angle α around x-axis, Qβ can be used to
rotate vectors by an angle β around y-axis and Qθ can be used to rotate vectors by an
angle θ around z-axis. These matrices relate parameters of the camera and the world
coordinate systems. For instance, the vectors which relate origin in one coordinate sys-
tem to the LED in the other coordinate system are parallel to each other. Using this
information and the rotation matrices, it is possible to develop simultaneous equations
in unknown parameters. In general, non linear least square method or vector estima-
tion method is used to determine the unknowns.
3.2.2. Using an Additional Accelerometer. [Tanaka and Haruyama 2009] An accelerom-
eter or an acceleration sensor can help in position estimation. Once calibrated, the
accelerometer provides the acceleration (or gravity) value of the receiving module in
terms of a vector along each axis, which facilitates finding the camera orientation an-
gles (θ, α, β) without relying on image transformations alone. Thus, the value of these
orientation variables can be calculated independently using this extra information.
Once the orientation variables are determined, image transformation methods can be
applied to determine the remaining unknowns and estimating the location coordinates
of the receiver.
3.2.3. Using Two Image Sensors and Two Lenses. [Rahman et al. 2011b; Rahman et al.
2011a] In this technique, the receiver module consists of two image sensors. An optical
lens is placed in front of each image sensor as shown in Figure 15. The lenses have
identical properties and the focal length along with the axis of lens is perpendicular
to the plane of image sensor. In this setup, the receiver location coordinates (x, y, z)
are assumed to be the midpoint of the line connecting both lenses’ centers which is
labeled as U in Figure 15. In the proposed algorithm, at least three LEDs are required
with a further restriction that they should not be collinear. The distance between the
LEDs and the difference in their positions on the imaging plane gives the unknown
coordinates of the point, U . This technique does not require any measurement of angles
and hence, it simplifies the geometrical relations.
3.2.4. Using Databases. [Zheng et al. 2011] The complexity of image transformation
techniques can also be reduced by acquiring several images at different known loca-
tions and developing a database of these images. This concept is similar to fingerprint-
ing algorithms that were discussed for photodiode based IPS designs. Thus, when an

Fig. 15. System with two Image Sensors and two lenses
image is acquired, to determine unknown receiver location coordinates, it is matched

with stored images in the database and the best match is returned. This method is
cost effective in comparison with using auxiliary equipment.
4. COMPARISON, DISCUSSION AND INSIGHTS ON VISIBLE LED LIGHTS BASED IPS

DESIGNS
In this section we compare and discuss visible LED lights based IPS designs. Photodi-
ode based design techniques and their salient features are listed in Table II, while that
of camera based design techniques are listed in Table III. Please note that the compar-
ison of visible LED lights based IPS design with other competing technologies like RF,
ultrasound etc., is already given in Table I. We can also notice that some designs only
provide 2-D localization assuming that the height of the receiver above ground is ei-
ther known or is not required. Other designs can provide both 2-D and 3-D localization.
Based on these tables, in the following we compare, discuss and provide useful insights
about the positioning error, complexity, robustness and cost of various designs.
4.1. Positioning Error

Positioning error can be defined as the difference between actual and estimated loca-
tion coordinates of the receiver. Lower values of positioning error means higher local-
ization accuracy and vice-verse. In all the surveyed papers in the literature, position-
ing error is mostly obtained through experiments or simulations, while assuming ideal
conditions. From Tables II and III, we can see that the reported positioning errors of
many designs is only few centimeters (cm). This is a huge improvement in compari-
son with Wi-Fi based techniques, which are primarily preferred due to their ability to
re-use existing infrastructure i.e., Wi-Fi APs. The localization accuracy of photodiode
based designs is generally higher in comparison with camera based designs. Amongst
photodiode based designs, simultaneous equation solving technique based on either
RSS or TDOA measurements achieves the highest localization accuracy, i.e., lowest
Table II. Salient Features of Photodiode Based Designs
Basic Positioning Multiplexing Positioning Min no. Database Specific

Technique Algorithm Protocol Error (cm) of LEDs Requirements Requirements
Simultaneous Equations TDM 0.05 4 LEDs for No IM/DD receiver
[Zhou et al. 2012], 3-D localization
[Jung et al. 2013]
Fingerprinting FDM or 2-20 3 LEDs Yes Restrictions on
[Vongkulbhisal et al. 2012], TDM for 3-D localization LED placement
[Jung et al. 2012], on ceiling
[Yang et al. 2012; 2013],
[Won et al. 2013],
[Hann et al. 2010]
Correlation Sum Ratio TDM 1-4 4 LEDs for Yes Same code sequence
(CSR) 2-D localization length as number of LEDs;
[Jung et al. 2012], 2 LEDs must have same
RSS [Hann et al. 2010] coordinates on either
x or y axis
Extinction Ratio (ER) TDM 1-2 3 LEDs for Yes Reference coordinates for ER
[Won et al. 2013], 2-D localization database must be collinear;
[Yang et al. 2012; 2013] LEDs to be placed on the
vertices of equilateral triangle
Trilateration FDM 2-3 3 LEDs for No IM/DD receiver;
[Yang et al. 2013], 3-D localization Iterative algorithms
[Jeong et al. 2013],
[Kim et al. 2011;2013]
Triangulation TDM 14-35 4 LEDs for No IM/DD receiver;
[Zhang and Kavehrad 2012], 3-D localization Iterative algorithms
Prince and Little 2012
Trilateration FDM 0.75 3 LEDs for No IM/DD receiver;
[Jeong et al. 2013] 3-D localization Gyroscope for
AOA
angular measurements
Triangulation TDM 13-14 3 LEDs for No Receiver orientation
[Prince and Little 2012] 3-D localization is important
Simultaneous Equations FDM 0.002-0.005 5 LEDs for No IM/DD receiver;
[Nadeem et al. 2014] 3-D localization All LEDs must have same
height from ground
Predetermined Phase TDM - Multiple LED No IM/DD receiver;
Variation method pairs for Phase variations must be
[Panta and Armstrong 2012] 3-D localization known at the receiver
TDOA
Trilateration FDM 0.1-0.5 5 LEDs for No Iterative algorithm
[Jung et al. 2011] 3-D localization
Multi-lateration FDM or 3.6 2 LEDs for No Iterative algorithm;
[Do et al. 2013], TDM 2-D localization Alignment of LEDs
[Taparugssanagorn et al. 2013] is important
Table III. Salient Features of Camera Based Designs
Basic Auxiliary Positioning Min no. Database Specific

Technique Equipment Error (cm) of LEDs Requirements Requirements
Stand-Alone No additional equipment 50-150 3 LEDs for No Camera with 1000×1000
Camera (6 unknown variables are 3-D localization pixels resolution required
[Yoshino et al. 2008] computed in software)
Camera with an Accelerometer to provide 5 2 LEDs for No Proper calibration of
accelerometer the orientation angles for 3-D localization accelerometer is required
[Tanaka and Haruyama 2009]
Camera with additional Two lenses and two 10 3 LEDs for No LEDs should be non-collinear;
lenses and sensors image sensors provide for 3-D localization Image sensors should be
[Rahman et al. 2011b; 2011a] angular measurements installed on same plane
Camera with a No additional equipment - 2 LEDs for Yes Extensive database of
database [Zheng et al. 2011] for 3-D localization images is required
positioning error. The localization accuracy of fingerprinting algorithms is also high.

The performance of fingerprinting algorithms, however, is dependent on the type of
localization algorithm and values stored in the fingerprinting database. The perfor-
mance of trilateration and triangulation techniques are also comparable to fingerprint-
ing algorithms. From Table II, it is also evident that TDOA based algorithms provide
a higher localization accuracy compared to both RSS and AOA based algorithms. For
example, trilateration technique based on TDOA measurements can achieve 0.1-0.5
cm positioning error as compared to 2-3 cm and 0.75 cm respectively for RSS and AOA
measurements.
Positioning error provided by a stand alone camera based design (without auxiliary
equipment) is in the range 50-150 cm. Table III shows that the use of auxiliary equip-
ment reduces positioning error and improves localization accuracy. When additional
image sensors and lenses are used positioning error becomes 10 cm, while using ac-
celerometers positioning error further reduces to 5 cm. The positioning error of camera
based designs using additional database is not provided in [Zheng et al. 2011].
The localization accuracy provided by many designs is very high. However, in prac-
tical implementation, it would be very difficult to achieve this high accuracy due to
following reasons:
— The propagation of light does not follow the simplified Lambertian model (where the
channel is modeled as a linear attenuation and delay), which is mostly assumed in
the literature.
— In most of the literature, Line of Sight (LOS) transmission is assumed. Reflections,
scattering and diffusion of light from various physical objects in indoor environment
is not considered and hence ignored.
— Simple models are assumed for thermal and shot noises in the system. The resistive
components in the receiver chain are responsible for thermal noise, which is modeled
as an AWGN noise. Shot noise, on the other hand, is a photon-generate noise, which
is modeled as a Poisson distributed random variable.
— In camera based designs, noise has an impact on different features of image pixels
such as color, brightness, contrast, etc., which is also not accurately modeled in the
papers.
4.2. Complexity
Both hardware and software modules determine the complexity of a visible LED lights
based IPS design. Hardware complexity refers to all the hardware components and
the effort required for their integration to develop a positioning system. Hardware
complexity is less for a design requiring few LEDs, less processing, circuit components
and sensors. Based on this criterion, photodiode based designs are more complex in
comparison with camera based designs since more circuit elements, processing blocks
and integration efforts are required. Photodiode based designs, which utilize TDM pro-
tocol have a more complex transmitter side due to strict timing and synchronization
requirements. Designs utilizing FDM protocol on the other hand are more complex on
the receiver side since several filters are required to separate the incoming signals.
AOA based designs are also less complex when the receiver is placed parallel to the
ceiling and a dominant LOS path exist between each LED transmitter and receiver,
which facilitates the computation of angles. Stand-alone camera based designs, requir-
ing only one camera have minimal complexity. However, when auxiliary equipment
is used hardware complexity and integration efforts increase. The use of additional
database, however, does not increase the hardware complexity of the design.
Computational complexity refers to the complexity of the mathematical operations
required in the positioning algorithm employed to estimate receiver location. Low com-
putational complexity algorithms are always desirable since they have lower power
consumption, which helps in extending the life of mobile receiver’s battery. Techniques
having lower computational complexity also provide better response times as the posi-
tion is quickly estimated in comparison with more complex methods. Again based on
this criterion, amongst photodiode designs, simultaneous equation solving algorithms
have the least computational complexity. Fingerprinting techniques are more complex
since they require an extensive training phase and a database search to find the best
match. Trilateration, triangulation and multi-lateration algorithms require iterative
algorithms to determine the receiver location coordinates, which increases their overall
complexity. Amongst camera based designs, stand-alone camera technique are compu-
tationally the most complex since all the unknown variables are determined using im-
age transformations method. When auxiliary equipment is used, computational com-
plexity decreases at the expense of hardware complexity. However, using additional
database in camera based design, only increases the computational complexity with-
out increasing the hardware complexity of the design.
4.3. Robustness
We define the robustness of a design in terms of providing an adequate positioning
estimate in the absence of minimal system requirements e.g., number of LEDs, syn-
chronization requirements etc. The algorithms which form a set of equations or ma-
nipulate some variables based on a given number of equations may entirely fail to
provide a positioning estimate if the required number of signals are not received from
LED transmitters (signals might be obstructed due to the presence of occluding phys-
ical objects or unavailable due to some other reason or limitation). Techniques prone
to such problems are generally less robust. Fingerprinting, triangulation and trilater-
ation techniques, on the other hand, can always produce a positioning estimate. How-
ever some fingerprinting techniques e.g., CSR algorithm, imposes strict requirements
on the placement of LED transmitters and deviation from those strict requirements
may render the estimate unreliable.
Photodiode based designs, which use TDM protocol require strict timing synchro-
nization between transmissions. Timing synchronization errors can therefore hugely
impact the performance. In FDM based designs, the quality of bandpass filters and
frequency mismatch between crystal oscillators can impact the robustness. AOA based
techniques can fail in the absences of dominant LOS path between transmitter and re-
ceiver, while TDOA based techniques are extremely sensitive to phase and timing er-
rors. Amongst camera based designs, the two image sensors and two lenses based tech-
nique imposes several strict constraints, e.g., the position and arrangement of lenses,
their focal length etc., which makes this design less robust.
4.4. Cost
Determining cost of a design is not easy as it depends on several factors such as the
required hardware and software components, the time needed to build and maintain
the system, the space it takes, and finally the amount of power and energy the system
consumes. One of the key motivations for using visible LED lights in designing IPS
is the potential re-use of existing lighting infrastructure. Most of the algorithms that
are developed in the literature consider this aspect, and typically require only three or
four LED transmitters (which is evident from Tables II and III). An IPS design with
more LED transmitters than the lighting requirements tends to be more expensive
and complex but it can also increase the robustness in non-ideal channel conditions.
Amongst photodiode based designs, the synchronization of LED transmitters for
TDM protocol requires additional circuitry and make the transmitter circuit more ex-
pensive. On the contrary, the receiver circuit of FDM protocol based designs is more
complex and is therefore more expensive. Generally IM/DD receivers are simple and
hence less costly. In camera-based designs, the use of auxiliary equipment, e.g. addi-
tional lenses or accelerometers, increases the overall cost of the system. Similarly, fin-
gerprinting based algorithms in addition to requiring a database, similar to iterative
algorithms and image transformation are computationally more complex, and there-
fore require more energy at run time which increases the operational cost of these
designs. It should also be noted that there is a huge variety of photodiodes, cameras
and LED lights. The specifications of these basic building blocks are not specified in
the surveyed papers. The quality of hardware components can hugely impact the cost
and performance of the design. For example, a photodiode with high sensitivity and
greater FoV or a camera with high resolution are more expensive but can also provide
a better position estimate.
5. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
This section covers the discussion on some challenges and future directions on re-
search, implementation, commercialization, and standardization aspects of the visible
LED lights based IPS designs.
5.1. Research Challenges and Directions
The IPS design performance in terms of localization accuracy is mostly evaluated us-
ing simplified channel and noise models. The presence of occluding physical objects
in a typical indoor environment, e.g. people, furniture, glass barriers, cubicles etc. are
ignored. It would be interesting to evaluate the impact of more accurate channel mod-
els e.g., Non-LOS and diffuse propagation models on the localization accuracy of a
visible LED lights based IPS designs. The accuracy of RSS, TDOA and AOA based de-
signs and their dependency on the number of LEDs, FoV of photodiodes, orientation
angles of transmitter and receivers, the inclination of receiver etc., need to be inves-
tigated. Novel algorithms exploiting as yet unexplored combinations of signal charac-
teristics and positioning algorithms can be an interesting future research direction.
Designs based on more general modulation schemes and advanced multiplexing proto-
cols (MIMO, CDMA, OFDM) for hybrid positioning and high data rate communication
applications also need to be explored.
5.2. Implementation Challenges and Directions

Generally the number, location and arrangement of ceiling LED lights is based on the
illumination requirements. Dual use of existing infrastructure to get the desired local-
ization accuracy is therefore a major practical challenge. Moreover, without increasing
further cost and complexity of the design providing uniform localization accuracy ev-
erywhere in the coverage area of LED transmitters can also be very challenging. The
type of LED lights, photodiode and cameras are not specified in the designs. The choice
of hardware components is another challenge that can arise during the practical im-
plementations.
5.3. Commercialization Challenges and Directions

There is a growing interest of some leading international lighting companies to develop
LED lights with communication capabilities. In 2014, Philips lighting demonstrated a
visible LED lights based IPS, which guides a customer inside a shopping mall. The
communication link between LEDs and the customer’s smartphone (using photodiode
in the camera) delivers the location data and related services [Wright 2014]. In 2012,
a startup ByteLight also proposed similar technology, which was later integrated by
Solaris lighting into their LED lamps. However, adding additional features in LED
lights to make them communication capable devices still require considerable efforts
[Release 2014]. For successful commercialization, several new smartphone applica-
tions to provide indoor maps, facilitate navigation, and further value addition are also
required. LED lights with hybrid capabilities of communication and positioning can
also be developed and commercialized to attract more customers.
5.4. Standardization Challenges and Directions

Complete and robust international standards covering all the aspects of visible LED
lights based IPS designs do not exist. The standards should detail how to code LED
addresses and LED IDs as well as the architecture to obtain global location coordi-
nates of the receiver using local coordinates. There is a need to act fast to arrive at
a uniform global standard for future applications. Moreover, the standard should be
flexible enough to allow for future enhancements and further extensions.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In this article, we have provided a detailed survey on the design of visible LED lights
based IPS to estimate unknown receiver location coordinates. We have described a
generic overview of the overall system detailing important components in the trans-
mitter and receiver modules. We have classified recent literature into two broad cat-
egories based on the type of receiver i.e. photodiodes or cameras. We have discussed
the basic principle of each category and positioning algorithms, which can be used to
determine the indoor location. We have also compared and provided insights on the po-
sitioning error, complexity, robustness and cost of these designs. We want to highlight
that visible LED lights based IPS technology is a relatively new and exciting research
and development area. This technology can exploit existing lighting infrastructure,
can provide a very high localization accuracy and can be used for numerous indoor
location based applications. However, there are significant research, implementation,
commercialization and standardization challenges to achieve these goals.
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Indoor Positioning Using Visible LED Lights: A Survey

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Table I. Comparison of Indoor Positioning System (IPS) Design Technologies

IPS Design Positioning Complexity Robustness Cost Re-use of

— Received Signal Strength (RSS)

2.2. System Overview

D       E      

2 We do not discuss encoder/decoder designs since our focus in not on VLC.

Fig. 2. Visible LED lights based IPS inside a typical room

3. CLASSIFICATION OF VISIBLE LED LIGHTS BASED IPS DESIGNS

RSS based Correlation Sum Ratios

Trilateration [Yang et al. 2013a],

Triangulation [Zhang and Kavehrad

Predetermined phase variation

Multi-lateration [Do et al. 2013],

Fig. 9. Example of 2-D localization using Trilateration

Fig. 10. Example of a Hyperboloid used in Multi-lateration technique

Multiplexing Protocols: In the literature, two commonly used multiplexing pro-

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3.2. Camera Based Designs

and output images. By defining an appropriate image transformation matrix based on

1 0 0 cos β 0 sin β cos θ − sin θ 0

Fig. 14. Figure to explain image transformations method

image is acquired, to determine unknown receiver location coordinates, it is matched

4. COMPARISON, DISCUSSION AND INSIGHTS ON VISIBLE LED LIGHTS BASED IPS

4.1. Positioning Error

Table II. Salient Features of Photodiode Based Designs

Basic Positioning Multiplexing Positioning Min no. Database Specific

Table III. Salient Features of Camera Based Designs

Basic Auxiliary Positioning Min no. Database Specific

positioning error. The localization accuracy of fingerprinting algorithms is also high.

5.2. Implementation Challenges and Directions

5.3. Commercialization Challenges and Directions

5.4. Standardization Challenges and Directions

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