Soil Compaction: Soil Compaction:

Where, How Bad, What to Do? Where, How Bad, What to Do?

• What is compaction?
Ken Sudduth • What causes it?
Ag Engineer • What are some of the effects?
USDA Agricultural Research Service • How can we measure compaction?
Columbia, MO • How can we manage compaction?

Soil Compaction:
Where, How Bad, What to Do? What is Compaction?

Compaction is simply a reduction in pore space

Thanks to the following for providing some of the slides
and data used in this presentation:

• Dr. Randy Raper, Ag Engineer, USDA-ARS National

Soil Dynamics Lab, Auburn, Alabama
• Dr. Peter Motavalli, Associate Professor, Soil,
Environmental, and Atmospheric Sciences,
University of Missouri

Composition of the Soil Volume Compaction Definitions

• Bulk density (ρ
(ρb) =
Ms/Vt • Soil compaction – Decrease in soil volume and
• Particle density porosity, or increase in soil bulk density, due to
(ρs)= Ms/Vs mechanical stress on soil, for example, from traffic of
agricultural machinery. Compaction can also occur
• Porosity = Vf/Vt =
naturally.
1 - (ρb/ρs)
• Surface compaction – compaction that occurs in the
surface “plow layer”
• Subsoil compaction – compaction that occurs below
the plow layer due to a surface load.

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What Causes Compaction? Causes of Compaction

• Vehicle Traffic

Vehicle Traffic Vehicle Traffic

60000

50000

40000
Weight, lbs.

30000

20000

10000

0
1948 2000

Factors in Vehicle Compaction Factors in Vehicle Compaction

• Weak soil • Weak soil

• Moisture Content Effect • Excessive Loads
• Density Effect • Size of Load at the
Surface – Ground
Pressure

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Factors in Vehicle Compaction Factors in Vehicle Compaction

• Weak soil • Weak soil

• Excessive Loads • Excessive Loads
• Severity of Load at • Severity of Load at the Surface
the Surface • Impact at Depth
• Impact at Depth • Repeated Loadings
• For equal stress at the surface, larger tires • First pass does 80% of total compaction
affect soil to a greater depth
• Repeated loadings increase compaction
• Vehicles have gotten larger!
• Controlled traffic / Autoguidance

Causes of Compaction Soil Particle Sizes

• Vehicle Traffic
• Clay (< 0.002 mm)
• Natural Soil
Reconsolidation • Silt (0.002 -0.05 mm)
• Sand (0.05 - 2 mm)

Basketballs, Baseballs, and Marbles Hardpan Profile

Sand and Silt Sand and Silt and Clay

Topsoil

Hardpan

Subsoil

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Causes of Compaction What are Some Effects of Compaction?

• Vehicle Traffic
100
• Natural Soil 80

Percent Finer
Reconsolidation 60 Poorly-Graded
40 Well-Graded
• Well-graded soils
20
more susceptible to 0
natural compaction 10 0.1 0.001
than poorly- graded Particle Diameter, mm
soils

Effects of Compaction Effects of Compaction

• Increased Soil Erosion • Increased Soil Erosion

• Decreased Infiltration

Effects of Compaction Effects of Compaction

• Increased Soil Erosion • Increased Soil Erosion

• Decreased Infiltration • Decreased Infiltration
• Decreased Water Storage • Decreased Water Storage

Compacted
• Reduced N Uptake
Subsoiled

Compacted Non-compacted

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 Effects of Compaction Effects of Compaction

• Increased Soil Erosion • Increased Soil Erosion

• Decreased Infiltration • Decreased Infiltration
• Decreased Water Storage • Decreased Water Storage
• Reduced N Uptake • Reduced N Uptake
• Decreased Root Growth • Decreased Root Growth
• REDUCED YIELD

Effects of Compaction on Yield Effects of Compaction on Yield

Corn Grain Yields, 2000 Corn Grain Yields, 2000

12.0
Not compacted 12.0
Compacted Check
Com pacted
NS Subsoil NS
9.0 9.0
Corn LSD (0.05)
Corn
grain yield
6.0 grain yield 6.0
(Mg ha -1 ) LSD (0.05) -1
(Mg ha )

3.0 3.0

0.0 0.0
0 3.8 7.6 12.8 0 6 10 20
-1
Turkey litter (dry Mg ha -1 ) Poultry litter (dry Mg ha )

Data collected at MU Bradford Farm (Columbia) by Motavalli et al. Data collected at MU Delta Center (Portageville) by Motavalli et al.

Compaction and Site-Specific Management It’s the water !

• What is most
often the major
• Soil and landscape factors that affect plant water
cause of within-
availability are often the major causes of within-field
field variation in
yield variability.
crop productivity?
• Soil water holding capacity
• It’s the water!
• Redistribution of water over landscapes
• Ability of roots to extract water
• Compaction affects all of these

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 How can we measure compaction? Measuring Compaction

• Directly:
• Change in soil
volume
• Porosity
• Bulk density

Measuring Compaction Measuring Compaction

• Bulk density • Soil cone penetrometer

• Measures the resistance of the soil to vertical
• Time consuming insertion of a cone
• Difficult to compare • Cone Index (CI) in units of pressure – psi
across soil types or MPa
• Standardized by ASABE (American Society of
Agricultural and Biological Engineers) to allow
data comparison between devices/locations
• Difficult to get consistent readings with
handheld, human-powered units

A. Soil Bulk Density

Compaction 1.00
Y = 2.6 - 4.6X + 4.4X2 - 1.4X3
Relative Aboveground yield

R2 = 0.84***, n = 11

Measuring Compaction vs. Yield 0.75

When BD < 1.4 Mg m-3
then Y = -0.32X + 1.32
0.50 When BD > 1.4 Mg m-3 then
Sandy loam Y = -1.58X + 3.08

• Soil cone penetrometer 0.25 Loam

Clay loam

• Human-powered units with electronic data 0.00

collection are more useful, but pushing them Using Penetrometer 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

into the ground at a consistent speed can still Measurements Bulk density (Mg m-3)

be difficult 0
B. Penetrometer resistance
F1-101
1.00
Relative Abovegroung yield

20 A
0.75
Depth, cm

40 0.50

Bt1 Y = 0.98 - 0.20X

R2 = 0.53*, n = 11
0.25
60
Bt2
C1 Data from a greenhouse 0.00
80
study by Motavalli et al. 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0 1 2 3 4 Penetrometer resistance (MPa)
CI, MPa using different Missouri soils

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 Compaction vs. Yield Compaction vs. Yield
0 0
3 F1-101 3 F1-101

20 A 20 A

2 2

Depth, cm

Depth, cm
Standardized Soybean Yield
Standardized Soybean Yield

40 40

Bt1 Bt1

1 Cropping System 1
60 60
Min-Till Corn-Soybean
Bt2 Bt2
No-Till Corn-Soybean
C1 C1
No-Till Corn-Soybean-Wheat
80 80
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
CI, MPa CI, MPa

-1 Cropping System
-1
Min-Till Corn-Soybean
No-Till Corn-Soybean
No-Till Corn-Soybean-Wheat

-2 -2

10 20 30 40 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6

Depth to Maximum Cone Index, cm Maximum Cone Index, MPa

Measuring Compaction Within-Field Variation

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
• Soil cone penetrometer
• Automated units use a power source to
push them into the soil and record data
simultaneously
• Trailer-mounted
• Tractor-mounted
• Improved data collection
• But still a point measurement

Within-Field Variation A New Compaction Sensing Approach

• Desirable characteristics for a compaction sensor

• Using a penetrometer, it’s difficult to collect enough • Rapid, efficient data collection at the intensity needed for
data to understand how compaction varies across spatial within-field compaction mapping (i.e. on-the-go)
fields • Describe compaction profile to identify the depth of
restrictive layers
• Tillage draft sensors can collect surface compaction- • Repeatable, consistent measurements
related data on whole fields, but don’t indicate depth
• One solution:
variations
• Tractor-mounted shank that
collects soil strength data
at multiple depths

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 Soil Strength Sensors Soil Strength Sensors

• USDA-ARS, Auburn, AL (Raper et al.) • University of California (Upadhyaya et al.)

• On-the-go Soil Strength Sensor (OSSS) • Compaction Profile Sensor (CPS)
• One sensor tip, moves up and down • Five sensor tips to 40 cm depth
• University of Nebraska (Adamchuk et al.) • USDA-ARS, Columbia, MO (Sudduth et al.)
• Integrated Soil Physical Properties Mapping System • Soil Strength Profile Sensor (SSPS)
(ISPPMS) • Five sensor tips to 50 cm depth
• Blade-based sensor, measures total
force and depth trend

USDA-MO SSPS – 5 extended sensing tips

USDA-MO SSPS Field Test Results

• Sensor worked well in field

tests, showing both short-
Wiring range and longer-scale
tunnel
variations in soil compaction

4
Prismatic tip Depth=50 cm
A 20 in. 3
PSSI, MPa

Depth=40 cm
2 Depth=30 cm
B * A: tip extension (2 in.)
Depth=20 cm
Load * B: tip spacing (4 in.) 1
Depth=10 cm
cell
0
Main blade 160 170 180 190 200 210
Position, m
* Width is 1 in. with cover on

Compaction Mapping How can we manage compaction?

10 cm 20 cm 30 cm

• Avoiding Compaction
• Undoing Compaction

2.2
40 cm 50 cm 2
1.8
1.6
PSSI (MPa)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

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 Avoiding Compaction Avoiding Compaction: Research Results

• Reduced Axle Load • Assuming moist, arable

soil:
• Near surface • 4.4 tons/axle compacts to
12 in.
• Compaction caused
by specific pressure • 6.6 tons/axle compacts to
16 in.
• Subsoil • 11 tons/axle compacts to
20 in.
• Compaction caused
by axle load • 16.5 tons/axle compacts to
24 in. and deeper
• It’s common to see
subsoil compaction
persist for 6-7 years.

Hakaansson, and Reeder, 1994

Approximate Axle Loads Avoiding Compaction

Equipment Axle Load • Reduced Axle Load

(ton/axle)
100 hp 2-wheel drive tractor 4
• Minimize Tractive Element-Tire Contact
200 hp 2-wheel drive tractor 8
Stress (Spread the Load)
320 hp 4-wheel drive tractor 9 • Increased Tire Size
6-row combine (empty) 11 • Height
12-row combine (full) 26 • Width

Single axle 27 yd3 grain cart (full) 22 • Tire Construction - Radial tires
Double dual-axle 50 yd3 manure tanker (full) 35 (rear)
13 (front)

Radial Tires & Proper Inflation Pressure Tractive Performance Data

18 psi 6 psi

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Avoiding Compaction Benefits of Duals
Duals Single
• Reduced Axle Load
• Spread the Load
• Increased Tire Size
• Tire Construction -
Radial tires
• Multiple tires

Taylor et al., 1975

Avoiding Compaction Effects of Duals and Tracks on Soil Density

• Reduced Axle Load 1.65

• Spread the Load
Dry Density, gm/cc

1.6
D-over
• Increased Tire Size 1.55
C65
1.5
• Tire Construction - C75
1.45
Radial tires D-correct
1.4
Untraffic
• Multiple tires 1.35
• Tracks 1.3
'10-20 '20-30 '30-40 '40-50
Depth, cm
Abu-Hamdeh et al., 1995

Avoiding Compaction Avoiding Compaction

• Reduced Axle Load • Reduced Axle Load

• Spread the Load • Spread the Load
• Controlled Traffic • Controlled Traffic
• Wide-span vehicles • Wide-span vehicles
• Automatic steered
vehicles

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 Controlled Traffic Using AutoSteer Undoing Compaction

• Natural Compaction Alleviation

• Freeze-thaw
• Shrink-swell

Undoing Compaction Undoing Compaction

• Conservation Agricultural System

• Conservation Agricultural System
• Reduced Vehicle Traffic
• Increased infiltration
• Conventional Tillage System
• 80% of field may be trafficked from numerous field operations
• Decreased evaporation
• 1st pass is responsible for 80% of compaction • Increased carbon sequestration
• Conservation Tillage System • Increased water storage
• Greater soil strength in row middles
• Plant into old rows – controlled traffic
• Fewer field trips reduces compaction over entire field
• Residue management and cover crops improve soil structure

Undoing Compaction Strip Till, In-Row Subsoil, Non-inversion Subsoil

• Natural Compaction Alleviation

• Conservation Agricultural Systems
• Subsoiling
• Subsoiling is not recommended on some
Missouri soils, including claypan soils.

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Site-specific compaction management Site-specific Subsoiling

• Once variably compacted areas are identified,

management options could include:
• Variable-depth tillage
• Variable tillage (e.g., different operations in different
parts of a field) Tillage Depth
• Other variable management that takes compacted 25 cm-1.0 ha
Same crop yields for site-specific
areas into account
subsoiling as uniform deep subsoiling 35 cm-2.2 ha
• Variable-depth tillage based on cone penetrometer 27% fuel savings for site-specific 45 cm-1.2 ha
data has been investigated in the SE US subsoiling

Questions?
Compaction Management Suggestions
Ken.Sudduth@ars.usda.gov
• Only traffic when soil moisture is low
• Adopt conservation tillage system including cover crops
• Use controlled traffic systems
• Use smallest vehicle possible for job
• Use radial tires
• Minimize inflation pressure in radial tires
• Reduce contact pressure by using duals or tracks
• If necessary to remove effect of traffic, use in-row or bentleg
subsoilers that minimally disturb soil surface

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