BIOLOGY Session2

Chemistry of life

An introduction:

life is made up of matter, at its most fundamental level. Matter occupies space and
has mass. All matter is composed of Elements, substances that cannot be broken
down or transformed chemically into other substances. Each element is made of
Atoms, each with a constant number of protons and unique properties. A total of
118 elements have been defined; however, only 92 occur naturally, and fewer than
30 are found in living cells. The remaining 26 elements are unstable and, therefore,
do not exist for very long or are theoretical and have yet to be detected.

Each element is designated by its chemical symbol (such as H, N, O, C, and Na),

and possesses unique properties. These unique properties allow elements to combine
and to bond with each other in specific ways.

Cells chemistry

All living cells have many chemical reactions and physical features in common.
Chemical reactions taking place within and around living cells follow all the
established laws of chemistry and physics. About 99% of the mass of living cells is
composed of the elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and
Sulphur). The remaining 1% includes small amounts of the element’s calcium iron,
zinc, sodium, potassium, chlorine, selenium and iodine.
Cells are made up of organic and inorganic molecules, which are made up of
atoms that have been bonded together.

Chemical bonds
Living things are made up of atoms, but in most cases, those atoms aren’t just
floating around individually. Instead, they’re usually interacting with other atoms
(or groups of atoms).

Chemical bonding: Is the attraction between different atoms that enables

the formation of molecules or compounds. It occurs thanks to
the sharing, transfer, or delocalization of electrons.

For instance, atoms might be connected by strong bonds and organized into
molecules or crystals. Or they might form temporary, weak bonds with other atoms
that they bump into or brush up against. Both the strong bonds that hold molecules
together and the weaker bonds that create temporary connections are essential to the
chemistry of our bodies, and to the existence of life itself.
Types of bonds or interactions:

When substances participate in chemical bonding and yield compounds, the stability
of the resulting compound can be gauged by the type of chemical bonds it contains.

The type of chemical bonds formed vary in strength and properties. There are 4
primary types of chemical bonds which are formed by atoms or molecules to yield
compounds. These types of chemical bonds include:

• Ionic Bonds
• Covalent Bonds
• Hydrogen Bonds
• Van der Waals interactions

These types of bonds in chemical bonding are formed from the loss, gain, or sharing
of electrons between two atoms/molecules.

order of chemical bonds (Strongest to weakest):

Covalent > Ionic > Hydrogen > van der Waals

Ionic Bonding
Ionic bond is a type of chemical bonding formed between ions with opposite charges
which involves a transfer of electrons from one atom or molecule to another. Here,
an atom loses an electron which is in turn gained by another atom. For instance,
positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions attract each
other to make sodium chloride, or table salt. Table salt, like many ionic compounds,
doesn't consist of just one sodium and one chloride ion; instead, it contains many
ions arranged in a repeating, predictable 3D pattern (a crystal).

Covalent Bonding:

Another way atoms can become more stable is by sharing electrons (rather than fully
gaining or losing them), thus forming covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are more
common than ionic bonds in the molecules of living organisms.

For instance, covalent bonds are key to the structure of carbon-based organic
molecules like our DNA and proteins.

Hydrogen Bonding:

Compared to ionic and covalent bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of

chemical bonding. It is a type of polar covalent bonding between oxygen and
hydrogen wherein the hydrogen develops a partial positive charge. This implies
that the electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative oxygen atom.

Van der Waals interactions: intermolecular interactions that do not involve

covalent bonds or ions.

Examples for chemical bonds:

Chemical bonds Example

Ionic Bonds NaCl: sodium chloride / NaBr: sodium
bromide
Covalent Bonds Water (H₂O) / methane (CH₄)
Hydrogen Bonds Water (H₂O)
Van der Waals interactions Ar2 / H2-Ar/ H2O-Ar
Cells molecules:
Cells are made up of organic and inorganic compounds, which are made up of
atoms that have been bonded together.

Inorganic molecules:

They are chemical compounds or substances that lacks Carbon–Hydrogen bonds,

they found at the surface of earth. These compounds may content hydrogen or carbon
in their chemical structure separately but does not contain both carbon and hydrogen.
A great many inorganic compounds do contain hydrogen atoms, such as water (H2O)
and the hydrochloric acid (HCl). In contrast, only a handful of inorganic compounds
contain carbon atoms. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the few examples.

** The two main groups of inorganic compounds essential to life: Water and Salts.
Water:

Water (H2O) is inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and colorless chemical

substance forms an essential part of the body cells and fluids, and it enters into
biochemical reaction (life depends on water).

Water functions:

1. Acts as a solvent for many ions and molecules.

2. Provides a medium of transport for intra and extra cellular processes.

3. Serves as lubricant and cushion:

water in synovial fluid lubricates the actions of body joints, and water in pleural
fluid helps the lungs expand and recoil with breathing. Watery fluids help keep
food flowing through the digestive tract, and ensure that the movement of adjacent
abdominal organs is friction free. Water also protects cells and organs from
physical trauma, cushioning the brain within the skull, for example, and protecting
the delicate nerve tissue of the eyes. Water cushions a developing fetus in the
mother’s womb as well.

4. Regulates body temperature by means of evaporation Water formed from

hydrogen and oxygen through the formation of two covalent bonds and the angle is
104.5◦ Hydrogen covalently bounded to one oxygen to produce a molecule of
water Biology.

The Role of Water in Chemical Reactions

Two types of chemical reactions involve the creation or the consumption of water:

dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.

• In dehydration synthesis, one reactant gives up an atom of hydrogen and

another reactant gives up a hydroxyl group (OH) in the synthesis of a new
product. In the formation of their covalent bond, a molecule of water is
released as a byproduct. This is also sometimes referred to as a condensation
reaction.
• In hydrolysis, a molecule of water disrupts a compound, breaking its bonds.
The water is itself split into H and OH. One portion of the severed compound
then bonds with the hydrogen atom, and the other portion bonds with the
hydroxyl group.
These reactions are reversible, and play an important role in the chemistry of organic
compounds.

Biological properties of water:

1. Water is dipole, a particle with two charges of opposite sign.

2. Water has one of the highest heat capacities of any liquid.

3. Water has high heat vaporization.

4. Water is a liquid within a wide temperature (0◦ - 100◦ c).

5. Has high surface tension.

6. Has high density at 4◦ c.

7. Pure water at 25◦c has a pH 7.0.

Salts

Salts are ionic compounds, a substance that, when dissolved in water, dissociates
into ions other than H+ or OH–. This fact is important in distinguishing salts from
acids and bases. salts are formed when ions form ionic bonds. In these reactions, one
atom gives up one or more electrons, and thus becomes positively charged, whereas
the other accepts one or more electrons and becomes negatively charged.

The most common ions in cells are cations and anions.

The most important Cations are: K+, Na+, Ca++, Mg++, Cu++, Fe++

The most important Anions are: Cl-, HCo3-, No3-, H3Po4-, so4--, I-.

The function of these minerals’ salts:

1. As a constituent of various chemical and structures

2. As enzymes and metabolic activator.

3. In certain pigments and determinates of the anion - cation balance and osmosis.