L2

Logic Gates,Registers
&Memories

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 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
Opening and closing gates
A gate is a
simple
electronic
circuit that
has a single
output voltage
that
corresponds to
one of the two
binary values.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
What decides the output voltage?

We connect one or more voltages to the input of the

gate. These input voltages are either logic 0 or logic
1 levels. The logic gate looks at the
input voltages and ‘decides’, depending on its design,
what voltage to produce at the output of the circuit.
There are only four basic designs of gate. They are
called the NOT gate, the AND gate, the OR gate and
the XOR gate.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The NOT gate
• It has only one input and performs a very simple
function. It simply reverses the binary value. If we
put a logic 1 into it, we get a logic 0 at the output.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses

• The NOT gate has only one input so, if a

microprocessor has to handle an 8-bit binary
word, we will need eight NOT gates.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
• We can show an inversion by drawing a line
over the top. the input was given the letter A
and the output was shown as X. We
• could say: X = A.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
AND gate
• Unlike the NOT gate, an AND gate has more
than one input. In microprocessors only two
inputs are used.
• An AND gate is any circuit that gives a logic (or
binary) 1 if (and only if) every input to the
circuit is at logic 1.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
What is the point of an AND gate?
• We often meet an AND gate without realizing
it. When we climb into an elevator the door
must be closed AND the floor button pressed
before the motor will start. This is an AND gate
in action.
• In a microprocessor, groups of AND gates are
used to handle pairs of inputs
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
• In data books and manuals, the AND function
is abbreviated to a dot
• like a period (full-stop). So, if an AND gate had
two inputs called A and B and an output
called X, then we could write X = A.B
• Sometimes it is further simplified to X = AB
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The NAND gate
• The word NAND is just a fancy contraction of
NOT and AND. The NAND gate is just an AND
gate followed by a NOT gate so all the
• outputs shown in the AND truth table are just
inverted by the NOT gate.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
• The symbol has a line over the top to indicate
the added NOT function. A two input NAND
could be written as X = A.B or X = AB.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The OR gate
• This follows on nicely from the AND gate. The
OR gate gives a logic one at its output if either
(or both) of the inputs is at a logic 1. Just like
the AND gate, the OR gate can have as many
inputs as we wish but in a microprocessor, we
only use two input versions.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
Another extra bit
• The OR function can be written as + . So, if an
OR gate had two inputs called A and B and an
output called X, then we could write X = A + B
or X = A B. Don’t mistake this + sign as ‘plus’
as in
• addition 3 + 4 = 7.
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The NOR gate.
• As we would expect, this is just the same as
the OR gate except for the NOT gate added to
the output. The symbol has the inversion line
over it to give X = A + B
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The XOR gate
• his is called the Exclusive-OR gate, which is
abbreviated to XOR or EOR. Here are two
examples of everyday English, both using the
word ‘or’.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The XNOR (or ENOR) gate
• This is the inverted version of the XOR gate.
These result in the output being at logic 1 only
when the two inputs have the same value or
are equivalent.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
The tri-state buffer
• It is quite simple having only an input, an
output and another connection called an
‘enable’. The purpose of the enable line is to
switch the buffer on or off. When the buffer is
switched on, any signal applied to the input
appears at the output and when it is switched
off, the buffer is disconnected so that there is
no output signal present.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
So, why not just use a switch?
• The problem with a switch is that, once
closed, the input and output are physically
joined so that input and output circuits are
connected together. The buffer is a one-way
device for signals so that the output is isolated
from the input to prevent any changes in the
next circuit from interfering with the input
circuits.
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
An introduction to logic
gates and their uses
 Registers and memories.
The logic gates that we met in the last
chapter occur in their millions in
microprocessors and in the
surrounding circuitry.
When logic gates are used in a
microprocessor, they are usually
grouped together into circuits, called
flip-flops, each one being able to store a
single binary digit.

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 Registers and memories.
A flip-flop or bistable

• A flip-flop or bistable is a circuit that can store a single

binary bit –either 0 or 1. One useful characteristic of
the flip-flop is that it can only have an output of 0 or 1.
• The sequence of the events is:
1. Apply the binary level to be stored.
2. Wait a short time (a few nanoseconds) until the voltage
is properly established.
3 .Apply a signal to the clock input to tell the flip-flop to
memorize the signal present at the input.

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 Registers and memories.
Why do we have to wait?
• When we apply a voltage to a length of wire,
we would hope that the voltage changes as in
Figure 6.2.Unfortunately, it takes a few
nanoseconds to settle down.
• The rise of voltage travels along the
connecting wire and is reflected from the end
causing another voltage to be reflected
towards the input.
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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
Why do we have to wait? The voltage to stabilize.

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 Registers and memories.
And what about the clock signal?
• This is just an input to tell the flip-flop that it is
time to read the input level. All microprocessor
operations are carefully timed by clock pulses to
ensure that the system operates in the correct
sequence.
• The clock signal is usually a positive-going voltage
pulse. This pulse can be used to switch two
circuits at different times by designing one circuit
to respond to an increasing voltage and the other
to use a decreasing voltage.
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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
A register
• A register is just a collection of flip-flops. A
flip-flop can only store one bit so to handle 32
bits at a time we would need 32 flip-flops and
would refer to this as a 32-bit register.

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 Registers and memories.
• The register has two distinct groups of
connections: the data bits 0 to 7 and the
control signals.
• The data connections or data lines carry the
binary levels in or out of the register.
• The number of data lines determines the size
of the register so a 64-bit register would have
64 data connections.

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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
How long can it be stored?
• It will be stored until the power supplies are
removed – either by an equipment fault or,
more usually, by the system being switched
off.The data does not deteriorate in storage.

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 Registers and memories.
Shift registers
• These are a variation on the register theme.
They still consist of group of flip-flops but the
interconnections have been changed. Have a
look at the arrangement in Figure 6.7 and see
if you can guess the likely outcome.

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 Registers and memories.
• In Figure 6.8, the register has been loaded
with the binary equivalent of 3610 or 24H and
a series of zeros has been chosen to be loaded
at the bit 0 end.

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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
• Follow the sequence through and in particular
note what happens to the numbers stored:
1. After one clock pulse, all the bits will have
moved one place to the left. A new ‘0’ will
have entered bit 0 and the last, which was in
bit 7, will have fallen off the end of the world.
The bits stored at this time are 01001000 and
the numerical value is 48H or, in denary,
7210. Notice how shifting the bits to the left
has multiplied the value by 2. 42
 Registers and memories.
2. After eight clock pulses, all the existing data in
the register will have been flushed out and
refilled with zeros. The register will hold the
number zero so there is a limit to how many
times we can multiply by shifting the register.
3. After 5000 clock pulses, it is still full of zeros.
Admittedly, they will be new zeros that have
replaced the others but that will not make
any difference.
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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
• This is called a shift register because the data
is shifted from one flipflop to the next each
time the clock pulse occurs. Specifically, the
one shown is a shift left register because each
bit moves one place to the left on each clock
pulse. All the bits move at the same time. The
last one in bit 7 drops off the end and is lost
while at the other end, a new bit is entered
into bit 0.
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 Registers and memories.
Rotate registers

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 Registers and memories.
Memories.
• The function of a memory is to store
information – almost the same as we said for
the register. Generally, a register lives within
the microprocessor and stores small quantities
of data for immediate use and it can do useful
little tricks like shift and rotate. A memory is
designed for bulk storage of data but that is all
it can do – no tricks this time.

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 Registers and memories.
• RAM or volatile memory.
• ROM or non-volatile memory (volatile means
‘able to evaporate’).

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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
• Each location in a memory is given a number,
called an address. In Figure 6.14, the 16
locations of memory would be numbered
from 0 to 15, or in binary 0000–11112. The
cells are formed into a rectangular layout, in
this case a 4 4 square with four columns and
four rows.

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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
Two types of RAM
• Ram chips can be designed in two different
forms which we call static RAM (SRAM) and
dynamic RAM (DRAM),
• Static RAM
• These are constructed of flip-flops. The
problem with the flip-flop is that it draws
current all the time. Therefore, it tends to get
rather warm
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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
Masked ROM
• A masked ROM is manufactured to our
specification and cannot be changed. We must
be very sure that the information is correct
before it is made otherwise it all goes in the
waste bin.

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Registers and memories.

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 Registers and memories.
• Programmable ROM (PROM)
• Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM)
• Electrically erasable programmable ROM
(EEPROM)

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 Registers and memories.
• Pin layout of an EPROM

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 Registers and memories.
Power supplies
• The main power supplies to operate the chip are
the +5 V applied to the V+ pin and 0 V on the
GND (ground) pin.
Address pins
• Address pins are always numbered starting from
A0. We have seen that the number of location is
given by 2n so with 17 address lines (A0 to A16)
the number of locations would be 217 = 131 072.
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 Registers and memories.
Control pins
1. Chip enable (CE), sometimes called chip select (CS), is the main on/
off switch for the chip. It is usually active low, which means that the
chip needs a logic 0 voltage to be applied to switch the chip on. This
is indicated by a line over the CE. When the chip is switched off, it
goes to sleep and the power drops with a reduction of about 150
times.
2 Output enable (OE) leaves the chip fired up but with its output
disconnected from the data pins. This is done by disabling a series
of tri-state buffers immediately before the data pins. Disconnecting
the output pins is very much faster than switching the chip off.
Watch out for the line over the name to indicate the polarities
required.

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 Registers and memories.
Unconnected pins
• These are shown as NC and are not used. They
are physically separate from the internal chip
and therefore have no effect of anything. They
should be left unconnected.

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Registers and memories.

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