Protection of Alternators and transformers

Protection of Alternators
Differential protection of alternators
Modified differential protection for alternators
Balanced earth fault protection
Stature interturn protection
Protection of Transformers
Protection system for transformers
Buchholz relay
Earth-fault or leakage protection
Combined leakage and overload protection
Applying circulating currents to transformers
Circulating current scheme for transformer protection
INTRODUCTION

There are several elements in the modern power system which include
alternators,transformers, station bus-bars,transmission lines and other equipment.It
is desirable and necessary to protect each element from a variety of fault conditions
which may occur sooner or later.
The most serious faults on alternators which require immediate attention are the
stator winding faults. The major faults on transformers occur due to short-circuits
in the transformers or their connections .
The basic system used to protect against these faults is the differential relay scheme
because the differential nature of measurements makes this system much more
sensitive than other protective systems.The generating units, especially the larger
ones, are relatively few in number and higher in individual cover the wide range of
faults.

DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS

PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS

Protection of alternators involves safeguarding these electrical machines from

various faults and abnormal conditions.

FAULTS IN ALTERNATOR

Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are:

● Failure of prime-mover
● Over current
● overvoltage
● stator winding faults
● unbalanced loading
● Failure of field
● Over speed

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Failure of prime-mover:

When input to the prime-mover fails. the alternator runs as a synchronous motor
and draws some current from the supply system. This motoring condition is known
as "inverted running".

(a) In case of turbo-alternator sets, failure of steam supply may cause inverted
running. If the steam supply is gradually restored, the alternator will pick up load
without disturbing the system. If the steam failure is likely to be prolonged, the
machine can be safely isolated by the control room attendant since this condition is
relatively harmless.Therefore, automatic protection is not required.

(b) Incase of hydro-generator sets. proiection against Inverted running ts achieved

by pro-ficient rate to maintain the electrical output, the alternator is disconnected
from the system. Therefore, in this case also electrical protection is not necessary.

(c) Diesel engine driven alternators, when running inverted, draw a considerable
amount of power from the supply system and it is a usual practice to provide
protection against motoring in order to avoid damage due to possible mechanical
seizure. This is achieved by applying reverse power relays to the alternators which
isolate the latter during their
tion in grder to nreyent inadvertent trinnine durine system disturhances caused by
their motoring action

(d) Failure of field. The chances of ficld failure of alternators are undoubtedly very
rare. Even if it does occur, no immediate damage will be caused by permitting the
alternator to run without a field for a short-period. It is sufficient to rely on the
control room attendant to disconnect the faulty alternator manually from the
system bus-bars. Therefore, it is a universal practice not to provide fautomatic
protection against this contingency.

(iii) Overcurrent. It occurs mainly duc to partial brcakdown of winding insulation

or due to overload on the supply system. Overcurrent protection for alternators is
considered unnecessary because of the following reasons:

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(a) The modern tendency is to design alternators with very high values of internal
impedance so that they will stand a complete short-circuit at their terminals for
sufficient time without serious overbeating. On the occurrence of an overload, the
alternators can be disconnected manually.

(6) The disadvantage of using overload protection for alternators is that such a
protection might disconnect the alternators from the power plant bus on account of
some momentary troubles outside the plant and, therefore, interfere with the
continuity of electric

(iv) Overspeed. The chief cause of overspeed is the sudden lass of all or the major
part of load on the alternator. Modern alternatots are usually provided with
mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on their driving shafts to trip the main
valve of the prime-mover whena
dangerous overspeed occurs.
sets.

(v) Over-voltage. The field excitation system of modern alternators is so designed

that over-voltage conditions at normal running speeds cannot occur. However,
overvoltage in a alternator occurs when speed of the prime-mover increases due to
sudden loss of the alternator load.
In case of steam-turbine driven alternators, the control governors are very sensitive
to speed variations. They exercise a continuous check on overspeed and thus
prevent the occurrence of over- voltage on the gener ating unit. Therefore,
over-voltage protection is not provided on turbo-alternator In case of
hydro-generator, the control govenors are much less sensitive and an appreciable
time may elapse before the rise in speed due to lass of laad is checked. The
over-voltage during this time may reacha value which would over-stress the stator
windings and insulation breakdown may occur.

Over-voltage relavs are operated from a votare supply derived fom the generator
terminals. The
relays are so arranged that when the generated voltage rises 209% above the
normal value, they operate to

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(a) trip the main circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty alternator from the system
(b) disconnect the alternator field circuit
(vi) Unbalanced Joading, Unbalanced loading the alternator, Unhalanced lodine ae
ere pnase currents in the circuit external to the alternator. The unbalanced currents,
if allowed to persist, may either severely burn the mechanical fixings of the rotor
core or damage the field winding.
of the relay. However, if unbalancing occurs, the currents induced in the
secondaries will be different and the resultant of

Fig. 22.1 shows the schematic arrangement for the protection of alternator against
unbalanced
loading. The scheme comprises three line current trans formers, one mounted in
cach phase, having
their secondaries connected in parallel. A relay is connected in parallel across the
transformer secondaries. Under normal operating conditions, equal currents flow
through the different phases of the alternator and Y their algebraic sum is zero.

Therefore, the sum of the cur- B-currents flowing in the secondary flows through
the these currents will flow through that

METHODS OF PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS

Common protection methods include differential protection, earth fault protection,

and interturn protection.

Differential Protection of Alternators

Differential protection for alternators is a technique that compares the current

entering and leaving the alternator windings. If there's an imbalance, it indicates a
fault, and the protection system acts to isolate the alternator.

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Modified Differential Protection for Alternators:
Modified differential protection may incorporate additional features or adjustments
to improve the sensitivity and selectivity of the protection scheme for alternators.

Balanced Earth Fault Protection:

This protection mechanism is designed to detect earth faults that are relatively
symmetrical, ensuring that even minor imbalances in currents are identified and
acted upon.

Stature Interturn Protection:

Stature interturn protection is a specific method to safeguard against faults

occurring between the turns of the stator windings in alternators.

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PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

Protection systems for transformers aim to prevent damage due to various

electrical faults, overheating, and overloading. Methods include Buchholz relay,
earth-fault protection, and combined leakage and overload protection.

Protection System for Transformers:

A protection system for transformers typically includes various components and

techniques to monitor and respond to transformer faults and abnormal conditions.

Buchholz Relay:

A Buchholz relay is a protective device used in oil-immersed transformers. It

detects faults like incipient faults, low oil level, and gas accumulation in the
transformer, triggering alarms and shutdown if necessary.

Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection:

This protection scheme aims to detect ground faults or leakage currents in the
transformer, which can be indicative of insulation problems.

Combined Leakage and Overload Protection:

This protection method combines features to safeguard against both leakage

currents and overloading conditions, offering comprehensive protection for
transformers.

Applying Circulating Currents to Transformers

Applying circulating currents to transformers involves the use of specific relay

schemes that detect abnormal current flow patterns, which can indicate internal
faults in the transformer.

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*Circulating Current Scheme for Transformer Protection:
Circulating current schemes are specialized relay schemes used to protect
transformers by monitoring the flow of currents in the windings to detect faults and
abnormal conditions.

SUB-STATION

The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to
d. c, frequency,Pf etc.) of electric supply is called a sub-station.

Sub-stations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends
toa consid-
erable extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations. It is, therefore, essential
to exercise
utmost care while designing and building a sub-station.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN LAYING OUT A

SUBSTATION

The following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying
out a sub-station:

● It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible. it should be located

at the centre of gravity of load.

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 ● It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consideration
must be given to the maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for
carrying out repairs and maintenance. abnormal occurrences such as
possibility of explasion or fire etc. For reliability. consideration must be
given for good design and construction, the provision of suitable protective
gear etc
● It should be casily operated and maintained.
● It should involve minimum capital cost.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUB-STATIONS

Substations can be classified in this chapter according to two most important ways
which are:

(1) service requirement and (2) constructional features.

1. ACCORDING TO SERVICE REQUIREMENT.

This type of sub-station may be called upon to change voltage level or improve
power factor or convert a.c. power into d.c. power ctc.

According to the service requirement, sub-stations may be:

(i) Transformer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the voltage level
of clectric supply are called transformer sub-stations. These sub-stations receive
power at some voltage and deliver it at some other voltage. Obviously, transformer
will be the main component in such sub- stations. Most of the sub-stations in the
power system are of this type.

(ii) Switching sub-stations. These sub-stations do not change the voltage level Le.
incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage. However, they simply perform
the switching operations of power lines.

(iii) Power factor correction sub-stations. Those sub-stations which improve the
power factor of the system are called power factor correction sub-stations. Such

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sub-stations are generally located at the receiving end of transmission lines. These
sub-stations generally use synchronous condensers as the power factor
improvement equipment.

(iv) Frequency changer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the supply
frequency are known as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency change
may be required for industrial utilisation.

(v) Converting sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change a.c. power into d.c.
power are called converting sub-stations. These sub-stations receive ac. power and
convert it into d.c. with suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to supply for such
purposes as traction, clectroplating, clectric
welding ete.

(vi) Industrial sub-stations. Those sub-stations which supply power to individual

industrial concerns are known as industrial sub-stations.

2. According to constructional features.

A sub-station has many components (e.g. circuit breakers, switches, fuses,

instruments ctc.) which must be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable
service. According to constructional features, the sub-stations are classified as:

● Indoor sub-station
● Underground sub-station
● Outdoor sub-station
● Pole-mounted sub-station

Indoor sub-stations. For voltages upto 11 kV, the equipment of the sub-station is
installed indoor because of economic considerations. However, when the
atmosphere is contaminated with impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for
voltages upto 66 kV.

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 Outdoor sub-stations. For voltages beyond 66 kV, cquipment is invariably
installed out-door. It is because for such voltages, the clearances between
conductors and the space required for switches, circuit breakers and other
equipment becomes so great that it is not economical to install the equipment
indoor.

Underground sub-stations. In thickly populated areas, the space available for

equipment and building is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such
situations, the sub-station is created underground. The reader may find further
discussion on underground sub-stations in Art. 25.6.

(iv) Pole-mounted sub-stations. This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment

installed over-head on H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of
sub-station for voltages not exceeding 11kV (or 33 kV in some cases). Electric
power is almost distributed in localities through such sub-stations.

COMPARISON BETWEEN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS

S/
1 Space required
2 Time required
3 Future Extension
4 Faults location
5
6
7

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TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION

This is a type of sub-station concerned with changing the voltage level of electric
supply.

It is classified into:
1. Step up sub-station
2. Primary grid substation
3. Secondary substation
4. Distribution substation

POLAR MOUNTED SUBSTATION

This is a distribution sub-station placed overhcad on a pole. It is the cheapest form

of sub-station as it docs not involve any building work. The trans former and other
equipment are mounted on H-type pole (or 4-pole structure).

The 11 kV line is connected to the transformer (11kVI 400 V) through gang

isolator and fuses. The lightning arresters are installed on the H.T. ide to protect the
sub-station from lightning strokes. The transformer steps down the volt-
age to 400V, 3-phase, 4-wire supply. The voltage between any two lines is 40OV
whercas the voltage between any line and neutral is 230 V. The oil circuit breaker
(0.C.B.) installed on the L.I. side automatically isolates the trans former from

Pole sub-stations are generally used for transformer capacity upto 200 kVA.

POINTS TO NOTE ABOUT POLE-MOUNTED SUB-STATIONS

The following points may be noted about pole-mounted sub-stations :

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) There should be periodical check-up of the dielectric strength of oil in the
transformer and 0.CB
) In case of repair of transformer or 0.C.B. both gang isolator and O.C.B. should be
shut off.

UNDERGROUND SUB-STATION

In thickly populated cities, there is scarcity of land as well as the prices of land are
very high. This has led to the development of underground sub-station. In such
sub-stations, the equipment is placed underground.The design of underground
sub-station requires more careful consideration than other types of sub-stations.

POINTS TO NOTE WHEN LAYING OUT AN UNDERGROUND

SUB-STATION

While laying out an underground sub-station, the following points must be kept in
view:
The size of the station should be as minimum as possible.
(i) There should be reasonable access for both equipment and personnel
(üi)) There should be provision for emergency lighting and protection against fire.
iv) There should be good ventilation.
() There should be provision for remote indication of excessive rise in temperature
so that H.V. supply can be disconnected.
(vi) The transforners, switches and fuses should be air cooled to avoid bringing oil
into the premises.

SYMBOLS FOR EQUIPMENT IN SUB-STATIONS

It is a usual practice to show the various elements (e.g. transformer, ciscuit breaker,
isolator, instrument transformers etc.) of a sub-station by their graphic symbals in
the connection schemes. Symbols of imnportant equipment in sub-station are given
bclow :

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EQUIPMENT IN A TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION

BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENTS IN SUBSTATIONS

TERMINAL AND THROUGH SUBSTATIONS

KEY DIAGRAM OF 66/11 KV SUBSTATION

KEY DIAGRAM OF 11KV/400 V INDOOR SUBSTATION

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NEUTRAL GROUNDING

Introduction

In power system, grounding or earthing means connecting frame of electrical

equipment (non-current carrying part) or some electrical part of the system (eg
neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a
transformer etc.) to carth Le. soil. This connection to carth may be through a
conductor or some other circuit element (e.g. a resistor, a circuit breaker etc.)
depending upon the situation. Regardless of the method of connection to carth,
grounding or carthing offers two principal advantages.

Grounding or Earthing

The process of connecting the metallic frame (ie. no-current carrying part) of
electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a
star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc) to
earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or earthing.

It is strange but true that grounding of electrical systems is less understood aspect
of power system. Nevertheless, it is a very important subject. If grounding is done
systematically in the line of the power system, we can effectively prevent accidents
and damage to the equipment of the power
ained.

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDING

Grounding or earthing may be classified as :

(i)Equipment grounding (ii) System grounding.

Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non-current-carrying metal parts of

the electrical equipment. On the other hand, system grounding means carthing
some part of the electrical system e.g. carthing of neutral point of star-connected
sys tem in generating stations and sub-stations.

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EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
The process of connecting non-current-carrying metal parts (Le. metallic
enclosure) of the electrical equipment to earth (ie. soil) in such a way that in case
of insulation failure, the enclosure effectively remains at earth potential is called
equipment grounding.
The equipment grounding can be subdivided into:
1. Ungrounded enclosure
2. enclosure connected to neutral wire
3. ground wire connected to enclasure.

Electrical outlets have three contacts - one for live wire, one for neutral wire and
one for ground.

SYSTEM GROUNDING
The process of connecting some electrical part of the power system (e.g. ne utral
point of a star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer
etc.j to earth (ie. sol) is called system grounding.
The system grounding has assumed considerable importance in the fast expanding
power system. By adopting proper schemcs of system grounding. we can achieve
many advantages including protection, reliability and safety to the power system
network. But before discussing the various aspects of neutral grounding, it is
desirable to give two examples to appreciate the need of system grounding.

UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM

In an ungrounded neutral system, the neutral is not connected to the ground i.e. the
neutral is isolated from the ground. Therefore, this system is also called isolated
neutral system or free neutral system.
The delta-connected capacitances bave litle efest on the grounding characteristics
of the system (i.e.these capacitances do not effect the carth circuit) and, therefore,
can be neglected. The circuit then

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Therefore, when single line to ground fault occurs on an ungrounded neutral
system, the following effects are produced in thc system:
The potential of the faulty phase becomes equal to ground potential. However, the
voltages of the two remaining healthy phases rise from their normal phase voltages
to full line value. This may result in insulation breakdown.
(i) The capacitive current in the two hcalthy phases increase to J times the normal
value.
(iiy The capacitive fault current () becomes 3 times the normal per phase capacitive
current.
iv) This system cannot provide adequate protection against carth faults. It is
because the capacitive fault current is small in magnitude and cannot operate
protective devices.
) The capacitive fault current lç flows into earth. Experience shows that le in
excess of
4A is sufficient to maintain an arc in the ionized path of the fault. If this current is
once maintained, it may exist even after the carth fault is cleared. This
phenomenon of persistent arc is called arcing ground. Duc to arcing ground, the
system capacity is charged and discharged in a cyclic order. This sets up
high-frequency ascillations on the whole system and the phase voltage of healthy
conductors may rise to5 to 6 times its normal value. The overvoltages in healthy
conductors may damage the insulation in the line.

NEUTRAL GROUNDING
The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth (ie. soil) either
directly or through some circuit element (e.g. resistance, reactance etc.) is called
neutral grounding.Neutral grounding provides protection to personal and
equipment. It is because during earth fault, the current path is completed through
the earthed neutral and the protective devices (e.g. a fuse etc.) operate to isolate the
faulty conductor from the rest of the system. This point is illustrated in

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ADVANTAGES OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING

The following are the

) Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to ground voltages ie. they
remain nearly constant.
(i) The high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated.
(iiiy The protective relays can be used to provide protection against earth faults. In
case earth fault occurs on any line, the protective relay will operate to isolate the
faulty line
iv) The overvoltages due to lightning are discharged to earth.
() It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
(vi) It provides improved service reliability.
(vii) Operating and maintenance expenditures are reduced.

Note : It is interesting to mention here that ungrounded neutral has the following
advantages :
() In case of earth faults on one line, the two healthy phases will continue to supply
load for a/short period.
(i) Interference with communication lines is reduced because of the absence of zero
sequence
The:
curens.
ges of ungrounded neutral system are of negligible importance as compared to the
advantages of the grounded neutral system, Therefore, modern 3-phase systems
operate with grounded neutral points.

METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING

The methods commonly used for grounding the neutral point of a 3-phase system
are :
● Solid or effective grounding
● Reactance grounding
● Resistance grounding

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 ● Peterson-coil grounding
The choice of the method of grounding depends upon many factors including the
size of the system, system voltage and the scheme of protection to be used.

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