SECTION 21TWI Ci ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE (= THERMAL CUTTING FLAME CUTTING GAS CUTTING Cutting blowppe nozzle Oxygen for cutting Oxys tual gas aixture Preheat flame eT Z — —Holten steel and iron Direction of oxide blows out of cutting the cut Oxy/tuel gas cutting Principles of cutting operation There are two operations in gas cutting. A heating flame is Girected on the metal to be cut and raises it to bright red heat; this is known as the ignition point. When this point is reached a stream high-pressure oxygen Is directed ‘on to the hot metal. This oxidizes the metal and forms a magnetic oxide of iron (Fe,0,). The melting point of this oxide is well below that of the iron, and it melts 6. Presmure of curing oxygen too immediately and is blown away by ign an oxygen stream. WELDING TECHNOLOGY 21.2 Issue 0191TWI elm ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE OXY FUEL GAS WELDING, CUTTING AND GOUGING GAS WELDING oxygen a aeelyane attire Blovpbe Mode of Operation A fuel gas (usually acetylene) and an oxidant gas (oxygen) are mixed and burnt. The operator must manipulate the blowpipe to give the correct weld pool size, and also add filler metal as required. © The melting is slow compared with are processes, limiting the speed of work. The weld pool is shielded from atmospheric contamination by the burnt gas mixture which can be made mildly oxidising or reducing. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 Oxyacetylene (OA) Typical defects associated with this process: Unequal leg length fillet. Too concave butt weld profile. Too convex butt weld profile. Undesirable weld profile (lap, fillet). Excessive penetration. Excessive fusion of root edges. Burnthrough. Undercut along vertical member of fillet welded T joint. Root run too large with undercut in butt joint. Undercut both sides of weld face in butt joint, Oxidised weld face. Overheated weld, Incomplete root penetration in butt joints (single V or double V). Incomplete root penetration in close square T joint. 21.41QUESTIONS OXY FUEL GAS WELDING, CUTTING AND GOUGING ar What is the principal limitation of oxy/acetylene welding? Q2 Give three (3) flame types and their respective applications. a3 Give three (3) typical defects found with oxy/acetylene welding. a4 Give four typical defects found when cutting using the oxy/tuel process. Qs Give four (4) points of safety which require inspection when cutting, Qs21SECTION 22TWI Cima ARC CUTTING SYSTEMS PLASMA CUTTING : a : cutting | am 2 | secur |]||/I ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Operating parameter curreat: 100-3004 Gas flow: 1, 5-13 /br ‘Thickness: up to 200mm speed 0.07-3m/min Acce good Portability: fatr, Consumables Plesme pt Type of operation: usually mechanised, but can be used manually power supply - almilar to that needed for DC, TIG, but may have a higher out- put voltage gas supply plasms torch guidance system for mechanised operation Equipment: Mode of operation A TIG are Is constricted by positioning a small diameter orifice between the electrode and the work. The gas passing through the are zone and the orifice 1s heated and would normally expand. The constriction prevents this and the gas is forced to accelerate through the orifice a8 a very hot gas column (plasma), The specd of the gas columns ie near the speed of sound and will plerce (keyhole) metal, If there is relative motion between the torch and the work a cut will be produced. The plasma arc may be between the electrode and the work (trans- ferred) or between the electrode and the nozzle (non-transferred) WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue £191 Argon or argon-bydrogen mixtures in cylinders of 7m? orifice nozzies Orifice nozzles Tungsten electrodes, Materials Any metals except those of very high melting point Some thin non-metala Typical applications Cutting slabs in rolling mills Fobrications in stainless steel and alumislum materials. Overall advantages Can cut materials to which it 48 difficult to apply other thermal processes, or mechanised cutting, such as aluminium, stainless steel and Fopper. Overall Umitations High equipment cost Cut edge not square Noisy. Salery Are emits visible and ultraviolet radiation Hot debris blown out Nolse level may be high enough to require jonnel to wear ear muffa, 22.1TWI CZ AIR-ARC CUTTING As ar its which Blow aut metal trom @ motion poo! Type of operation: manual Equipment: rectifier set or motor generator (as for manual metal-are welding) special electrode holder with compressed air fet air supply Mode of operation An arc is struck between the end of the elec- trode and the work, The molten metal is blown away by 2 compressed air fet attached to the electrode holder. The process may be used for surface gouging or through cutting 22.2 ing parameters current: 80-1604 Air supply: up to 1MN/m? and 1m3/min Thickness: up to 50mm. Access: fair Portability: good Consumable Copper-coated carbon electrode 4.0-20mm dlameter. Material Wide range of metals Typical applications Gouging out surplus weld metal or surface and internal defects Preparation of J-edge for welding. Overall advantages Can use same equipment as manual metal-arc welding, with minimal addition, Clean Fast cutting, Overall Umitations Inaccurate cut Wide cut Difficult to mechanise, Are emits visible and ultraviolet radiation Hot debris blown out of cut, WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 THE WELDING INSTITUTE 2TWI Za OXYGEN-ARC CUTTING manual Type of operation: Equipment: power aupply as for manual metal-arc welding special electrode bolder with oxygen passage oxygen regulator Mode of operation An are i@ struck between the end of @ hollow, consumable electrode and the work. Oxygen is blown down the electrode and the metal of the work bume away, and 1a blown downwards to form the cut A coating on the electrode stabilises the are and burns off so that « cup {8 formed. ‘The cup maintains the correct arc length. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE 100-1504 0,3-0, SMN/m? 6-50mm 16-10m/br Portability: good. Consumables Electrodes 5-8mm diameter Oxygen in cylinders of 7m°. Materials Wide range of metals. Typical applications Preparation for fabrication by manual metal-are proce Salvage and scrapping. Qverall_sdvantages Simple equipment, Can also be used under water (with spectal electrodes), Uns ove: on Manual operation only Rough oxdised cut surface, Safety Arc emits visible and ultraviolet radiation Arcing on to oxygen cylinders must be avoided. Debris from cut may cause Ures and burns. Risk of oxygen enrichment in enclosed spaces. 22.3QUESTIONS ai a2 a3 a4 as ARC CUTTING AND GOUGING State three (3) safety precautions that must be observed when oxy/arc cutting. State three (3) safety precautions that must be observed whenair arc cutting. Why must mechanical dressing follow are air gouging operations. What type of current is essential for arc cutting. State two (2) methods of plasma are cutting. Qs22SECTION 23TwI tia ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE OTHER WELDING SYSTEMS Welding inspection also requires that inspection personnel have a reasonable understanding of other welding processes. Overleaf are some of the other systems which you may come in contact with. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 23.1TWI Cir : 1 eae aves e) Projection mtg ‘Type of operation: mamual or mechanical positioning of work, the automatic Equipment: controller mer transformer and sometimes a rectifier electrodes (copper alloy) with water cooling and force system Mode of operation ‘A high current at low voltage (4-6), flows through the two components between the elec trodes, The electrodes are of high conductivity material, so that most of the heat 1s generated at the high resistance interface between the faying surfaces of the two components, which melt and form the weld. ‘The force applied by the electrodes excludes atmospheric contamination and keeps the faying surfaces in contact. Mechanical stepping (stitch welding) or roller electrodes (seam welding) may be used to make 2 series of spots, either independent or overlapping. ‘The area of the weld {s usually defined by the area carrying current In turn fixed by the area of the electrode faces, In projection welding, on the other band, current flow is United by raised areas on the work. Operating parameters Current range: 100-$00000A; voltage 4-6 Cycle time: O.1-3sec wer weld) Range of thick- ness: 0.01-10mm, 23.2 THE WELDING INSTITUTE Welding by pressure RESISTANCE WELDING Electric resistant welding, erw. Resistance, spot, seam or projection welding Electrode presaure: Types of Joint: T-T0MN/m? : Spot weld on lap Jotat. Over lapping spots may be used to Bive 2 stitch or seam weld Welding position: any Acces: fir Portability: portable equipment for light Jobs, mains supply usually gy essential Consumables Electrodes need replacement due to wear after about 1-10000 welds, and may then be refaced. They are normally made from a copper alloy chosen to compromise between the conflicting requirements of high electrical conductivity and of reasonable wear resistance. Materials A wide range of metals, Typlen! applications Light fabrications from pressed sheet such as motor vehicle bodies domestic washing machine and refrigerator cabinets. but copper Le difficult. Overall advantages High production rate No costly consumables Unskilled operation. Qverall Limitations Thick material seeds large expensive equipment. Joints are usually in the form of a lap, com- ponent size and access is Umited by machine dimensions. NDT ts difficult, quality control is by process control. WELDING TECHNOLOGY issue 0191TWI ia Siding enuek Rotating chuck Thrust eylinger mechanised ‘Type of operation: Equipment: motor to rotate one com= ponent brake axial force system, usually hydraulic timer/control system chucks for components Mode of operation ‘The two parts to be Joined are clamped tn chucks and one part Je rotated up to welding speed. The second part is brought into contact with the rotating part under axial load, Rubbing friction between the abutting faces produces # hot plastic zone, some of which 1s extruded radially from the joint taking with it any oxides formed at the Joint face, After a preset time rotation {s stopped still maintaining or tnereas- Ing the axial load. The result Je 2 forged butt weld having an excess metal oxide ‘lash’ which may be removed. The force system 1e usually bydraulje or pneumatic; a hydraulic drive may be used for the rotating member. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0197 ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Welding with pressure FRICTION WELDING Operating parameters Rotational speed: S0rev/min — 80000rev/min Axial pressure: 15-400MN/n? Range of size: 1-150mm diameter Cycle time: 5-5008ec Access: one member must be rotated Portability: fase, Consumables Nil. Maters Almost all metals and thermoplastics. for joining dissimilar metals. Good eal applications Internal combustion engine valves: head-to-stem joint of dissimilar metals Stud welding Rear axle casings, transmission and steering components for vehicles Electrical connections. Overall advantage Produces welds consistently of high quality Fast joluing of large area Suitable for wide range of materials Equipment is mechanical, working on simple principle. Overall Umitations One component must be rotated (orbital welding will eliminate this) Angular alignment of completed weld not easlly controlled. safety Usual precautions for moving machinery. 23.3TWI Cir THE WELDING INSTITU & Fusion welding AUTOMATIC METAL-ARC (Fusarc Welding) Fees rt system, The are may have an additional COp gaa shleld. The weld Is protected and com trolled by the flux costing as In MMA. ey wey erating parameters cance te Current range: 200-1000 meee, Deposition rate: 1-15kg/br ; Range of thickness: 6mm upwards a Types of joint: butt and fillet Welding positions: butt Joints flat, iillets, fiat and EV Access and amp cnet portability: good oe Consumables Wire wound, Mux-coated electrode 2.75-7..5mm ect on wire diameter. Supplied in colle of oad 135-22. 5kg weight. The electrode composition ean be selected to sult the parent metal. COp Automat Pata are Bead Cy SA, Geis Gass ss Mater! tee win/ it wie sor 2ntmre wx corre, Only carbon, low alloy high tensile and stain Chriicion ot ecrece hr autinaia mel ert weg less steels ‘Type of operation: mechanised or automatic “Typical applications Medium scale fabrication, pipework, shipbuflding, chemical plant. Equipment: welding head, control panel electrode feed unit (may have additional CO for shielding) Qeerill_advantozes Electrode reel. Good deposition rate, good quality weld metal, Power source, transformer Tolerant to poor fitup and open alr work rectifier oF generator — ‘AC/DC up to 10008 Overall limitations work moving equipment and/or head moving equipment Open are. Electrode needa careful handling, Limited penetration Safety Mode of operation Intense are. Copious fumes. ‘An are {s maintained between a fluxed elec trode and the work. The are length is con trolled by a variable speed motor and feed roll WELDING TECHNOLOGY 23.4 Issue 0191TWI tia Electron gun Electron eon ecuum chamber Work troverse peor woouum pum _—————) Crass section of bpicol £8 weld automatic or mechanised Type of operation: oment: high voltage power supply electron gun vacuum chamber vacuum pump traversing unit, for work or eu Mode of operation The workpiece 18 heated by the bombardment of beam of electrons produced by an electron un, Filler metal may be added if necessary. ‘Though the work 1s normally within a vacuum chamber, electron guns are currently under development which will allow a beam to travel # short distance through air, WELDING TECHNOLOGY issue 0197 ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Fusion welding ELECTRON BEAM Operating parameters: Current range: 10-500mA Voltage range: 10-150kV Range of thickness: 0.2-100mm Types of joint mostly butt Welding postions: Umtted by equipment Accens: good but work must normally be Ufted Into and out of a fixed chamber Portability: poor. Filler wire may be added as necessary. Materiala Any metal compatible with vacuum when molten. Gear clusters/shait joint Turbine blade root joint Full machined components (low élstortica) Ditticult-to-weld materiale, Overall_advantages Excellent penetration, Low distortion No weld metal contamination High welding epeed Ability to weld many normally unweldable materials, Overall Umitations High equipment eo¢ Vacuum necessary Extreme accuracy necded in work preparation, Safety X-radlation emitted, but normally absorbed by chamber walla High voltage Operators can be trapped in large chambera, 23.5TWI iar Puerta. consunese gute Porent Metal Electra 09 Type _of operation ‘mechanised power source wire feed unit vertical traverse (for electro-slag only) water-cooled copper shot Equipment: Mode of operation “Welding 1s carried out vertically, The plates to be welded are set up with « 25-5omm fap (depending on thickness) between their edges (umprepared) aad the electrode Is introduced into the gap painting vertically down, ‘Aa are 1s struck and granular Mux added which te melted by the arc, The moltea flux extia- gulshes the arc and the heat required for weld- ing is then produced by the passage of current through the electrically restative flux. Water- cooled copper ‘shoes' are clamped against the plate surfaces, covering the gap on each side, to retain the molten flux and also the weld pool formed by the melting of the electrode and parent plate. In electro-slag welding the electrode feed unit is moved up the joint as the gap is pro- gressively filled with molten weld metal, and the retaining shoes are also moved up at the same speed, The electrode in consumable guide welding fed through & long tube which Ls positioned in the joint gap. As welding progresses the electrode wire and the guide are melted into the weld pool. The svstem is mechanically more simple since no verucal up movement of the wire feed unit is required 23.6 THE WELDING INSTITU1 Fusion welding ELECTRO-SLAG Consumable wire guide Consumable nozzle Operating parameters Current range: 450-1500A/per wire AC or pe Welding speed: 0,3-3m/br Range of thickness: 20mm upwards Welding position vertical Types of joint: butt and T-Jotats Access: poor Portability: fair Consumables Electrode wires are similar to those used for submerged-are welding, and supplied oa standard spools weighing 25-75kg. Consumable guldes may be in the form of tubes or specially made hollow sections according to the particular application. The composition of both wires and guldes must be chosen to sult the pareat material and with reference to required weld metal prop- erties. Fluxes are specially formulated and resemble submerged-are welding fluxes, Materials Steels (European experience only). Other materials Teported from U.S.5.R.. Typical applications Thick pressure vessels ‘Thick civil engineering fabrication Shipbuilding, Overall advantages Fast completion of joints in thick plate, Over: Umitations Only for vertical or near-vertical joints, Welds have poor Impact properties unless beat treated, Safety Molten metal spillage must be considered WELDING TECHNOLOGY tssue 0191TWI Za spaicten of | Gorewtapet ee - (Sh cn Pater EI ta I atom feces os Eiher cote lication oF F Garret nput pone ‘ype of spration: Mectanisl Baulpment dauns of presnurisiog Joints eg, press Means of shielding joint eg. vacuum chamber. Means of heating typically resistance or EF induction. Control gear Mode of operation Stock 1s machined (typically 0.4mm CLA) cleaned and clamped in abutment, An inter- layer of foll may or may not be used as 2 bonding aid, The required level of shielding 1s Dilshed eg. the vacuum chamber Is sacuated to say 1079 Torr and beating ts started. Bonding typically occurs at about 70% of the melting temperature of the stock and can be complete within 3 mins, temperature dependent). The result Is 2 diffuston bouded Joint with excellent mechanical properties, Uttle or no distortion and usually totally free from the normal type of weld defect. erating parameters Booding pressures: 5-1 N/mm? Range of size: 5.0mm? to 105mm? at present state Cycle time: Determined by sample size and permissible heating rate usually 20mins or longer. WELDING TECHNOLOGY issue 0191 THE WELDING INSTITUTE Welding with pressure DIFFUSION BONDING Poor, large bulky plant Poor, probably soa- extstant, Access: Portability: Consumables For some combinations of materials a shim of compatible matertal 1s employed. Materials, Full range pot yet established but most metala and Inorganic noa-metals can be diffusion bonded. ‘Typleal applications Heavy (Chunky) section constructions, hollow assemblies, complex multt-jolat componests, toaccessible joints, pltrasonic Inspection test blocks, Overall adventages Low distortion stagle shot jolning of large areas with vory Righ Joint euality. Overall Umitations Expensive and massive plant, Need for protection of joint area, safety That for furnace and press opertting. 23.7TWI THE WELDING INSTITUTE Fusion welding LASER WELDING ay eect casore mere es rer opt cance anatr 7 ME to the components to be Joined, but Impores v tight mies oa ftyp and beam alignment, Consumables if ex’ dachorge meciraes ‘Peraly manana pane marror AS microe Gas Gilling in some continuous lasers, Matert Moat metals can be joined In laboratory expert- ments, but those with high reflectivity at the operating wavelength present difficulties, Typical _applications Continuous laser — development work only Pulsed laser = reputed application to some small assemblies such a3 electronle components. ype of operation mechanised Overall advantages ‘guipment: laser ens Wide range of materials work positioning system No force on work, gas shielding If required Overall Umstations fede of operation Equipment complex and expensive for size of be laser generates 2 powerful parallel beam joint and speed of working. F lght of ene colour, The lens focuses this ym to a point at which the entire output Safety ower (SOW-2kW) of the laser 1s concentrated, a workpiece is placed at this point, it will sorb some of the Ught which will raise its mperature, ‘The laser may have a continuous or a ised output: the latter 1s limited In the thick- 85 of material which can be welded as heating ust proceed at a siow enough rate to avoid rpourising the surface, The process applies no appreciable force Qeersuin: parameters typeatd Laser radiation, either direct or reflected, can cause personal infiry, pardcularly when it {3 focused on the retina of the eye by the eye lens, causing some degree of Blindness. € Laser power sew pulse durston/enerar = 2esce/i003 operating wavelensiy 10,6 um 0.6 oF 1.06um medium infrn-res) (fed oF near Infraered) beam diameter 15-30n0m 12mm length: sm 0.3m Lena: focal lengte 1500 189mm Range of thickness vp to 1.5mm op co Imm Type of joint butt, tap, filer pee neces rood good Portatabty poor fair WELDING TECHNOLOGY 23.8 Issue 0191TWI Vim ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Fusion welding PLASMA ARC WELDING Operating parameters Current: 100-300 Gas flow: 0.3-3.0m/br a ae, aur Joint thickness: 3.0-15mm Speed: 0.14-0,6m/min Access: good Portability: fair, Sonsumables Argon, argon-bydrogen, argon-hellum mixtuzes in cylinders 7m : Tungsten electrodes, nozzles retin yt La Mate ipravenstioa Any metal which can be TIG-welded. Tronsterred are mode Typleat applications Type of operation: usually mechanised Butt welds in unprepared plate for chemical plant, High speed tube manvfacwure. Equipment: transformer rectifiers as for TIG but with an OCV aay, Overall advantages plasma torch Welding speeds up by about 40-100% compared traversing system with TIG, wire feed device Mode of operation High equipment cost, accurate fitup essential A TIG are between an electrode and the work- _Diffieult to use manially. plese 10 constricted by # stl orifice. The thielding or plastoa gas passing thraugh the Safety orifice fa bested and can therefore expand ter of radiation only by accelerating through the norsle at very Powerful emer of radiat Nich spend. Toe hor gue plas) at approts- : tratey 1e0i0°C and dit, iofeles wile he Jet Eleerteal hazard upto 490V effect, can produce complete penetration of the rave! a . Jolet beng welded @eybolag. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 9191 23.9QUESTIONS ai a2 a3 as Qs OTHER WELDING SYSTEMS How is contamination of the weld prevented in friction welding. Explain the electro slag process "Mode of operation’. State two (2) processes that use the *keyholing" technique. Why would PWHT be applied after electro slag welding? State two (2) solid state processes. Qs23SECTION 24av ia THE INTERNAL DEFECTS & THEIR INTERPRETATIC During interpretation it is necessary to identify associated defects, e.g. example 1. j——_— 1) Report 1: Incomplete root penetration and root fusion In the above sketch incomplete root penetration can be seen but, because of the loss of penetration, incomplete root fusion is also present. Planar defects such as incomplete sidewall, incomplete inter-run and incomplete root fusion are very often associated with the presence of a non metallic inclusion, typically slag for MMA and SA and deoxidiser residue for MIG and TIG (fertitic steels). e.g. example 2, Process MAG In this example incomplete sidewall fusion is present. Because the defect also has width it can largely be associated with a ‘silica’ Inclusion. Report 1: Incomplete sidewall fusion with associated silica dioxide inclusion (and dimension). WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 24.1TwI Ci ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE The sketch below shows a root penetration/fusion defect caused because of either insufficient root gap or no back gouging; on examination incomplete sidewall fusion has resulted because of poor access, e.g. example 3 Process MMA eS Report: 1) Incomplete root penetration and root fusion 2) Incomplete sidewall fusion* 3) Incomplete sidewall fusion* *Your judgement will be necessary in order to determine any associated inclusion. ‘As previously mentioned, slag and silica inclusions are associated with specific processes. With regard to interpretation the inspector must confirm the welding process in order to make an accurate assessment. This may be by reference to the welding procedure or by assessment of the weld face. Slag inclusions will be clearly volumetric against silica inclusions which will have length and limited width, e.g. example 4. Slag inclusions or silica inclusions? Report: 1) Slag Inclusion 2) Silica inclusion (incomplete Interpass fusion may also be present) In general terms, slag inclusions are non uniform in their shape, also very often the slag is still visible WELDING TECHNOLOGY 24.2 Issue 0191Twi : i ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Gas inclusions, on the other hand, are generally uniform in their shape and are of a metallic appearance, 2.9. example 5. Gas inclusions (pores), porosity or solid inclusions? ° D) Report: 1) Slag Inclusion } 2) Elongated gas cavity } dimensions required 3) Gas pore } ‘The inspector should report any parent metal defects (laps, laminations and segregation bands) e.g. example 6. Parent metal defects 3) Report: 1) Laminations (straight and narrow) 2) Lap (near surface of material) 3) Segregation band (similar to lamination but lacks definite edges (hazy) "Above are examples for reference, greater detail wil be provided during the course WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 24.3