Introduction 15

The aim of the subsea pipeline stability analysis described is to determine the
additional weight coating required. Should the weight of the concrete required for
stability make the pipe too heavy to be installed safely, then additional means of
stabilization are necessary. The two main techniques are
l
To remove the pipeline from the current forces by trenching.
l
To provide additional resistance to forces by use of anchors (rock berms) or additional
weights on the pipeline.
In the latter case, the spacing of the anchors must be designed to eliminate the
potential for sections of line between the fixed points to undergo large movements or
suffer high stress levels. The safety of the line on the seabed is again the most
important criterion in the stability design.
A finite element model for on-bottom stability analysis is discussed in Chapter 13.

Thermal Expansion Analysis

The thermal expansion analysis determines the maximum pipeline expansion at both
termination ends and the maximum associated axial load in the pipeline. Both results
have significant implications in the design as
l
The axial load determines if the line may globally buckle during operation, and hence
additional analysis or restraint is required.
l
The end expansions dictate the expansion that the tie-in spools (or other) have to
accommodate.
As shown in Figure 1.8, the expansion at the pipeline ends is a function of the
operational parameters and the restraint on the pipeline. The line expands up to the
“anchor point,” and past this point, the line does not expand (hence, fully
restrained). The distance between the pipeline end and this anchor point is deter-
mined based on the operational parameters and the pipeline restraints. The less the
restraint, the greater the anchor length becomes and hence the longer the tie-in
expansion becomes.

Global Buckling Analysis

Global buckling of a pipeline occurs when the effective axial compressive force
within the line becomes so great that the line has to deflect laterally or vertically and
so reduce these axial loads (i.e., takes a lower energy state). As more and more
pipelines operate at higher temperatures (over 100 C) the likelihood of global
buckling becomes more pertinent.
Global buckling analysis is performed to identify whether buckling is likely to
occur (see Figure 1.9). If it is, then further analysis is performed to either prevent
buckling or accommodate it.
A method of preventing buckling is to rock dump the pipeline. This induces even
higher loads in the line but prevents it from buckling. However, if the rock dump does