DRILLING

A. Drilling is a process of making and enlarging a hole in an object by forcing a

rotating tool called drill. This process consists of shearing and extrusion.

B. Classification of drilling machine-

i. Sensitive drill machine. (5-15 mm)

ii. Portable drill machine. (5-15 mm)
iii. Upright drill machine. (20mm)
iv. Piler drill machine.
v. Radial drill machine.
vi. CNC drill machine.
vii. Gang drill machine.
viii. Multiplespindledrill machine.
ix. Turret drill machine.
x. Deep hole drill machine. (h>6 times of diameter)

Here the job rotates and tool is fixed.

❖ Difference between radial and piler drill machine

C. Different operations in drilling machine-

i. Drilling
ii. Reaming- It is an operation of finishing an existing hole.

iii. Boring- It is an operation of enlarging an existing hole.

iv. Tapping-
3tap=1set
1st one is called taper (last 5 to 7 threads are plain i.e., there
is no threads), 2nd is called intermediate (last 2 to 3 threads
are grinded) and 3rd is called bottoming (no threads are
grinded).

v. Counter boring- It is an operation of enlarging a drilled hole

partially, that is for a specific length.

vi. Countersinking- It is an operation of forming a conical shape at

the end of the drilled hole.
vii. Spot facing- It is the operation of smoothing and squaring the
surface around a hole for the seat of the nut or the head of the
screw.
 viii. Lapping- It is a finishing process done after grinding and
designed to produce an exceptionally high degree of surface
finish.
ix. Grinding-It is metal cutting process which makes use of an
abrasive tool called the grinding wheel.
x. Trepanning- It is a process where hole is formed by removing
solid part instead of chips.

D. Types of drills and reamers-

i. Chucking Reamer with Taper or Parallel Shank.
ii. Chucking Reamer.
iii. Machine Bridge Reamer.
iv. Machine Jig Reamer.
v. Parallel Hand Reamer with Parallel Shank.
vi. Parallel Hand Reamer with Parallel Shank.
vii. Shell Reamer.
viii. Taper Pin Reamer.
ix. Expansion Reamer.

E. Twist drill nomenclature

F. Types of drill (drill bit):
i. Flat or spade drill.
ii. Straight flute drill. (For sheet metal work)
iii. Twist drill
a. Parallel shank
b. Taper shank.
c. Stub drill.
d. Jobber’s drill.
iv. Center drill.
v. Multi flute core drill.
vi. Oil hole drills.
vii. Stepped drills.
viii. Sub-land drills.
ix. D-bits.

G. Specification of drilling machine:

i. Size of drill machine table.

ii. Largest bit can be hold by machine.
iii. Maximum size of hole can be drilled.
iv. Maximum size of the workpiece can be held.
v. Power of motor.
E. Thread terminology:

*Lead= Pitch×No. of start

Drill dia.= Dia. Of tap-2×Pitch depth
• Find the tap drill size for M20*2
 ➢ Outside dia.= 20mm, Pitch= 2mm
Thread depth= 0.61×pitch=1.22
∴ Drill dia.= 20-(2×1.22) =17.56mm

F. Super finishing process:

a. Burnishing.
b. Grinding.
c. Honing.
d. Lapping.

e.
 Difference between drilling and Boring:

SL Drilling
NO
1 Drilling is a process of making hole
and enlarging an existing hole in an
object. This process consists of
shearing and extrusion.
Boring
It is an operation of enlarging an
existing hole which is made by casting
or any other machining process.

2 The used tool is multi point cutting tool The used tool is single point cutting
tool
3 Taper hole can’t be dole Taper hole can be done
4 The finished surface is not so good. The finished surface is very good.
5 In drilling hole size depends on the size In boring hole size doesn’t depends on
of drill. the size of boring tool.
6 Cutting speed is kept high. Cutting speed is kept low.
7 Metal removing rate is high. Metal removing rate is low.
8 Chip evacuation is major problem and Chip evacuation is not a problem and
hence it can’t be plunged continually hence it can be plunged continually for
for long length. long length.
9

❖ Boring is similar to internal turning operation.

G. Radial drill machine:
It is a very heavy-duty machine which is used to drill the jobs of very large size. It can drill a
hole up-to 75mm.
It consists of a vertical column which supports the horizontal arm. These arms may be raised or
lowered down. The drill head is mounted on the arm and it may be moved along the arm on the
guide way. The arm can also be swiveled around the column and the drill head can be brought
different radii for doing the operations quickly. The job may be placed on the table or on the
floor.

H. Pillar drill machine:

It is used for doing operations on heavier jobs. It consists of following parts:
i. Base.
ii. Column.
iii. Arm.
iv. Table.
v. Sleeve and spindle.
vi. Spindle head.
vii. Motor and driving machine.
The base of pillar drilling machine is made up of cast iron and it is fixed to the floor by the help
of foundation bolts. A round column raise from the base, it contains rack for lifting the arm
vertically. There is a horizontal arm which may be moved in an arc up-to 1800. There is a table
at the end of the arm. It can be rotated 3600 about its own axes independent of the position of the
arm.
 Shaping

1. Shaper: It is a machine tool in which the cutting tool reciprocates in a straight line. Feed is
given by the job. They are capable of producing flat surfaces either horizontal, vertical,
inclined, stepped etc.
2. Classification of shaping machines:
a. According to mechanism:
i. Hydraulic shaper.
ii. Geared shaper.
iii. Quick return shaper.
b. According to position of piston travel:
i. Horizontal shaper.
ii. Vertical shaper.
iii. Travelling head shaper.
c. According to cutting stroke:
i. Push cut shaper.
ii. Draw cut shaper.
d. According to design of table:
i. Plain shaper.
ii. Universal shaper.

3. Parts of shaping machine:

i. Base: It is made of cast iron to resist vibration.

ii. Column:
 iii. Ram: It is a reciprocating compound which hold clapper box, tool post, tool
slide, ram adjustment nut, ram locking handle.
iv. Cross-rail: It is mounted on the front vertical guide-way of the column.
There are two parallel guide-ways. It controls the movement of the table.
v. Table: It also made up of cast iron, having t slots.

4. Specification of shaping machine:

i. Maximum stroke length.

ii. Size of the table.
iii. Maximum number of strokes.
iv. Mechanism of the machine.
v. Power of the driver motor.
vi. Floor space area.
vii. Weight of machine.
viii. Feed.
ix. Maximum tool overhang.

❖ What do you mean by 400mm stroke length?

Stroke length 400mm is means maximum cutting length of the particular shaper is
400mm in horizontal, vertical & angular position.

5. Machining time in shaper:

A+L+O
Cutting time (TC)= (min)
VC

A+L+O
Return time (TR)= (min)
VR

TR
Shaper ratio(k) =
TC

LC
Total machining time= TR+TC = (1+k)
VC

LC
Therefore, time for N revolution = (1+k)×N=1
VC

Calculation for passes:

Width= W
a+W+o
No. of cycles required(n)=
f
L
∴ Total machining time= (VC × (1 + 𝑘) × 𝑁 × 𝑛)/1000
C
Planner
1. Planner: Planner is a machine tool used in the production of flat surfaces on workpiece
having large dimensions and heavy wight.
2. Classification of planner:
i. Double housing planner.
ii. Open side planner.
iii. Pit planner.
iv. Edge or plate planner.
v. Divided table planner.
3. Basic parts and their functions of standard double housing planner:

i. Bed: It is made up of cast iron. The upper portion of bed possess V-type guideway
on which the table slides.
ii. Table: It is made up of cast iron and have a flat surface on top.it reciprocates along
the way of bed and supports the job. There are slots to clamp the job. It may be
driven by crank or gear or by hydraulic system.
iii. Column or housing: The columns are placed on each side of the bed and there has
guide-ways to provide movement to the cross-rail vertically up and down.
iv. Cross rail: It may be raised or lowered down to adjust the tool position.
v. Tool heads: These mounted on the cross-rail or column. The main function of these
is to hold the tool.

4. Specification of planner:
i. Distance between two columns.
ii. Stroke length of the planer.
iii. Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most position of
the cross rail.
iv. Maximum length of the table.
v. Power of the motor.
vi. Range of speeds and feed available.
vii. Types of drives required.
 Milling

1. Milling: Milling is a machine operation in which material is removed in form of chips

(comma or wedged shaped) by the help of a rotating multi-edged cutting tool called milling
cutter.

i. In lathe, cutting is continuous and in milling cutting is intermittent.

ii. Tool life is greater in milling cutter as compared to lathe due to intermittent cutting.
iii. Surface finish is not so good as compared to lathe.
iv. Material removal rate is high in milling as compared to lathe.

2. Comparison between up-milling and down-milling:

Up-milling Down-milling

The direction of feed of job is opposite to the The direction of feed of job is in same direction to the
direction of rotation of cutter. direction of rotation of cutter.
There is tendency to lift job from table. There is a tendency to compress the job against the
table.
Rigid clamping required for job holding. Less rigid clamping is enough for down-milling.

It is very difficult to machine thin jobs. Thin jobs can easily machine.

Chip thickness varies from minimum thickness to Chip thickness varies from maximum thickness to
maximum thickness. minimum thickness.
Tool life is more as load of cutting edge gradually Tool life is less as load of cutting edge subjected to
increases. maximum load to minimum load.

3. Classification of milling machines:

i. Column and knee type:
a. Horizontal milling machine.
b. Vertical milling machine.
c. Universal milling machine.
d. Omniversal milling machine.

ii. Manufacturing or fixed bed type:

a. Simple milling machine.
b. Duplex milling machine.
c. Triplex milling machine.

iii. Planer type

iv. Special type:

a. Rotary table milling machine.

b. Drum milling machine.
c. Planetary milling machine.
d. Pantograph milling machine.

4. Specification of milling machines:

i. Width and length of the table.
ii. Maximum distance the knee can travel.
iii. Maximum longitudinal movement and cross feed of the table.
iv. Number of spindle speed.
v. Power of main driver motor.

5. Dig-in operation:

6. Types of milling cutter:

i. Plain milling cutter.
 ii. Side milling cutter.
iii. End milling cutter.
iv. Form milling cutter.
v. Dovetail milling cutter.
vi. T-slot.
vii. Face milling.
viii. Angular milling.
ix. Gang milling.
7. How do you mill a dovetail guide-way?
8. Nomenclature of plain milling cutter:

• Cutting parameters and machining time calculation for plain milling

operation:
i. Cutting speed: Let the cutting speed in milling operation is the periphery speed of the
milling cutter is contact with the job.
πDN
𝑉𝑐 = (m/min)
1000

ii. Feed: Feed is the displacement of the table in any direction with respect to the cutting
tool.

In milling feed is expressed as follows:

• Feed/min (fm)
• Feed/tooth(fz): It is the table travel in mm while two adjacent cutting tooth moves.
• Feed/revolution(fr): Table travel in mm for one revolution of cutter.
 Relation between feeds:
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑧 × 𝑍
And 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑟 × 𝑁
∴ 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑧 × 𝑍 × 𝑁

iii. Approach:

a. Plain milling cutter:

𝐷 𝐷
A=√( 2 )2 − ( 2 − 𝑑)2 =√𝑑(𝐷 − 𝑑)

b. Face milling:
1
A=2 (𝐷 − √𝐷2 − 𝑊 2)

A+L+O
Machining time: (Over-run=1-6mm)
fm
• Indexing: The process of dividing a periphery in desired no. of equal parts.
❖ Manufacturing company: Brown and Sharpe

I II III IV V VI
1 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 21 23 27 29 31 33
3 37 39 41 43 47 49

Types of indexing:
i. Simple/plain.
ii. Compound.
iii. Differential (Automobile compound indexing).
iv. Angular indexing.

No. of change gears: 24(2), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86, 100.
40
Procedure: Indexing ratio= (n=No. of division requires)
n

E.g., - A workpiece has been divided into 23 equal parts.

40 17
➢ Crank movement= =1
23 23

One complete revolution+17 holes in 23 holes circle. So plate 2 is required.

• Milling machine operations:
1. Plain milling: Plain milling is used to machine flat and horizontal surfaces. Here plane
milling cutter is used, which is held in the arbor and rotated. The table is moved upward
to keep the required depth of cut.

Fig: Face milling

2. Face milling: This milling process is used for machining a flat surface which is to write
angles to the axes of the rotating cutter. The cutter Europe in the operation is the face
meaning cutter.
3. Side milling: Milling cutters with side teeth are called side milling cutters. These are
used to machine steps and grooves or, when only the sides of the workpiece are to be
machined, in straddle setups.

Fig: Side milling

4. Straddle milling: Straddling Million is an operation in which a pair of side milling

cutters is used for machining to parallel vertical surfaces of a work piece simultaneously.
Between the cutters is adjusted by the spacers. This process is used to mill square and
hexagonal surfaces.
5. Angular milling: In angular milling, an angle milling cutter is used. The cutter used may
be a single or double angle cutter, depending upon whether a single surface is to be
machined or two mutually inclined surfaces simultaneously.
6. Gang milling: gang milling is the name given to a million operation which involves the
use of a combination of more than two cutters, mounted on a common arbor, for milling
a number of flat horizontal and vertical surfaces off a workplace simultaneously. This
method saves much of machining time and is widely lift in repetitive work. The cutting
speed of a gang of cutters is calculated from the cutter of the largest diameter.
7. Form milling: This mailing process is used for machining those surfaces which are of
irregular shapes. The form milling cutter used as the shape of its cutting teeth
Conforming put the profile of the surfaces to be produced.

8. End milling: It is an operation of producing narrow slots, grooves end keep-ways using
an end milling cutter. The mill tool may be attached to the vertical spindle for milling the
slot. Depth of cut is given by raising the machine table.
 Grinding (self-sharpening)

Grinding is a machining operation in which material is removed in form of ground chips.

Here multi point cutting tool is used.
❖ Mainly the operation of grinding is performed by negative rake angle tool.
❖ Grinding specially a finishing operation and a material thickness of 0.000025 mm in
removed in one pass.
❖ Exception: creep feed grinding. (60mm thickness)

Constituents of grinding wheel:

i. Abrasive (Al2O3, SiC, Corundum, diamond).
a. Natural (obtained from mines).
b. Synthetic (furnace).
ii. Bond.
iii. Void.
• Key elements for abrasive:
a) No. of openings in 1inch is the size of mess. As the number increases physical size of
grain decreases.
b) Symbol of abrasives:

• Bond:
❖ Why is grinding called self-sharpening operation?
• Types of grinding wheel:
a. Straight Grinding Wheels.
b. Large Diameter Grinding Wheels.
c. Grinding Cup Wheel.
d. Grinding Dish Wheel.
e. Segmented Grinding Wheel.
f. Cutting Face Grinding Wheel.
• Designation of grinding wheel:

A-24 R-5 V-6

Abrasive type Grid Grade Structure Bond type

As per BIS there are 5 elements for designation of a grinding wheel.

 Super Finishing Processes

After doing machining operation on workpiece the surface needed to be smoothed (surface
finishing), it is called finishing process. Super finishing is an abrading process efficient in
surface refining of cylindrical flat spherical and cone shaped parts.
• Objective of super finishing process:
i. To improve the surface appearance.
ii. To improve dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
iii. To provide a clean finish to the surfaces of a machine part.
iv. To improve the functional properties of the machine parts (wear
resistance, fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance etc.).
• Honing: It is a grinding process in which very little material is removed. It is used to
remove marks on the surface made by previous machining operation.

o Process: Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface

on a metal workpiece by scrubbing an abrasive grinding stone or grinding wheel
against it along a controlled path.
o Application: Mainly used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but can also
improve the surface finish.
• Lapping: Lapping is a process following after grinding and designed to produce then
exceptionally high degree of surface finish as well as A perfectly true surface accurate to size
within extremely close limits.
o Process: In lapping process a layer of fine embrace particles usually suspended in a
liquid is held between the workpiece and the lap. The lap material being softer than
the work piece causes the abrasive grain to get embedded on to the lap surface when
pressure is applied between the lap and the workpiece. These screens caught the work
in the same way as the grinding wheel relative motion is provided between the
workpiece and the lap. Because of vibration the grain size from particle to particle
not have all the grains get embedded into the lap of these loose greens roll and slide
between the workpiece and the lap and cause some material removal.
o Application: To obtain surfaces that are truly flat and smooth.
• Burnishing: Burnishing is an operation by which a bride police finish is produced on the
surface of a metal by a rubbing action which smooths out small scratch marks.
o Process:
o Application: The process of burnishing is regularly used with an array of different
products such as:
a. Cutting tools.
b. Turbine blades.
c. Airfoils.
d. Curved pipes.
e. The field of medicine.
f. Capillary tubes.
g. Sanitary pipes.
h. Optics.
 i. Food industry.
j. Needles.
• Polishing: It is done with a very fine abrasive in loose form smeared on the polishing
wheel with the work rubbing against the flexible wheel. A very small amount of material is
removed in polishing. E.g.: The parts to be electroplated are usually poised before plating.
• Buffing: In this process the abrasive grains in a suitable carrying medium such as Greece
are applied at suitable interval of the buffing wheel. Negligible amount of material is
removed in Buffing will a very high luster please generated on buffed surface. E.g.: all the
parts to be electroplated and made of steel and hardened materials are first finished by
grinding, polishing and then buffing.
 Powder metallurgy
• Powder metallurgy is a process for forming metal parts by heating compacted metal powders
to just below their melting points.
“Powder metallurgy” includes the blending and mixing of powders, pressing, or
compacting powder into an appropriate shape, sintering the pressed-powder compact, and
perhaps final sizing or finishing of the product to meet satisfied dimensional tolerances.
• Stapes:
1. Powder production: The chief raw materials used in the production of powder
metallurgy components are the metal powders. Several techniques have been
developed which permit large production rates of powdered particles, often with
considerable control over the size ranges of the final grain population. These consist
of fine, high purity metal powders produced by processes such as:
a. Atomization.
b. Mechanical comminution.
c. Chemical reduction.
d. Electrolytic techniques.
e. Agglomeration.
2. Compaction: After blending, the powders are placed in a die and compacted by
pushing a punch in under pressure. The dies are usually made of tungsten carbide to
reduce wear of the die. The use of lubricants is necessary to reduce wear of dies and
to reduce compacting force and in order that the density of ‘‘green compact’’ is
almost as high as the density of solid metal. Ejection of green compact from the die
also becomes easier with the use of lubricants. Compacting requires high pressures of
the order of 700 MPa to cause mechanical interlocking in particles.
Before sintering, however, the lubricant must be driven out by a low temperature
heating cycle.
3. Sintering: This is the next step in powder metallurgy process. The green compacts
are heated in a muffle type furnace in a controlled atmosphere. For ferrous metals, a
dissociated ammonia atmosphere is used to control carburization or decarburization
of the powder compact. Temperatures are maintained between 60–80% of the melting
point of metal or alloy concerned. Sintering time may range from 20 minutes to 60
minutes.
Sintering raises the ultimate strength of the product. It results in diffusion bonding of
particles.
• Advantages & disadvantages:
▪ Advantages:
1. Such parts which have special properties can be produced which otherwise
can’t be obtained.
2. Machining operations are eliminated.
3. Scrap loses art reduced and often results in lower unit cost for a given part of
comparison any other production method
4. Metals and non-metals can be mixed in any proportion.
5. Metal and alloy can be mixed in any proportion which is difficult and
sometimes and sometimes not possible by melting.
 6. There is better control of composition and structure of the component by this
process.
7. This process is suitable for mass production because the stroke of the passing
or the compacting consist of a place at a speed of 60 strokes/minute.
▪ Disadvantages:
1. Due to high rate of wear of dies, high costs for dies and presses the method is
rendered uneconomical particularly for small runs.
2. Sins the compacted parts must be ejected from the die without fracture,
therefore, the shapes that may be made by this method are limited.
3. Equipment required are very costly.
4. The physical properties obtained by this process are lower than those obtained
by other processes.
5. In the low melting powers like tin, zinc and cadmium sometimes certain
thermal difficulties appear.
6. Many metals powder is explosive at room temperature.
7. A few metals can’t be compressed because they have a tendency to cold-weld
to the walls of the die causing wear on the die.
• Application:
i. Porous and graphite containing metal bearings.
ii. Tungsten wires.
iii. Refractory metal composites.
iv. Motor brushes.
v. Metallic coatings.
vi. Cemented carbide.
vii. Rotors of gear pump.
viii. Metallic filters.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoiQbDUe4A8
 Gear cutting

• Gear shaper process:

i. Principle:
a. Cutting motion.
b. Return stroke.
c. Indexing motion.

The cutter and the gear blank are connected by gears so that they will roll together as the cutter
reciprocates for cutting. First the cutter must cut its way to the desired depth. Slightly more than
one complete revolution of the work gear is required.
Often two separate cuts are made completely around a work gear. The first cut is for roughing
and the second cut, which increases accuracy and smoothness, is the finishing cut.
ii. Advantages:
a. The teeth cut on the gear carry a very accurate tooth profile.
b. Quiet and fast process.
c. Suits well to both the medium and large size batch production.
d. The teeth can be easily cut up-to quite close to shoulder.
e. No need to change the cutter for cutting the teeth of different spur gears so long
as their modular same.
f. This process can be used to cut most of different types of gears, spur gears, racks,
double helical gears, herringbone gears, internal gears, sprockets etc.
iii. Disadvantages:
a. Warms and worm wheels cannot be produced on this machine.
b. For cutting helical gears, a special guide called helical guide is always required to
be used.
c. Because cutting takes place only during the cutting stroke, the time spent in the
return stroke goes as a waste.

• Gear hobbing process:

i. Principle: Gear hobbing is the method of generating gear teeth by the use of a rotating
warm shaped cutter (hob).
A majority of involute gears are produced by this method.
The hobs are either single threaded iron or multi-threaded. A single threaded job will
complete one revolution of generation of each tooth whereas a double threaded will
generate two teeth in its own revolution. In this way double threaded hob takes less time
in finishing the gear blank. The advantage with the use of single case threaded hob lies in
the fact that it is capable of giving greater accuracy.
ii. Advantages:
a. It is easier to control over shaping head and profile.
b. High production rate.
c. A large number of similar gears held on a mandrel can be cut at a time; this
reduces the approach time off the hob.
d. All type of spur gear and helical gear can be cut on metals and non-metals.
e. On hobbing machines, long shafts and splines can be easily accommodated.
 f. Gap type herringbone gears can be generated only through this process.
g. High d of accuracy can be maintained on the products over large period.
iii. Disadvantages:
a. Internal gears cannot be caught by this method.
b. Gears which have shoulders and flanges can’t be caught by hobbing.