HIGH-EFFlClENCY D-C TO D-C

CONVERTERDREGULATORS

J. A. Bosco
J. K. Roberge

Electrom’c Systems Laboratory

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS o m s

De@artment of Electrical Engineering

.Z HIGH-EFFICIENC Y D - C TO D - C C ONVERTER REGU LATORS l,
by
J. A. Bosco and J.K. Roberge

1
The p r e p a r a t i o n and publication of this r e p o r t , including the r e g e a r c h
on which i t is b a s e d , was sponsored b the National Aeronautick and
Space Administration under R e s e a r c h r a n t No. NsG-234-61, bl.I. T.
DSR P r o j e c t No. 76343. This r e p o r t is published f o r information
p u r p o s e s only and does not r e p r e s e n t recommendations o r conclusions
of the sponsoring agency. Reproduction i n whole o r i n p a r t is p e r -
m i t t e d f o r any purpose of the United S t a t e s Government.

* E l e c t r o n i c Systems L a b o r a t o r y ’
Department of E l e c t r i c a l Engineering
I M a s s a c h u s e t t s Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 J,
 ABS TRAC T

D-c to d - c c o n v e r t e r r e g u l a t o r s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s r e p o r t u s e a v a r i a b l e -
f r e q u e n c y control with flyback voltage conversion to obtain regulated
output voltage and high efficiency over a wide r a n g e of output power.
Pulsewidth i s v a r i e d t o m a i n t a i n output power o v e r a wide range of i n -
put voltages.

E x p e r i m e n t a l c i r c u i t s have shown conversion efficiencies n e a r 85 p e r -

c e n t o v e r a 1 O O : l r a n g e of output power. F l y b a c k voltage conversion
r e s u l t s in a s m a l l , lightweight package; a 300-watt supply weighs l e s s
than five pounds, without housing.

iii
 CONTENTS

A. INTRODUCTION Page 1

B. DESIGN CONCEPT 2

C. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 4

D. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 8
1. Maximum Power Output of C o n v e r t e r 8
2. Output Ripple and Regulation 9
3. Efficiency 11
4. Weight 15

E. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 15

F. BREADBOARD CONVERTERS 16
1 . High-Power, High-Voltage C o n v e r t e r 16
2. Low- P o w e r , Multiple-Voltage C o n v e r t e r 16
3. Medium Power C o n v e r t e r 19

BIBLIOGRAPHY 21

APPENDIX A 23

APPENDIX B 24

V
 LIST OF F I G U R E S

1. S y s t e m Block Diagram 2
page
2. Voltage Converter and Waveforms 5

3. Typical C i r c u i t s 7

4. Voltage Converter with Feedback to Minimize

Base Current 12

5. Synchr onous Re c ti fie r C i r cui t s 14

6. High Power DC - DC Converter 17

7. Low Power DC - DC Converter 18

8. 15-Watt Converter-Regulator 20

vii
A. INTRODUCTION

E x p e r i m e n t s conducted on s p a c e c r a f t often r e q u i r e w e l l - r e g u l a t e d
d - c supply voltages. A typical s p a c e c r a f t p r i m e power supply c o n s i s t s
of a b a t t e r y providing a n unregulated output voltage. The u s u a l
approach f o r supplying regulated voltages of v a r i o u s values f r o m a n
unregulated s o u r c e is by means of a d - c to d - c c o n v e r t e r - r e g u l a t o r .
Conventional c o n v e r t e r - regulators c o n s i s t of a voltage p r e - r e g u l a t o r
1,2*
followed by a s q u a r e -wave - oscillator c o n v e r t e r and f i l t e r combination.
B e c a u s e on-board s p a c e c r a f t power is limited, a p r e m i u m is placed
on efficient conversion, The input-to-output power - c o n v e r s i o n efficiency
of the conventional c o n v e r t e r is typically between 7 0 and 80 p e r c e n t a t
full output power, but d r o p s off to approximately 5 0 p e r c e n t a t one-
tenth full output power. This lower efficiency a t f r a c t i o n a l loads o c c u r s
b e c a u s e approximately 10 p e r c e n t of the full output power is consumed
by the s q u a r e - w a v e o s c i l l a t o r i n t r a n s f o r m e r and switching l o s s e s ,
r e g a r d l e s s of the power being delivered t o the load, even down to a
s t a n d - b y o r no-load condition. This efficiency l o s s is not i m p o r t a n t i f
the output power r e q u i r e d is constant and r e m a i n s n e a r full load, but
i f a n e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m has input power r e q u i r e m e n t s that v a r y widely
with t i m e , a n efficiency degradation i m p o s e s a s e v e r e penalty on e i t h e r
operating life o r m a i n power supply weight.
A s p a c e c r a f t r a d a r s y s t e m i s a n example of a s y s t e m i n which the
3
power r e q u i r e d m a y v a r y f r o m hundreds of watts to tens of w a t t s .
If a conventional c o n v e r t e r - r e g u l a t o r is employed, the s t a n d - b y power
r e q u i r e m e n t s of the c o n v e r t e r s y s t e m would be g r e a t e r than the a v e r a g e
power r e q u i r e m e n t of the r a d a r . A r a d a r , o r any s y s t e m which has
widely varying power r e q u i r e m e n t s , w i i i benefit f r o m a 6 - c ti, d-c
c o n v e r t e r - r e g u l a t o r which h a s high efficiency over a wide r a n g e of
output power. P r e s e n t e d h e r e i s a d e s i g n technique for achieving
this efficiency c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . The d e s i g n h a s been applied to c o n v e r t e r

*S u p e r s c r i p t s r e f e r to numbered i t e m s i n the Bibliography.

-1-
 -2-

r e g u l a t o r s delivering m a x i m u m output power ranging f r o m 1 watt

to over 250 w a t t s . These c o n v e r t e r r e g u l a t o r s u s e l e s s than 1
p e r c e n t of t h e i r full load output power i n the unloaded o r stand-by
condition. The efficiency is g r e a t e r than 80 p e r c e n t over a 1OO:l
range of output power.

B. DESIGN C O N C E P T

A conventional d - c to d - c c o n v e r t e r exhibits efficiency l o s s a t

low output power p r i m a r i l y because the s q u a r e -wave o s c i l l a t o r
maintains a fixed frequency, r e g a r d l e s s of the power t r a n s f e r r e d to
the load. Thus t r a n s f o r m e r and switching l o s s e s r e m a i n e s s e n t i a l l y
constant, independent of c u r r e n t d r a w n f r o m the output t e r m i n a l s .
A block d i a g r a m of a c o n v e r t e r - r e g u l a t o r i n which s t a n d - b y
l o s s e s a r e minimized i s shown i n F i g . 1 . In this s y s t e m , l o s s e s

Input Voltage

Reference
Amplifier - Voltage-
Controlled
Osci Ilator
- One-shot
Multivibrotor - Voltage
Converter -- -
Voltage

+
L
t - -

Fig. 1. System Block Diagram

a r e kept to a m i n i m u m b e c a u s e e n e r g y i s t r a n s f e r r e d to the output

capacitor only when r e q u i r e d to m a i n t a i n the output voltage a t the
 -3-

desired level. If the output capacitor is c h a r g e d to the d e s i r e d

voltage, then any c u r r e n t drawn by a load a c t s t o d e c r e a s e the
voltage on the output c a p a c i t o r . The r e f e r e n c e a m p l i f i e r a t left
i n F i g . 1 s e n s e s any change i n output voltage by comparing the
output voltage t o a t e m p e r a t u r e - s t a b l e z e n e r r e f e r e n c e . A difference
voltage due t o a d e c r e a s e i n the output voltage is u s e d to v a r y the
frequency of the voltage-controlled o s c i l l a t o r . The voltage-controlled
o s c i l l a t o r output is a s h o r t pulse which t r i g g e r s the one-shot multi-
vibrator. The multivibrator g e n e r a t e s a constant-amplitude pulse
of known t i m e duration, which drives the voltage c o n v e r t e r , t r a n s -
f e r r i n g a pulse of e n e r g y onto the capacitor t o r e e s t a b l i s h the d e s i r e d
output voltage. The g r e a t e r the output c u r r e n t d r a i n , the m o r e
frequently the one-shot multivibrator is f i r e d . At no load the multi-
v i b r a t o r frequency is s h a r p l y reduced; i t is f i r e d only to r e p l a c e
internal circuit losses. The feedback control a c t i o n is f a s t enough,
and the e n e r g y t r a n s f e r p e r pulse is s m a l l enough, s o the d - c output
voltage is regulated within a few millivolts of t h e d e s i r e d voltage.
I t a l s o is d e s i r a b l e t o maintain d e s i g n output power, even while
the unregulated m a i n power supply voltage is falling off. In this
s y s t e m , multivibrator pulsewidth is v a r i e d by the unregulated input
voltage i n o r d e r to maintain a constant e n e r g y p e r pulse t r a n s f e r r e d
to the output c a p a c i t o r . When the unregulated input voltage d r o p s ,
the multivibrator pulse width i n c r e a s e s s o that the total e n e r g y of
e a c h pulse r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t . (This matter is discussed i n detail in
Appendix A. ) Thus the energy t r a n s f e r r e d to the capacitor r e m a i n s
constant f o r e a c h p u l s e .
The voltage -controlled o s c i l l a t o r , the m u l t i v i b r a t o r , and the
r e f e r e n c e a m p l i f i e r a r e a l l low-power c i r c u i t s designed f o r m i n i m u m
power d i s s i p a t i o n . Almost a l l of the conversion l o s s e s a r e i n the
f i n a l v o l t a g e - c o n v e r t e r s t a g e , and t h e s e l o s s e s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to
frequency. The r e s u l t is that high c o n v e r s i o n efficiency c a n be
r e a l i z e d over wide r a n g e s of power output.
 -4-

C. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

F i g u r e 2 shows a simplified c i r c u i t f o r the voltage c o n v e r t e r ,

which can be thought of as a d - c to d - c t r a n s f o r m e r between the
unregulated input voltage and the regulated output voltage. Idealized
and actual oscilloscope waveforms a r e shown f o r the switching
transistor Q,.
The multivibrator output pulse v F i g . 2b , controls t r a n s i s t o r
be '
Q,. The s h a r p l y rising v pulse s a t u r a t e s t r a n s i s t o r Q bringing
be 1'
the collector voltage to n e a r l y ground potential, as shown i n F i g . 2c .
While the collector voltage is n e a r ground potential, the unregulated
input voltage a p p e a r s a c r o s s the p r i m a r y of the output t r a n s f o r m e r .
A s shown i n F i g . 2d the c u r r e n t through the coil will i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y
for a time T , due to the p r i m a r y magnetizing inductance. During the
t i m e c u r r e n t is i n c r e a s i n g i n the p r i m a r y , the diode i n the s e c o n d a r y
c i r c u i t opposes c u r r e n t flow to the output c a p a c i t o r . At the end of the
t i m e i n t e r v a l T a quantity of e n e r g y is s t o r e d i n the magnetic field
of the coil.
At the end of the v pulse Q begins to t u r n off, causing the
be 1
polarity of the t r a n s f o r m e r p r i m a r y voltage to r e v e r s e . This flyback
effect i n c r e a s e s the collector voltage to a value g r e a t e r than the input
supply voltage, a s shown i n F i g . 2c , The e n e r g y s t o r e d i n the field
is t r a n s f e r r e d to the output c a p a c i t o r ? C o , because a decreasing
c u r r e n t i n the p r i m a r y induces a voltage i n the s e c o n d a r y i n the c o r r e c t
d i r e c t i o n f o r c u r r e n t to flow through the diode. This flyback technique,
that is, opening a n inductive c i r c u i t to obtain a n e n e r g y t r a n s f e r , provides
a l o s s l e s s e n e r g y t r a n s f e r i f a l l components a r e i d e a l , and low-loss
t r a n s f e r even with nonideal e l e m e n t s .
A secondary winding on the flyback t r a n s f o r m e r i s not n e c e s s a r y
but is useful f o r s e v e r a l p u r p o s e s . The output voltage is isolated f r o m
the p r i m a r y , a n d output voltages c a n have v a l u e s higher and lower than
the input and of e i t h e r polarity. The s e c o n d a r y c i r c u i t i s shown i n
F i g . 2 with only two t a p s , which c a n r e p r e s e n t the e n t i r e output of the
Voltage converter o r c a n be c o n s i d e r e d to r e p r e s e n t only one s e c t i o n
 -5-

E
x3.
Lo v)
I
a
0
LL
W
>
4
J
a
3
I-
u
a

P)
I-
---q1
P
0
-
4-

8
L
0
c
0
-
al
-
---- ----- I s
4
-
I
'3
I
I -
0) 10
> >
0 P

0
W

I I

c
 -6-
of the output, between any two taps of a m u l t i - t a p s e c o n d a r y
winding. When the s e c o n d a r y winding has multiple t a p s to provi.de
multiple output voltages, e a c h output c i r c u i t r e q u i r e s i t s own
output capacitor and diode. However, obtaining w e l l - r e g u l a t e d
output voltages f o r e a c h of s e v e r a l output c i r c u i t s involves p r o b l e m s
which a r e not d i s c u s s e d h e r e .
Typical c i r c u i t s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m s f o r the r e f e r e n c e a m p l i f i e r ,
voltage-controlled o s c i l l a t o r and multivibrator a r e shown i n F i g . 3.
The voltage-controlled o s c i l l a t o r c o n s i s t s of a n NPN t r a n s i s t o r
(a3)and a P N P transistor (a4)connected i n a positive-feedback
configuration. If we a s s u m e the connection f r o m the r e f e r e n c e
a m p l i f i e r to be broken ( A i n F i g . 3 ) , the o s c i l l a t o r o p e r a t e s a t a
constant f r e q u e n c y d e t e r m i n e d by the R C combination a s follows:
1 1
The initially uncharged capacitor C begins charging toward the
input voltage V through R1. When the voltage on C 1 reaches
i
a value equal to the f o r w a r d bias voltage of ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 7 volt
Q
3
f o r silicon t r a n s i s t o r s ) , Q conducts and t u r n s on Q When Q4
3 4'
conducts i t supplies m o r e b a s e c u r r e n t to Q resulting i n a fast-
3 '
r i s i n g voltage pulse a t the collector of Q The r e g e n e r a t i v e a c t i o n
4'
c e a s e s when C1 has been n e a r l y c h a r g e d to the input voltage through
r e v e r s e biases
At this t i m e the p o l a r i t y of the voltage on C
04. 1
Q3 and the next pulse will not occur until the charging c u r r e n t through
R 1 again f o r w a r d b i a s e s Q 3 . Thus the t i m e between t r i g g e r i n g
pulses i s d e t e r m i n e d by the R C combination.
1 1
If we now a s s u m e A is reconnected, the f r e q u e n c y of the o s c i l -
l a t o r w i l l be controlled by the r e f e r e n c e a m p l i f i e r , which is a d i f f e r e n t i a l
amplifier of conventional design. When the output c a p a c i t o r voltage is
g r e a t e r than the z e n e r voltage, the d i f f e r e n c e voltage i s a m p l i f i e d
and base c u r r e n t i s supplied through connection A i n F i g . 3 t o the
b a s e of Q The effective r e s i s t a n c e of Q 2 , which c a n v a r y over
2'
a wide r a n g e , i s included i n the charging c i r c u i t of C1 , thus varying
the time constant considerably i n r e s p o n s e to the difference between
the output voltage of the c o n v e r t e r and t h a t of the z e n e r r e f e r e n c e .
-7 -

L
c
e
e-
.-
-
4-

2-
c
0
f
0

6
h
U

al
c
 -8-

The one-shot m u l t i v i b r a t o r i s a s t a n d a r d c o m p l e m e n t a r y
design4 with the addition of a variable-pulsewidth f e a t u r e . The
m u l t i v i b r a t o r pulsewidth is controlled to be i n v e r s e l y proportional
to the input voltage to i n s u r e that a d r o p i n the input voltage will
not r e s u l t i n a d r o p i n the available output power, as d i s c u s s e d i n
Appendix A. A f r a c t i o n of the main supply voltage is applied to the
b a s e of Q to v a r y the collector c u r r e n t of This v a r i e s the
Q
5 5'
charging c u r r e n t to the multivibrator timing c a p a c i t o r , which
'T '
d e t e r m i n e s pulsewidth.

D. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s which influence the c o n v e r t e r design a r e :

( a ) Maximum power output

( b ) Output regulation and ripple
( c ) Efficiency
( d ) Weight

E a c h of t h e s e f a c t o r s is d i s c u s s e d i n detail below.

1. Maximum Power Output of Converter

The m a x i m u m c i r c u i t power of the c o n v e r t e r shown i n F i g . 2
is limited by the m a x i m u m allowable collector - t o - e m i t t e r voltage and
t h e peak- c u r r e n t capacity of t r a n s is t o r Q 1 , as given by the following
equation, d e r i v e d i n Appendix B.

Pi(max) = (- v < m ) ( B V c e - vi )
BVce

where is the maximum allowable collector - t o - e m i t t e r

BVzz
voltage before breakduw-ii o c c i i r s

is the m a i n supply input voltage

vi
is peak allowable collector c u r r e n t of Q
Im 1
This equation shows that f o r a given input voltage Vi , Pi is
l i m i t e d by Im and BVce which become f a c t o r s i n the s e l e c t i o n of
t r a n s i s tor Q 1.
 -9-

A s shown i n Appendix B , t o approach the power output of

Eq. 1 the output t r a n s f o r m e r r e q u i r e s sufficient inductance t o
s a t i s f y the condition:

V. T
L = -
1
(2)
I
P
In g e n e r a l , a magnetic c o r e i s r e q u i r e d to provide sufficient
inductance. As shown i n Appendix B, to avoid s a t u r a t i o n the c o r e
m u s t s a t i s f y the expression:

Vi T
NA > (3)
- Bs

where B is the saturation flux density of the c o r e

S

N is the number of p r i m a r y t u r n s

and A i s the c o r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a

The designer chooses the s m a l l e s t c o r e s i z e which s a t i s f i e s the

r e q u i r e m e n t s on L and NA to minimize c o r e weight.

2. --
Output Ripple and Regulation
The ripple o r a - c component of the outpilt voltage is the change i n
output voltage c a u s e d by the t r a n s f e r of e n e r g y f r o m the p r i m a r y ,
given by:
1 2
7 LI
AVoe = -- P (4)
c o vo

wnere L is t h e p r i m a r y magnetizing inductance

I is the peak p r i m a r y c u r r e n t
P
is the average output voltage
vO

C i s the output capacitance

0
L

is the change i n output voltage due to

AVOe
energy t r a n s f e r
 - 10-
This ripple component c a n be e x c e s s i v e when high output c u r r e n t
i s r e q u i r e d a t low output voltages. The ripple can be reduced by
e i t h e r adding m o r e capacitance a t the output or by t r a n s f e r r i n g
l e s s energy p e r pulse. Of these two a l t e r n a t i v e s , t r a n s f e r r i n g l e s s
energy per pulse i s the m o r e a t t r a c t i v e solution s i n c e no additional
weight i s r e q u i r e d . T r a n s f e r r i n g l e s s e n e r g y p e r pulse (while s t i l l
maintaining the s a m e power output) g e n e r a l l y means i n c r e a s i n g the
maximum frequency of operation. Exactly how high a frequency c a n
be used depends upon the l o s s e s i n the components, especially the
switching t r a n s i s t o r . High-speed, low-power t r a n s i s t o r s c a n be used
to frequencies a s high a s 1 Mc with 10i.v l o s s e s . With higher power
t r a n s i s t o r s , operation i s usually limited to f r e q u e n c i e s below 100 k c .
In s o m e applications a number of high-speed, low-power t r a n s i s t o r s
have been used i n p a r a l l e l to obtain m o d e r a t e amounts of power a t a
5
frequency of 100 k c and a n efficiency of 85 p e r c e n t .
Output load regulation i s ideally controlled by the gain of the
reference amplifier. Since output power is proportional to frequency,
s e e Appendix A, the change i n output voltage corresponding to a change
i n output power is:

Avo
-- --
Af -- APO
(5)
lG lKZG

where is the change i n output power

AP0
is the corresponding change i n d - c output voltage
AVO
is a constant r e l a t i n g frequency to control
K1
voltage f o r the voltage-controlled o s c i l l a t o r

K2 is a constant r e l a t i n g output power to frequency

and G is the voltage g a i n of the d i f f e r e n t i a l a m p l i f i e r

The output voltage regulation a l s o depends on the stability of the

r e f e r e n c e voltage. The r e f e r e n c e voltage is obtained f r o m a t e m p e r a t u r e -
s t a b l e r e f e r e n c e diode with a t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient which i s b e t t e r
than 0 . 0 1 percent/OC. The diodes have low dynamic r e s i s t a n c e s o that
the r e f e r e n c e voltage i s s t a b l e with r e s p e c t to v a r i a t i o n s i n the input
voltage.
 -11-

-
3 . Efficiency
The power l o s s e s a r i s i n g f r o m the use of non-ideal components
a r e d e s c r i b e d below. By f a r the l a r g e s t power l o s s o c c u r s i n the
voltage - c o n v e r t e r s t a g e of Fig. 2 . The t r a n s i s t o r , t r a n s f o r m e r ,
r e c t i f i e r , and output capacitor a l l contribute to the l o s s e s
L o s s e s i n the power -switching t r a n s i s t o r , Q , , c a n be s e p a r a t e d
into b a s e d r i v e l o s s e s , s a t u r a t i o n voltage l o s s e s and switching l o s s e s .
The energy l o s s p e r cycle i n the t r a n s i s t o r c a n b e w r i t t e n a s :
T T T
T r a n s i s t o r l o s s p e r cycle = / vbeibdt t / v i dt t
ce c
r
v i dt
ce c
0 0 T

The lower c a s e l e t t e r s r e f e r to t i m e - v a r y i n g quantities as shown i n

Fig. 2. T is the pulsewidth and T r i s the r e s e t t i m e .
The b a s e d r i v e and switching l o s s e s c a n be reduced to a m i n i m u m
by c i r c u i t techniques to be d e s c r i b e d below. The s a t u r a t i o n voltage
l o s s i s p r i m a r i l y d e t e r m i n e d by the type of t r a n s i s t o r used and cannot
be significantly reduced by c i r c u i t techniques.
F r o m E q . 6 above it c a n be s e e n that b a s e d r i v e l o s s e s will b e
minimized by reducing the b a s e d r i v e voltage and c u r r e n t to m i n i m u m
values r e q u i r e d f o r t r a n s i s t o r operation. Low voltages a r e not
g e n e r a l l y available s o that a p r a c t i c a l solution i s to u s e a matching
stepdown t r a n s f o r m e r to supply the b a s e voltage as shown i n the lower
right of F i g , 7 (page 1 8 ) . The p r i m a r y of the matching t r a n s f o r m e r
is driven by a n i n c r e a s i n g r a m p of c u r r e n t to m a t c h the collector
c u r r e n t of the switching t r a n s i s t o r s Q through Q I Z , i n F i g . 7 ,
9
which a r e the equivalent of Q i n F i g . 2 , The r e q u i r e m e n t on the
1
driving c u r r e n t r a m p i s that enough b a s e c u r r e n t be supplied t o hold
the collector - t o - e m i t t e r voltage of t r a n s i s t o r s Q through Q12
9
a t a low value.
An a l t e r n a t e method of supplying the b a s e c u r r e n t is to add a
feedback loop through a differential a m p l i f i e r t o supply j u s t enough
b a s e c u r r e n t to keep t r a n s i s t o r Q, slightly above s a t u r a t i o n . A
s k e t c h of this b a s e c u r r e n t feedback added to the voltage c o n v e r s i o n
s t a g e is shown i n F i g . 4. The c o n v e r t e r shown i n F i g . 6 (page 1 7 )
u s e s this a p p r o a c h . Since t h e r e is no b a s e fIo-Jerdrivel' c u r r e n t with
 - 12-

this method, c h a r g e s t o r a g e i n the b a s e of Q is minimized,

1
allowing the t r a n s i s t o r to switch off m o r e rapidly.

4,
on
Mu1&tivibrator
P Q( 3
"And"

-
i I
I
L Differential
Amplifier
*
Reference

Fig. 4. Voltage Converter with Feedback to M i n i m i z e Bose Current

The t h i r d t e r m i n Eq. 6 r e p r e s e n t s the l o s s i n Q1 during the

turn-off t i m e . P e a k collector dissipation c a n be high during turn-off
s i n c e the collector c u r r e n t is high and the collector voltage is
i n c r e a s i n g rapidly. High s p e e d epitaxial t r a n s i s t o r s (with low c o l l e c t o r -
to-base feedback capacitance) can b e turned off rapidly and withstand
the high voltages which a r e generated. Turn-off t i m e s c a n be f u r t h e r
r e d u c e d by removing c h a r g e s t o r e d i n the b a s e of Q by pulsing
1
a n o t h e r t r a n s i s t o r connected to the b a s e of Q, at turn-off. The
c o n v e r t e r s of F i g s . 6 and 8 (pages 17 and 2 O j u s e this t e c h x ~ i y ~ e .
The u s u a l winding r e s i s t a n c e , h y s t e r e s i s , and eddy c u r r e n t
l o s s e s a r e p r e s e n t i n the converter output t r a n s f o r m e r . B e c a u s e of
the high peak c u r r e n t s it is important to minimize winding r e s i s t a n c e .
Assuming the p r i m a r y c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y , the e n e r g y lost
p e r cycle i n the winding r e s i s t a n c e i s :
 -13-

where I is the peak p r i m a r y c u r r e n t

P
R is the p r i m a r y winding r e s i s t a n c e
P
R is the s e c o n d a r y winding r e s i s t a n c e
S

n i s the t r a n s f o r m e r t u r n s r a t i o

T is the pulse width

is the t r a n s f o r m e r r e s e t t i m e
Tr
Since the peak c u r r e n t i s typically four t i m e s the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t
( s e e Appendix B ) winding r e s i s t a n c e s m u s t be kept s m a l l to obtain
low r e s i s t i v e l o s s e s . Low winding r e s i s t a n c e i s achieved by using
a s l a r g e a w i r e s i z e a s will physically fit on the t r a n s f o r m e r c o r e .
C o r e l o s s e s depend on the m a t e r i a l chosen for the t r a n s f o r m e r
core. An excellent choice for a c o r e m a t e r i a l i n these applications
is powdered Molybdenum-Permalloy. A s expected, c o r e l o s s e s i n
this m a t e r i a l i n c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g induction level and i n c r e a s i n g
6
frequency. However, experience with the Molybdenum P e r m a l l o y
c o r e s h a s shown that c o r e l o s s e s a r e quite low, even a t frequencies
approaching 100 k c . This m a t e r i a l has r e l a t i v e l y stable t e m p e r a t u r e
characteristics.
A v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n connection with the t r a n s f o r m e r i s
the coupling o r leakage inductance between p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y
windings. As mentioned e a r l i e r , the s e c o n d a r y winding is d e s i r a b l e
s i n c e i t provides isolation and allows the output voltage to be e i t h e r
higher o r lower than the input voltage and of e i t h e r polarity. The
s e c o n d a r y winding m u s t be closely coupled to the p r i m a r y s i n c e
o t h e r w i s e a high voltage t r a n s i e n t will b e induced i n the p r i m a r y at
the t r a n s i s t o r turn-off t i m e . The combination of collector c u r r e n t
a n d high collector voltage results i n high p*iakdissipation and i n
e x t r e m e c a s e s will r e s u l t i n t r a n s i s t o r breakdown. With good coupling
the p r i m a r y c u r r e n t at turn-off w i l l effectively flow into the output
c a p a c i t o r and the p r i m a r y voltage will be limited to the output voltage
 - 14-

divided by the t r a n s f o r m e r t u r n s r a t i o . The b e s t r e s u l t s have

b e e n achieved by twisting the p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y windings
together b e f o r e winding them on a t o r o i d a l c o r e .
Rectifier and c a p a c i t o r l o s s e s o c c u r p r i m a r i l y during the t i m e
when energy is being t r a n s f e r r e d to the output c a p a c i t o r . Losses
i n the r e c t i f i e r a r e p r e s e n t b e c a u s e of the f o r w a r d voltage d r o p
(on the o r d e r of 1 volt f o r s i l i c o n r e c t i f i e r s ) . This f o r w a r d d r o p
becomes significant a t low output voltages, e . g . , f o r a n output
voltage of 6 volts approximately 15 p e r c e n t of the output power i s
lost in the r e c t i f i e r . It is s o m e t i m e s possible to r e p l a c e the diode
r e c t i f i e r with a t r a n s i s t o r and thus r e d u c e the f o r w a r d voltage d r o p
during rectification. This p r o c e s s is usually called synchronous
rectification and s o m e examples a r e shown i n F i g . 5. The e x a m p l e s
shown a r e limited to low output voltages (10 volts o r l e s s ) b e c a u s e
high speed, high gain s i l i c o n t r a n s i s t o r s suitable as r e c t i f i e r s
generally have r e l a t i v e l y low e m i t t e r - t o - b a s e breakdown v o l t a g e s .

a) Negative Output Voltage b) Positive Output Voltage

Fig. 5. Synchronous Rectifier Circuits

The output c a p a c i t o r s a r e e i t h e r tantalum o r aluminum e l e c t r o -

lytic types to obtain the r e q u i r e d c a p a c i t a n c e i n a srrlall
srnall s i z e .
Tantalum c a p a c i t o r s a r e roughly c o m p a r a b l e i n s i z e to aluminum
electrolytic c a p a c i t o r s except i n v e r y high c a p a c i t a n c e o r high
voltage v a l u e s , and a r e s u p e r i o r to aluminum e l e c t r o l y t i c c a p a c i t o r s

__ ~ ~
 - 15-
i n a l m o s t a l l p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s including t e m p e r a t u r e
stability, leakage c u r r e n t and dissipation f a c t o r . The dissipation
factor is high for e i t h e r capacitor type a t frequencies above 10 k c .
However, this h a s no significant effect on efficiency b e c a u s e
(except during the i n i t i a l charging p r o c e s s ) during n o r m a l operation
t h e r e i s only a s m a l l a - c voltage component a c r o s s the c a p a c i t o r .

4. Weight
The t r a n s f o r m e r and output capacitor contribute m o s t of the
weight to this c o n v e r t e r design. The weight of both t h e s e components
is a l m o s t d i r e c t l y proportional to pulsewidth. Thus, the weight is
reduced a s pulsewidth is d e c r e a s e d , s u b j e c t to maintaining a r e a s o n a b l e
efficiency a s previously d i s c u s s e d . The flyback t r a n s f o r m e r i n this
design i s r e l a t i v e l y light i n weight when c o m p a r e d to a conventional
t r a n s f o r m e r , that i s , one which r e q u i r e s a n a p p r e c i a b l e p r i m a r y
magnetizing inductance. Only a s m a l l p r i m a r y inductance, typically
fractions of a millihenry, is r e q u i r e d f o r a flyback t r a n s f o r m e r .
Such a s m a l l inductance is e a s i l y r e a l i z e d with a s m a l l , light c o r e .

E. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Approximately t e n different power c o n v e r t e r s using the techniques

p r e s e n t e d i n this paper have been designed and t e s t e d . This s e c t i o n
s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s obtained with t h r e e of t h e s e d e s i g n s . The
t h r e e designs d i s c u s s e d a r e :

1. A high-power, high-voltage c o n v e r t e r designed to supply

a r a d a r modulator.

2. A low-power, multiple-output-voltage c o n v e r t e r .

3. A relatively s i m p l e m e d i u m power c o n v e r t e r .

The efficiency of any c o n v e r t e r b a s e d on the design techniques

introduced h e r e c a n be uniquely s p e c i f i e d a t any p o w e r - t r a n s f e r level
through the u s e of only two c o n v e r t e r p a r a m e t e r s , b e c a u s e the
efficiency of the actual power - t r a n s f e r c i r c u i t s ( t r a n s f o r m e r , switching
t r a n s i s t o r s , output r e c t i f i e r and c a p a c i t o r ) is independent of the actual
power - t r a n s f e r level. The two p a r a m e t e r s s p e c i f i e d a r e :
 - 16-
1. A s t a n d - b y o r no-load power which c a n be m e a s u r e d by
m e a s u r i n g input power r e q u i r e d by the c o n v e r t e r with
no load connected to the output. This quantity is defined
a s Ps.

2. An i n c r e m e n t a l efficiency , qi , which is m e a s u r e d by
slightly varying the power the c o n v e r t e r is delivering
to a load and dividing this change i n load power by the
r e s u l t a n t change i n input power.

The efficiency for any of the circuits d e s c r i b e d below i s c o m -

puted a t any operating power level by the relationship:

-
Power Out -- Power Out
" = Power I n Power Out
ps +

"i

F. BREADBOARD CONVERTERS

1. High-Power, High-Voltage Converter

The c i r c u i t shown i n F i g . 6 was designed to supply power a t 400
volts t o a r a d a r modulator. The t r a n s m i t t e r profile is s u c h that
approximately 300 watts a r e r e q u i r e d f o r a 100-ms i n t e r v a l , followed
by a p e r i o d lasting f r o m 1 to 10 seconds when no power is r e q u i r e d .
The c o n v e r t e r designed f o r this application o p e r a t e s f r o m a n
input voltage between 2 3 and 3 3 volts. The stand-by power r e q u i r e d
is 15 m W , and a n i n c r e m e n t a l efficiency of 80 p e r c e n t is obtained.
Regulation f o r this c o n v e r t e r i s within f 2 volts (including r i p p l e )
0
f o r t e m p e r a t u r e changes f r o m 0 to 50 C. The weight of the equipment
(which c a n o p e r a t e continuously a t the 300-watt level i f n e c e s s a r y )
is l e s s than 5 pounds.

2. Low - Power , Multiple -Voltage Converter

5
T h e c i r c u i t shown i n F i g . 7 , which h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d previously,
d e l i v e r s r e g u l a t e d voltages f r o m 3 volts to 12 volts f r o m a n input
voltage of 10 t o 3 0 v o l t s . Maximum output power is 1 watt. The s t a n d -
by power r e q u i r e m e n t is 0 . 5 m W , and a n i n c r e m e n t a l efficiency of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 85 p e r c e n t is obtained. Feedback is obtained f r o m only
one voltage ( t 12 v); t h e r e f o r e , the regulation of the other output
v o l t a g e s d e g r a d e s a s the r a t i o s of the c u r r e n t s drawn f r o m the multiple
 -17-

tj
+
t
c
0
V
V
n
I
V
0
t
n
B
-c
.-
ul
I

4
I 0
1 .-d,
LL
>
0
&I1
+
0-
 - 18-

FI

$2
c +

Y
N
N

+- I

>
'Q
+ I
outputs change. If, however, the r a t i o s of the c u r r e n t s supplied
b y the c o n v e r t e r a r e maintained within a factor of 1 . 5 to 1, regulation
is maintained within f 3 p e r c e n t for any combination of output power
level and input voltage over the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of - 6 O O C to
tllooc.

3. Medium Power C o n v e r t e r
The c i r c u i t d i a g r a m of a relatively s i m p l e c o n v e r t e r is shown i n
Fig. 8. This c o n v e r t e r d e l i v e r s a regulated t 2 8 - v o l t output with a
m a x i m u m power output of 16 watts over a r a n g e of input voltages f r o m
24 to 32 volts. The stand-by power is 120 mW with a n i n c r e m e n t a l
efficiency of 85 p e r c e n t . No-load to full-load output voltage v a r i a t i o n
is less than 0 . 0 5 volt. This c o n v e r t e r was not t e s t e d over a wide
r a n g e of t e m p e r a t u r e s ; however, it would b e expected t o exhibit the
s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s the two previously mentioned
designs.
 -20-

n
n
n
n
Y
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. T e x a s I n s t r u m e n t Company Engineering Staff, T r a n s i s t o r

C i r c u i t Desi n , McGraw Hill Book Company, I n c . , New York,
N. Y . , P d a g e s 433 -446.

2. B o m b e r g e r , D. C . , e t a l . , "The S p a c e c r a f t P o w e r Supply
S y s t e m , I t NASA S p e c i a l Publication S P - 3 2 , Vol. 1, June, 1963,
pages 943-972.

3. M. I. T. E l e c t r o n i c Sys terns Laboratory, "Venus R a d a r Sys terns

Investigations, R e p o r t No. ESL-SR- 199, M a y , 1964.

4. B a k e r , R . H., IlMaxirnum Efficiency T r a n s i s t o r Switching

C i r c u i t s , Lincoln L a b o r a t o r y Technical R e p o r t No. 110, M a r c h
2 2 , 1956.

5. R o b e r g e , J . K . , "A Low Power High Efficiency DC-to-DC

C o n v e r t e r , I t 1965 International Solid S t a t e C i r c u i t s Conference
Digest, page 72.

6. Arnold Engineering Co. , !'Molybdenum P e r m a l l o y Powder

C o r e s , I t Bulletin P C - l 0 4 C , D e c e m b e r , 1962.

-21-
 APPENDIX A

Pulsewidth of the multivibrator i n F i g . 3 is reduced when

input voltage r i s e s , and c o n v e r s e l y . T h e r e f o r e , a constant energy
p e r pulse i s s t o r e d i n the p r i m a r y inductance of the t r a n s f o r m e r .
The energy s t o r e d p e r pulse i s :

E = -1 L I 2
2 P
where E = energy s t o r e d p e r pulse

L = t r a n s f o r m e r p r i m a r y inductance

I = peak p r i m a r y c u r r e n t
P
The charging c u r r e n t to C T i n F i g . 3 i s v a r i e d s o that the pulsewidth
i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d to the input voltage by a constant K a s :

T = K/Vi (A21

Equation A2 holds only for a r a n g e of input voltages c e n t e r e d a t the

a v e r a g e value.
The peak collector c u r r e n t of Q i n F i g . 2 is r e l a t e d to the input
1
voltage by the equation:

Equation A3 r e p r e s e n t s a good approximation under the following

t h r e e assumptions: ( 1 ) the s a t u r a t i o n voltage of t r a n s i s t o r Q 1 is
s m a l l compared to the input voltage, ( 2 ) the input voltage r e m a i n s
constant over the pulsewidth, and ( 3 ) the magnetizing inductance of
the p r i m a r y of the output t r a n s f o r m e r is a constant and is p u r e l y
inductive. Combining E q s . A l , A2 and A3 yields:

which shows that the energy s t o r e d i n the f i e l d p e r pulse i s a constant,

independent of input voltage. The output power is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
energy s t o r e d p e r pulse t i m e s the f r e q u e n c y The c o n v e r t e r operating
frequency i s d i r e c t l y proportional to the output power, r e g a r d l e s s of
changes in the input voltage.

-23-
 -24-

APPENDIX B

The input power to the c o n v e r t e r of F i g . 2 is

Pi - Vi(Ic)av
(B1)
, where (I ) i s the a v e r a g e collector c u r r e n t . This e x p r e s s i o n
c av
a s s u m e s that V is constant and ignores the s m a l l collector-to-
i
e m i t t e r s a t u r a t i o n voltage a c r o s s Q,. R e f e r r i n g to the waveforms
of F i g . 2 i t c a n be s e e n that the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t (computed over
one c y c l e ) i s :

To p e r m i t repetitive operation, the volt-time product a c r o s s the

t r a n s f o r m e r m u s t be z e r o . This is e x p r e s s e d mathematically as:

ViT - (Vce - V i. ) T r = 0 (B3)

where V is the c o l l e c t o r - t o - e m i t t e r voltage of
during the Q
ce 1
r e s e t time. Solving Eq. B3 f o r T r and substituting i n Eq. B 2 ,
the r e s u l t i s :

(icIav - (+)( Vce; "i)

ce

The m a x i m u m allowable value of (ic)av is obtained f o r the highest

value of V c e which is defined as BVce , the c o l l e c t o r - t o - e m i t t e r
voltage which c a n a p p e a r a c r o s s Q , without t r a n s i s t o r breakdown
occurring. In the limit, as cycles of operation immediately follow
one a n o t h e r , approaches (i and the maximum power
(Ic'av c 'av
input i s :

P.(max) = ( ~ ; ' p ) (Bvc e - V i )

1 BVce

P
, peak design c u r r e n t , must be kept l e s s than I m , m a x i m u m
I
allowable c u r r e n t for Q
1'
Equation 3 is the condition which m u s t be m e t to avoid c o r e
s a t u r a t i o n during the ON t i m e . This condition i s derived f r o m the
f a m i l i a r equation:
 -25-

v = N$

V is the voltage a c r o s s the p r i m a r y winding of

transformer T 1

N i s the number of p r i m a r y t u r n s

4 i s the p r i m a r y flux

It is a s s u m e d that the c o r e i s initially unmagnetized, that i s ,

a t t = 0, 6 = 0. Rearranging and substituting + = BA:

A i s the c o r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a

B i s the change i n flux density over the ON t i m e ,

t = O to t = T

If v i s constant and equal to V

i'
ViT
B = --
NA

To ,avoid s a t u r a t i o n , the value B m u s t be kept l e s s than Bs ,

the s a t u r a t i o n value for the c o r e m a t e r i a l . This condition c a n be m e t
by imposing the condition:
Vi T
NA >
- -
BS