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Logic
Dr. Rebecca C Tolentino

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Logic may be defined as

the science of reasoning.
(Prof. Hardegree)
What is
Logic? Logic is defined as
reasoning conducted or
assessed according to
strict principles of validity.
(Oxford Dictionary)

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A statement is a declarative
sentence that is either true or false,
but not both.

If a statement is true, then its truth

Statement value is true which is denoted by T ;
otherwise, its truth value is false and
is denoted by F or F

Statements are also called

propositions.

It is raining.

If you study hard, you will pass the

Examples of exam.
Statement
You are kind and beautiful.

Statements are usually represented

by small letters p, q, r,...

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Question: Where are

you?

Exclamation:
Not Congratulations!
Proposition/
Statement Command: Answer
exercise 1.

Self-contradictory: I am
lying.

Activity 1

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Simple and Compound Statements

• A simple proposition can not be broken down into other

component propositions.
• A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simple
propositions using logical connectors:
• Not (  )
• And (  ) /\
• or (  ) v
• if then ( → ) ->
• if and only if. (  ) <->

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Simple Statements and Compound Statements

Logic Connectives and Symbols

Table 3.1

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Example 3 – Write Compound

Statements in Symbolic Form

Consider the following simple statements.

p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r : I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining. p/\q
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie. ~q/\r
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie. ~sVr
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.q->s

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Example 3 – Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

Consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.

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Example 3 – Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

a. ~p/\r
b. ~s/\~r
•Consider the following simple statements. c. r<->q
• p: Today is Friday. d. p->~r
• q: It is raining.
• r: I am going to a movie.
• s: I am not going to the basketball game.

•.

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Simple Statements and

Compound Statements

•In the next example, we translate symbolic

statements into English sentences.

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Example 4 – Translate Symbolic Statements

Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

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Example 4 – Solution

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.

a. The game will be shown on CBS and the

game will be played in Atlanta.

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Example 4 – Solution

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.

•b. The game will be shown on ESPN and

the Mets are favored to win.

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Example 4 – Solution

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.

•c. The Mets are favored to win if and only if

the game will not be played in Atlanta.

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Compound
Statements and
Grouping Symbols

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Simple Statements and Compound Statements

Logic Connectives and Symbols

Table 3.1

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Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

•If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses

are used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together.

•Table 3.2 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate groupings for

some statements in symbolic form.

Table 3.2

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Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

•If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a
comma is used to indicate which simple statements are grouped
together. Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped
together. See Table 3.3.

Table 3.3

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Compound
Statements
and
Grouping
Symbols

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Example 5 – Translate Compound Statements

Let p, q, and r represent the following.

p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.

a. Write as an English sentence.

b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a
promotion and you will not receive a bonus.” in
symbolic form.

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Example 5(a) – Solution

•Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the

symbolic form, they are placed to the
left of the comma in the English sentence.

•Thus the translation is: If you get a promotion and complete the
training, then you will receive a bonus.

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Example 5(b) – Solution cont’d

•Because the not p and the not r statements are both to

the right of the comma in the English sentence, they are
grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.

•
•Thus the translation is:

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Seatwork 1

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Quantifiers and Negation

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Quantifiers and Negation

•In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at
least one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are
used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.

•In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal
quantifiers. The universal quantifiers none and no deny the existence
of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every are used
to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.

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Quantifiers and Negation

•What is the negation of the false statement, “No doctors write in a

legible manner”?

•Whatever the negation is, we know it must be a true statement. The

negation cannot be “All doctors write in a legible manner,” because this
is also a false statement.

•The negation is “Some doctors write in a legible manner.” This can

also be stated as, “There exists at least one doctor who writes in a
legible manner.”

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Quantifiers and Negation

•Table 3.4A illustrates how to write the negation of some quantified

statements.

Quantified Statements and Their Negations

Table 3.4A

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Example 7 – Write the Negation of a Quantified

Statement

Write the negation of each of the following statements.

a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.

Solution:
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.

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Truth Tables

A truth table lists all possible combinations

p
of truth values.
T

In a two-valued logic system, a single

statement p has two possible truth p q
values: truth (T) and falsehood (F).
T T

T F

Given two statements p and q, there are F T

four possible. As a result, there are four F F
rows in the truth table.

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p q r
• With three
statements, there T T T
are eight truth
value T T F
combinations,
ranging from TTT T F T
to FFF.
F T T
• In general, given n
statements, there F F T
are 2n rows (or
cases) in the truth F T F
table.
T F F

F F F

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Basic Truth Tables of the Five

Connectives

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Truth Tables of
Negation
p p
• The negation of propositionp
is written as ∼p ( read as not
p).
T F
• The possible truth values of a
negation are opposite to the
possible truth values of the
statement it negates. F T
• if p is true, then ∼p is false.
• If p is false, then ∼p is true.

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Truth Tables of
Conjunction p q pq

• The conjuction of p and q is T T T

denoted by p q ( read as p
and q). p and q are called
conjucts. T F F
• A conjunction p q is true only
when both of its conjuncts are F T F
true. It is false in all other
three cases.
F F F

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Truth Tables of
Disjunction p q pq

• A disjunction p ∨ q ( p or q) is T T T
false only when both of its
disjuncts are false. In the other
three cases, the disjunction is T F T
true.
F T T

F F F

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Truth Tables of
Conditional p q p→q

• A conditional p → q (If p then T T T

q) is false only when its
antecedent is true but its
consequent is false. T F F

F T T

F F T

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Truth Tables of
Biconditional p q pq

• A biconditional p  q ( p if T T T
and only if q) is true only
when both p and q share the
same truth value. If p and q T F F
have opposite truth values,
then the biconditional is false. F T F

F F T

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Construction of a Truth
Table

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Alternative Method for the Construction of a Truth Table

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Example 3 – Use the Alternative Procedure to Construct a Truth Table

Construct a truth table for .

Solution:
Step 1: The given statement h as the two simple
statements p and q. Thus we start with a standard form that has 22
= 4 rows.

p q p V [~ (p /\ ~q)]
T T T T T T F F
T F T T F T T T
F T F T T F F F
F F F T T F F T

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

In each column, enter the truth values for the statements p and ~q,
as shown in the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3 of the following
table.

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Step 2: Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to

determine the truth values to enter under the “and”
connective. See column 4 in the following truth
table. Now negate the truth values in column
4 to produce the truth values in column 5.

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Step 3: Use the truth values in the columns 1 and 5 to determine the truth
values to enter under the “or” connective. See column 6 in the following
table. Shaded column 6 is the truth table for

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Construct a truth table for

p q (p /\ ~q) /\ (p /\ q)

T T T F F F T T T

T F T T T F T F F

F T F F F F F F T

F F F F T F F F F

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p q r (p /\ q) /\ (~r V q)
T T T T T T T F T T
T T F T T T T T T T
T F T T F F F F F F
T F F T F F F T T F
F T T F F T F F T T
F T F F F T F T T T
F F T F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F T T F

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r p q [ r /\ ( ~p V q )] -> (r V ~q)
T T T T T F T T T T T F
T T F T F F F F T T T T
T F T T T T T T T T T F
T F F T T T T F T T T T
F T T F F F T T T F F F
F T F F F F F F T F T T
F F T F F T T T T F F F
F F F F F T T F T F T T

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Equivalent
Statements

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Equivalent Statements

Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value
for all possible truth values of their simple statements. Equivalent
statements have identical truth values in the final columns of their
truth tables.

The notation p  q is used to indicate that the statements p and q are

equivalent.

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Thus the statements are equivalent.

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Equivalent Statements

These equivalences are known as De Morgan’s laws for statements.

De Morgan’s laws can be used to restate certain English sentences in an

equivalent form.

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Example 5 – State an Equivalent Form

Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following sentence in an

equivalent form.
It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.

Solution:
Let p represent the statement “I graduated.” Let q represent the
statement “I got a job.” In symbolic form, the original sentence is
. One of De Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to .

Thus a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is “I did not

graduate and I did not get a job.”

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Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

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Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

A TAUTOLOGY IS A STATEMENT A SELF-CONTRADICTION IS A

THAT IS ALWAYS TRUE. STATEMENT THAT IS ALWAYS FALSE.

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Example 6 – Verify Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

Show that is a tautology.

Solution:
Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its negation as
shown in the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3.

Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth values
to enter in column 4, under the “or” connective.

Use the truth values in columns 1 and 4 to determine the truth values
to enter in column 5, under the “or” connective.

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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Column 5 of the table shows that is always true.

Thus is a tautology.

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Constructing Truth Tables

p q p→q q→p (p→q)q→p

T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T F F

F F T T T

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Construct the truth table for

p q r p→r q→r (p→r) (q→r)

T T T T T T

T T F F F F

T F T T T T

F T T T T T

T F F F T F

F T F T F F

F F T T T T

F F F T T T

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