CHAPTER 9.

LOGIC

Chapter Outline
Unit 9.1 Logical Statement
Unit 9.2 TruthTables and Tautologies
Unit 9.3Conditional,Biconditional and Related Statements
Unit 9.4 Symbolic Arguments
Unit 9.5 Arguments and Euler Diagrams
9.1
Logical Statement
and Qualifiers
 “LOGIC”
is often used, but not always in its technical sense.
is technically defined as “the SCIENCE” of study of
how to evaluate arguments and reasoning.
helps us to differentiate correct reasoning from
poor reasoning.
It is the important to in the sense that it help us to
reason correctly.
LOGICAL
REASONING
is used on mathematics to prove theorems.
in computer science to verify correctness
of pograms and to prove theorems.
In this chapter it will be limited to the
discussion of mathematical logic.
MATHEMATICAL
LOGIC or symbolic method
is a branch of mathematics with close connections to computer
science.
It includes both the mathematical study of logic applications of formal logic
to other areas of mathematics.
Mathematical logic includes the study of the deductive formal
proofs systems and expressive formal systems. Mathematical
logic has four division: Set Theory, Model Theory, Recusion
Theory and Proof Theory.
4 DIVISION OF
MATHEMATICAL
LOGIC
PROPOSITION
(or statement)
is a declarative sentence which is either true or
false, but not both.
The truth value of positions is the truth and falsity
of the proposition.
 Example 1:

Which of the following proposition?

a.Manila is the capital Philippines

b.What day is it?
c.Help me please.
d.He is handsome
 ANSWERS:

A. ”Manila is the capital of the Philippines”istrue,therefor it’s a proposition

B. ”What day is it?” It’s a question;it can be considered either true or false
thus,it is not a proposition.

C. ”Help me please” It can be categorized as true or false and therefore,it

is not a proposition

D. ”He is handsome”The sentence neither true nor false because “he” is

not specified and thus,itus not a proposition.
 There are also proposition (or statements)which are
considered ambiguous such as

A. Mathematics is fun.
B. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.
C. It was hot in Manila.
D. Street vendors are poor.

 Example 1:

Which of the following proposition?

a.Manila is the capital Philippines

b.What day is it?
c.Help me please.
d.He is handsome
 Propositional
Variable
Is a variable which is used to represent a proposition.

Formal Propositional
Variable
written using propositional logic notation p, q and r
are used to represent propositions.
 Logical Connectives
are used to combine simple propositions which are referred as compound
proposition.

Compound Proposition
is a proposition compsed of two or more simple
propositions connected by logical connectives “and” “or”
“If” “then” “not” “if” and only if,” and “exclusive or”
 Logical Connectives
are used to combine simple propositions which are referred as compound
proposition.

Compound Proposition
is a proposition compsed of two or more simple
propositions connected by logical connectives “and” “or”
“If” “then” “not” “if” and only if,” and “exclusive or”
 Logical Connectives
are used to combine simple propositions which are referred as compound
proposition.

Compound Proposition
is a proposition compsed of two or more simple
propositions connected by logical connectives “and” “or”
“If” “then” “not” “if” and only if,” and “exclusive or”

A proposition which is not compound is said to be

SIMPLE (also called ATOMIC)
 A.
OPERANIONS
ON
PROPOSITION
There are three main logical connectives such as
conjunction,disjunction,andnegation.The following are
briefly discussed in this section.Note the T refers to
true proposition and F refers to false proposition.
 CONJUNCTION
The conjunction of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition
“p and q”.Symbolically, p^q,where ^ is the symbol for “and”

Property 1: If p is true and q is true,thenp^q is true;

otherwise p^q is false.Meaning,theconjuction of two
propositions is true only If each proposition is true,

 Example 2:
Determine the truth value of each
of the following conjunctions.

A. 2+6 =9 and man is mammal

B. Many pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President.
C. Abraham Lincoln is a former of US President and the
Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators
 ANSWERS:
A. Since “2+6=9” is a false proposition (note that 2+6=9)and the proposition the
“man is a mammal” is true,theconjuction of the compound proposition is false.

B. In the proposition “Many Pacquiao is a boxing champion”is true while the

proposition Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President”is
false (note the Corazon Aquino is the first female Philippine
President),therefore the conjunction of the compound proposition is false.

C. Since both th proposition “Abraham Lincoln is a former US Philippine

President”and “Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators”are both
true,thus the conjunction of the compound proposition is true.
 DISCONJUNCTION
The disjunction of the proposition p,q is the compound proposition “p or
q”.Symbolically,p v q,where v is the symbol for “or”

Property 2:If p is true or q is true or q is true or if both p

and q are true,thenp^q is true”;otherwise p v q is
false.Meaning,the disjunction of two propositions is false
only if each proposition is false.
 NEGATION
The negation of the proposition p is denoted by ~p, where ~ is the
symbol for “not.”

Property 3: If p is true, ~p is false. Meaning, the

truth value of the nefation of a proposition is
always the reverse of the truth value of the
original proposition.
 Example 4 :
The following are propositions for p,
fine the corresponding ~p.

A. 3+5=8.
B. Sofia is a girl.
C. Achaiah is not here.
 ANSWERS:
A. 3+5≠ 8.
B. Sofia is not a girl. Or Sofia is a boy.
C. Achaiah is here.
 CONDITIONAL
The conditional (or implication) of the proposition p and q is the compound
proposition “if p then q.” Symbolically, p ➝q, where ➝ is the symbol for “if
then.” p is called hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called
conclusion (or consequent or consequence).

Property 4: The conditional proposition p ➝ q is false

only when p is true and q is false; otherwise p ➝q is true.
Meaning p ➝q states that a true proposition cannot imply a
false proposition.
 Example 5 :
In the proposition “If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.”
The antecedent is “vinegar is sweet,” and the consequent
is “sugar is sour.”

Example 6 :
A. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.
B. 2+5=7 is a sufficient condition for 5+6=1.
C. 14-8=4 is a necessary condition that 6÷3=2.
 ANSWERS:
A. Since the propositions “vinegar is sweet” and the “sugar is sour” are both
false, therefore the conditional of the compound proposition is true.

B. Note that “2+5=7” is true and “5+6=1” is false, thus the conditional of the
compound proposition is false.

C. Given that “14-8=4” is false proposition while “6÷3=2” is a true

proposition, thus the conditional of the compound proposition is true.
 EXCLUSIVE-or
The exclusive-or of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p exclusive-or
q.” Symbolically, p ⊕q, where ⊕is the symbol for “exclusive-or.”

Property 6. If p and q are true or both false, then p ⊕ q is false; if p and q have opposite
truth values, then p⊕ q is true.
It can be noted that the truth values of p ⊕ ↔
q is the negation of the truth values of p q.
Given the proposition “Sofia will take her launch in Batangas or she will have it in Singapore,”
it can be noted from the statement that “Sofia cannot have her launch in Batangas and at the
same time do it in Singapore,” thus it is considered false.
If Sofia will have her launch in Batangas or Singapore, meaning she can only have it in one
location given a single schedule (the truth value is true). Lastly, if she ought to decide to have
her lunch elsewhere (neither in Batangas or Singapore), therefore the truth value is false.
Common
Words
Associated with
Various
Connectives
 B. Switching
Network
is a collection of wires and switches connecting two terminals x
and y. A switch may be either open O or closed C. An open switch
will not permit the current to flow while a closed switch will be
permit current to flow.

UNIT 9.2
TRUTH
TABLES,
EQUIVALENT
STATEMENTS
AND AUTO
GLASS
 A. TRUTH TABLE
This section shows the construction of compound proposition
through tables which reffered a standard table form.

 Example 1 :
Construct the truth table for each of the following
proposition.
A. ~p v~q C. (~p^ q) v (p ^~q)
B. p- (p-q) D.(p-q) v (q ^~ r)

 B. EQUIVALENT
STATEMENTS
This sections covers the definition of logically equivalent
proposition and the laws of logical equivalent which were
supported with some examples.
 LOGICALLY
EQUIVALENT
Two proposition re said to be logically equivalent(or equivalent)if they
have the same truth value of every row of the truth table is x—y is a
tautogoly symbolically x=y

 C. TAUTOLOGIES
Tautology- is a compound statement that is true for all possible combinations of
the truth values of the propositional variables called logically true

Contradiction-is a compound statement that is false for all possible

combinations of the truth value of its propositional variables also called
logically false or absurdity

Contigency- is a compound statement that can either be true or

false,depending on the truth values of propositional variables are neither a
tautology nor a contradiction.
Unit 9.3:
Conditional,
Biconditional
and Related
Statements
 There are different ways to express the conditional
proposition p -> q. The conditional proposition p ->
q can be expressed in three variations using the
logical connectives ~ and ->

The truth tables below show the comparison in the variation of conditional propositions.

Observe that p -> q is equivalent to ~q -> ~p, while q -> p is equivalent to ~p -> ~q. On
the other hand, p -> q is not equivalent to q -> p and ~p -> ~q.
 Example :
Example: Given the conditional proposition “If Achaiah goes to
school, the Sofia will go home,” determine the converse, inverse.
And the contrapositive of the proposition.
 Solution :
Converse: if Sofia will go home, then Achaiah goes to school.

Inverse: if Achaiah does not go to school, then Sofia will not go home.

Contrapositive: If Sofia will not go home, then Achaiah doest not go to

school.
Unit 9.4:
Symbolic
Arguments
 A. ARGUMENTS
The proof is an argument from a hypothesis (assumptions) to a conclusion.
Each step of the argument follows the laws of logic and the rule of inference. In
mathematics, a statement is considered valid if it is accompanied by proof. The
proof is one of the important things that make mathematics different from
another discipline.

Most of the rules of inference are from tautologies. Since a tautology is a

statement which is “always true,” it is used in drawing conclusions. Logic proofs
usually begin with premises-statements that are allowed to be assumed, while
conclusion is the statement that needs to be proven. The arguments can be
written in symbolic form which will be discussed in the following examples.

Let us examine one rule of inference to prove the validity of arguments. One of
the rules of inference is the rule of detachment. Rule of Detachment (or Modus
Ponens) means the method of affirming. The truth tables shows that [p ^ (p➝
q)]➝ is a tautology.

 Table 9.8 shows the standard four valid arguments.

Table 9.8 Standard Forms of Four Valid Arguments

The preceding examples show how to represent statements in logical symbols

and the use of rule of inference to prove the validity of the arguments.
 Example 1 :

a. Sofia wins a ₱20, 000,000 lotto. p

b. If Sofia wins ₱20, 000,000 lotto, then Achaiah will put up a business. p➝q
c. Therefore, Achaiah will put up a business. ∵ q
 Example 2 :

a. If 18 is divisible by 6, then 6 is divisible by 3. p➝q

b. If 6 is divisible by 3, then 18 is divisible by 3. q➝r
c. Therefore, if 18 is divisible by 6, then 18 is divisible by 3. ∵ p➝r
 Example 3 :

a. If Manny Villar is elected Philippine President,

then Erap Estrada will pledge as cabinet secretary. p➝q
b. Era Estrada did not pledge as cabinet secretary. ~q
c. Therefore, Manny Villar was not elected as Philippine President.∵ ~p
 Example 4 :

a. Gregorio’s pencil is in his bag or it is on his table. pvq

b. Gregorio’s pencil is not in his bag. ~p
c. Therefore, Gregorio’s pencil is on his table. ∵q
 B. FALLACIES
Logical Fallacies refers to faulty reasoning in logic of an argument. It is
advantageous to know logical fallacies in order to avoid them in an argument. There
are different types of fallacies that we might use to present our position. The following
are the list of common types of fallacies with their corresponding examples.

1. Appeal to Authority (or Argumentutn Ad Verecundiam). It is an argument that

occurs when we accept or reject a claim merely because of the sources or authorities
who made their positions on a certain argument.

Example 1: The government should impose death penalty. Many respected people,
such as the former Secretary of Justice, have publicly stated her opposition to it.
Example 2: Floyd Mayweather signs autographs with Parker pen, so evidently Parker
pen is the most reliable pen on the market.

 2. Appeal to Force (or Argumentum Ad Baculum). It is an argument which

attempts to establish a conclusion by threat or intimidation.
Example: If you don’t believe in God, you will not go to heaven.

3. Appeal to Ignorance (or Argumentum Ex Silentio). It is an argument

supporting a claim merely because there is no proof that it’s wrong.
Example: If you can’t say that there aren’t Martians living in Mars, so it’s safe for
me to accept there are.

4. Appeal to Pity (or Argumentum Ad Misericordiam). It is an argument that

involves an irrelevant or highly exaggerated appeal to pity to get people to
accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.
Example: Mark has worked hard on his research project, and he will be
depressed if he fails. For these reasons, you must give him a passing grade.

 5. Appeal to the People (or Argumentum Ad Populum). It is an argument

that the opinion of the majority is always valid.
Example: Most Filipino like soda. Therefore, soda is good.

6. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Latin for “to the man”). It is an attack on the

character of the person of his opinions or arguments. It is a tactic used by an
adversary when they do not have a logical counter-argument.
Example: Don’t listen to Peter’s assertions on instruction, he’s a simpleton.

7. Circular Argument (or Petitio Principii). If a premise of an argument

presupposes the truth of its conclusions; meaning, the argument takes for
granted what it’s supposed to prove.
Example: Senator Chiz Escudero is a good communicator because he speaks
effectively.
 8. Equivocation. It is an argument used on two or more different
sense/meanings within a single argument.
Example: Giving financial support to charity is the right thing to do. So charities
have the right to our finances.

9. Fallacy of Division. A reasoning which assumes that the characteristic of a

group is also the characteristic of each individual in the group.
Example: Your family is crazy. That means you are crazy, too.

10. False Dilemma. It is an argument which implies one or two outcomes is

inevitable and both have negative consequences, but actually there could be
more choices possible.
Example: If you don’t vote for this candidate you must be antichrist.

11. Hasty Generalization. It is an argument that a general conclusion on a

certain condition is always true base on insufficient or biased evidence.
Example: My cousin said that Mathematics subjects were hard, and the one
I’m enrolled in is hard, too. All mathematics classes must be hard.
 12. Red Herring. It is an argument which introduces a topic related
to the subject at hand. It is diversionary tactic to avoid key issues,
often way of avoiding opposing argument rather than addressing
them.
Example: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But, nothing I
do pleases you.
13. Slippery slope (or snowball/domino theory). It is an argument which claims a sort of
chain reaction, usually ending in some extreme and after ludicrous will happen, but there’s
really not enough evidence for such assumption.
Example: If high school students given 15 minutes rather than 5 minutes break between
classes, they’ll just start skipping classes.

14. Strawman Fallacy. It is an argument that misrepresents position of the

opponent in an extreme or exaggerated form or attacking the weaker
irrelevant portion of an argument in order to make it appear weaker than it
actually is. The objective is to refute the misrepresentation of the position,
and conclude that the real position has been refuted.
Example: Congressman who does not support the proposed national
minimum wage
Unit 9.5:
Argument and
Euler Diagrams
A lot of arguments is involving set used quantifiers all, some, and none
·Symbolic Argument- consists of a set premises and
conclusion, and we generally denoted by symbolic form to
determine its validity. We say that an argument is valid when
it's conclusion necessary follow from a given set of
premises, otherwise it is invalid or (fallacy) when it does not
necessary follow from a given set of premises
·Argument- is composed premises and conclusion.(in
which the premises are intended to prove or at least
provide some evidence for the conclusion.)
·Syllogistic argument or (syllogism)- is aform of
argument with validity is determine by a Euler Diagrams.
 Example: Use Euler Diagrams to determine
whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
No Snakes are mammals.
All dogs are mammals
No snakes are dogs
Solution: The first argument state that snakes and mammals are
disjoint set. The second argument state that the set of dog is
subset of the set of mammals.

The conclusion necessary

follows from the premises
and the argument is valid.
 Example: Use Euler Diagrams to determine
whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
All gymnasts are athletic
Riana is athletic
Riana is a gymnast
Solution:
The first premise “All gymnast are athletic” is illustrated.
 The second premise “Riana is
athletic” can be illustrated as follows

Riana athletic is does not necessarily follow from the set of

premises. Thus, the argument is invalid
 Example: Use Euler Diagrams to determine
whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
No Snakes are mammals.
All dogs are mammals
No snakes are dogs
Solution: The first argument state that snakes and mammals are
disjoint set. The second argument state that the set of dog is
subset of the set of mammals.
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